Safety and Accident Loss Statistics Analysis

INDEX
S. No Topic Page No.

Week 1
1 Safety and Accident Loss Statistics 1
2 Risk Management and Hazardous Substance Rules 32
3 Nature of Accident and major disasters 56
4 Fundamental Principles: Scale up and Runaway Reactions 76
5 Problems related to Safety and Accident Loss Statistics 101
Week 2
6 Toxicology: Introduction, Routes & Exposure 121
7 Toxicology: Elimination, Responses, Treatment 150
8 Dose Response Relationship 164
Dose Response and Threshold Dose: Predictive models and
9 Extrapolation 189
10 Industrial Hygiene: Regulations and Identification 213
Week 3
11 Material Safety Data Sheet I 233
12 Material Safety Data Sheet II 255
13 Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation 287
14 Noise, vibration and Radiation 320
15 Industrial Hygiene: Control 348
Week 4
16 Problems related to Industrial Hygiene 375
17 Introduction to Source Models 391
18 Source Models for Gas 420
19 Source Models for Pool Boiling 445
20 Source Model Problems 472
Week 5
21 Fire and Explosions: Introduction 487
22 Fire and Explosion: Flammability Characteristics 509
23 Explosion & its Classification I 538
24 Explosion & its Classification II 561
25 Fire Extinguishers I 581
Week 6
26 Fire Extinguishers II 604
27 Problems related to Fire and Explosion 622
28 Designs to prevent Fire and Explosion: Inerting and Purging 647
29 Designs to prevent Fire and Explosion: Static Electricity 671
30 General Design Methods to prevent Fire 696
Week 7
31 Sprinklers I 719
32 Sprinklers II 744
33 Introduction to Reliefs 765
34 Type of Reliefs 792
35 Relief Scenario 824
Week 8
36 Relief Sizing 849
37 Hazard & Hazard Identification: Introduction 882
38 Hazard Identification Methods & HAZOP 915
39 Safety Reviews & Risk Assessment I 953
40 Risk Assessment II 977
Week 9
41 Review of Probability Theory 1000
42 Event Trees: Quantitative Risk Analysis 1036
43 Fault Trees: Quantitative Risk Analysis 1069
44 Cause Consequence Analysis & Layer of Protection Analysis 1109
45 Bow-Tie Analysis 1135
Week 10
46 Accident Research: Introduction 1162
47 Accident Causation Theories 1188
48 Accident Investigation Procedure I 1216
49 Accident Investigation Procedure II 1241
50 Jaipur Terminal Fire, India: October 29, 2009 1264
Week 11
51 The Flixborough UK, Cyclohexane Disaster: June 01, 1974 1304
52 Seveso Accident: July 10, 1976 1344
53 The Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster: April 26, 1986 1365
54 Bhopal Gas Tragedy: December 03, 1984 1394
55 Bhopal Gas Tragedy: Investigation 1440
Week 12
56 Nuclear Radiation 1476
57 Process Safety Management 1499
58 Personal Protective Equipments 1527
59 Safety: Laws & Regulations 1557
60 Nuclear Disaster: Earthquake 1586
Chemical Process Safety
Prof. Shishir Sinha
Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Roorkee
Module 01
Lecture 01
Safety and Accident Loss Statistics
(Refer Slide Time: 0:48)
Welcome to this particular course and safety and accident loss statistics, now safety is the
integral part of any chemical process plant because it deals with the economy of that particular
plant and loss statistics simultaneously tells you that how vulnerable this particular plant or
particular process is? Now there are 3 different concepts: safety, hazard and risk, so safety and
loss prevention is the prevention of accidents by the use of appropriate technology to identify
the hazards of a chemical plant and to eliminate them before an accident occurs.
1
So first thing is that you need to find out that what are the hazards present at your workplace
and then what is a gravity of those hazards, those who are at the workplace, then you need to
find out the probability that particular hazard may occur and in case if it occurs, then what is
the consequence and how we can eliminate, how we can control those hazards? So, now a
hazard the first thing is that you need to find out that what is hazard?
Hazard is anything with the potential for producing an accident, so practically everything is
having the hazard, the room in which you are sitting, the roof may collapse, the seat over which
you are sit, then it may collapse, so that everywhere, everywhere if you are moving to a road,
then definitely some vehicle may hit or sometimes by any accident you may fall into a sewerage
line, etc. So hazard is everywhere, now only thing is that you need to find out that what is the
probability?
2
So risk is the probability of a hazards resulting in an accident, so you need to find out that what
is a probability of that particular hazard? Now hazard this is an inherence physical or chemical
characteristic that has the potential for causing harm to people, the environment and the
property because whenever we are dealing with this loss statistics or economy aspect then all
3 key factors plays a very vital role that in suppose a particular person may get injured or ill,
then you need to pay the compensation or you take the medical treatment, than the environment,
there may be substantial environmental losses and a property losses in case of any fire.
So hazard they are intrinsic to a material and its condition of use, you cannot eliminate all kind
of hazard of an any workplace, example, there are few examples, hydrogen sulfide, they are
toxic by inhalation, moving machineries, sometimes the belt may broken, then the person those
who are working in and around may got injury, the gasoline they are inflammable in nature.
3
So anything if you wish to carry out these type of analysis, then you need to follow the certain
question, these questions are what are the hazard at the workplace? You need to find out with
the different tools, what can go wrong and how? What are the chances? That means you need
to calculate the probability, then what are consequences? What will happen in case of suppose
LPG leaks in your kitchen, so you need to find out like again the example is that, if you go to
your domestic kitchen the LPG is the biggest hazard.
What can go wrong and how? Sometimes the regulator is malfunctioning, then definitely the
LPG may get leak, what are the chances it may catch fire, sometimes by mistake, by any chance
you try to lit the gas stove, then definitely there are chance of fire, then what are the
consequences? All the property, all the environment and sometimes the human being may got
injured, etc. So these are the consequences, so you need to find out the different questions as
per the hazard available to workplace.
4
Now certain experience person they used to carry out what if analysis? The experience person,
the brainstorming of series of questions that begin, what if? Suppose it happens. Then what if?
Each question represents a potential failure in the facility or mis-operation of the facility, the
response of the process and or operator is evaluated to determine if a potential hazard can occur,
so you need to find out what if answer, there are sample questions.
Sometimes equipment failure, what if, if a valve leaks? Human error, what if, if operator fails
to restart pump? External events, what if, if very hard freeze persists or storm may occur? So
you need to carry out the what if analysis, these are the simple question areas, you may be high
localized in terms of question, what if the raw material contains impurities, sometimes the
5
impurities are dangerous, like if suppose you are dealing with a chemical which is 95% pure
and 5% are adulteration, sometimes those adulterative component may cause several thermal
runaway reactions, then you will not be able to control all those reactions, then the accident
may occur.
What if the cooling water is lost? Sometimes you are dealing with the exothermic reaction and
you need to extract the excess amount of heat being liberated during the course of time, then
you need to pump in the cooling water or the cooling fluid for that particular system, so what
if, if the cooling water is lost or supply of the cooling water or the cooling fluid fails, what if
the vessel agitation stops? What if, if the power supply fails? There are so many accidents that
you heard in the chemical industry, those who belong to the vessel agitation aspect or a power
supply failure.
What if the temperature, pressure sensor fails? Then sometimes you may not be able to record
the things and the reaction will go away, what if the pump stops? So, etc there are so many
questions you can frame accordingly, so how you can frame the system, so there are various
steps you need to follow to carry out this what if analysis, divide the system into the smaller
logical subsystems, so if you divide the system into various smaller things or logical
subsystems that the quality of the response on the higher side.
6
So you need to identify a list of questions for the various subsystems right, that depends on
your knowledge, your competency, you select a question identify the different types of hazard
available, then consequences, what is severity? What is the likelihood that means you need to
carry out the probability analysis and what are your recommendations based on your technical
knowledge, technical competency, now if you are not satisfied with all this things, then you
repeat the steps number 2 to 4 until it completes or until as an engineer you satisfy with the
responses.
7
Sometimes you need to carry out the hazop analysis, so we defined out that hazard and you
need to carry out how you can deal with those hazards, so you need to carry out the hazop
analyses, identify the hazards with respect to the safety, health, environment and the problem
which prevents efficient operation, so you need to find out, you need to carry out all those
analysis because sometimes in hypothetical manner in a classroom you sit with the complete
covers type of thing with the helmet, goggles, then you will not be able to perform, you are
efficiency will be a negative side, so in that particular aspect you need to find out the
appropriate level of the safety in the particular work place.
8
Now as far as the safety programs are concerned because this is again a very important thing,
usually it is called a cup of tea with 5 different ingredients, these ingredients are the safety
knowledge, safety experience, technical competency, safety management and the support and
commitment, now suppose you are working in a particular plant you must know that what kind
of hazardous component, chemicals, equipments present at your workplace, then in case, that
deals with the safety knowledge.
Now how to deal upon, suppose you are working in a toxic environment and if any toxic
substances releases then what your experience says that how to deal upon, it is just like your
kitchen, if any, if LPG leaks then your safety experience says that this is the LPG leak because
you can identify the LPG through its peculiar smell, then how to handle a scenario that is
covered under the head of technical competency, you must be well-equipped, you must be
knowledgeable about to deal that particular scenario with your knowledge, with your
experience.
Then there must be a safety managerial support because whenever you are performing any kind
of safety aspect, your management or if you are part and parcel of management, you must
support all kinds of safety activities because whenever any kind of accident this may deal with
the severe economic losses to the industry and you must be committed towards the safe
environment because it not only helps to you, but your plant but your environment and all the
people nearby.
9
Now there are various scopes of that process safety management, that is what is accountability,
process knowledge and documentation, your documentation because if your documentation are
incomplete, then definitely you wont be able to go through the entire process because whenever
you are dealing with the safety then the documentation or the process requirement, process
knowledge is essential because if we go back to this previous slide, the safety knowledge and
safety experience both things are essential.
Then capital project review and design procedures because whenever there is any expenditure
towards safety then definitely it is a project, it is a design procedures, it is just like if you are
riding a scooter or if you are riding a car, then you are advised to use the seatbelt or helmet that
is the capital expenditure in addition to the vehicle cost, then you must adopt the process risk
10
management, then your management must be in a mood to change the things as and when
required, then you must learn that what is the process and equipment integrity, it gives a human
factors because if anybody recalls the Bhopal accident, it was a complete failure of human
factors and that is why the union Carbide was asked to leave the country.
The training and performance, you are all employees must be well-trained to handle all kinds
of ontoward incident, you must identify the incident and you need to carry out the proper
incident investigation because a near miss may cause a fatal accident, you must have certain
company standards and you need to follow, there are all chemical industries they are having
certain codes, you need to follow all the codes, there are certain regulations, both for the Central
level as well as state-level you need to well versed all those kind of regulations, you must adopt
the audits and corrective actions, you go for both internal and external audit and in case any
deficiencies found out then you need to go for the corrective actions, you must effort for the
enhancement of process safety knowledge.
Now this safety program, this deals with 4 different types of basic aspects or rather you can say
the 2 basic aspects biotic environment and abiotic environment, the biotic environment deals
with the human and environmental that covers the livestock, plants, so in all, there are 4
different parameters for this biotic environment, one is a death, injury, disease, disability, in
the subsequent lecture, I will tell you that what is the impact of any kind of occupational injury,
occupational illness, fatality, etc and how it impacts to the economy of the plant, the abiotic
environment deals, basically deals with the property, basically the soil and water bodies,
11
atmosphere pollution and if go to the Bhopal gas tragedy, still the arena of union Carbide is
polluted and we are unable to completely cardinate off from the different environments.
There are various industries, they thought, they were safe, now sometimes good company they
are under the imagination into a false sense of security by their performance in the personal
safety and health, they may not be realise how vulnerable they are to a major accident until it
happens, subsequent investigations typically they show that there were multiple causes, and
many of these were known long before the event.
12
Now this one of the example is the BPD water horizon, why and how defence fails? People
often assume the system work as intended, despite of various warning signs, it is just like a
human body, sometimes you feel some laziness, etc, or yawning etc that is body gives you
signal that something is going wrong in within your body system, you need to identify and you
need to adopt the corrective measures, so example of good performance they are cited as a
presenting the whole, while poor ones are overlooked as soon as they forgotten, so analysis of
failure modes, you need to go for those analysis and effect, they should be the included in the
human as well as the organizational aspect.
Now process safety management is a very good concept, this focuses on the process rather than
the individual worker and many of the key decision influencing safety may be beyond the
control of the worker or even the sites, if you recall to the previous slides, then there are certain
external factors, so sometimes you need to find out, you need to analyse all those factor, they
causes because from those of the personal safety, so you need to look at the whole material,
equipment and the system and consider individual and procedures as a part of the system, so
you need to go for the management system approach for control.
13
Now safety aspect, nowadays it is everyones responsibility, the reason is that previously the
people thought that you need to appoint a safety officer and it will be a whole heartedly
responsible for all kind of safety activities, but nowadays it is everyones responsibility, the
older concept was to identify a few employees to be responsible for safety, usually it is
inadequate by the todays standard, because now safety has been replace by the term loss
statistics, so economy is involved, so now it is everyones responsibility, it is your responsibility
to work around safely, so if you are safe enough then definitely the other people will be safe,
it is important to recognize the distinction between the good and outstanding safety aspects.
14
Now a good safety process identifies, eliminates the existing safety hazards, you may find this
type of sign everywhere, this one, now outstanding safety process has a management system
which prevents the existence of any safety hazards, now first thing the good safety process, this
one is the most spectacle one and this is the hypothetical scenario because you cannot eliminate
all kinds of hazards at your workplace, so you need to go ahead with identification and
elimination of any kind of existing safety hazards.
Now as far as process safety is concern, there are three integral part, inherent safety, hazards
identification, risk assessment, now inherent safety that is reduction or elimination of hazard
associated with the process and this reduction or elimination is permanent, inseparable from
the process, first and foremost example is use a less toxic raw material to produce a product,
15
sometimes you may need to compromise with chemical kinetics but if you optimize the things
with respect to the chemical kinetics and the economy, sometimes you may find that this
particular aspect is more useful.
There are again four integral part of inherent safety safer process, minimize, reduce the quantity
in the process again go back to your optimization process and chemical kinetics. Then
substitute, use less hazardous raw materials, sometimes you will find that dealing with
concentrated H2SO4 is more complicated compared to the lower concentration of H2SO4,
moderate use lower temperature and pressures, you need to simplify and reduce unnecessary
complexity in the design and operation, sometimes you may find that there are a lot of complex
system and those complex system again creates a lot of noise, a lot of complexity and
sometimes a safety hazard, so always follow the concept of KISS, kiss, keep it simple and safe.
16
Now this is a simple layout for the hazard identification and risk assessment process, now first
thing is that you must have the system description with you like plant layout, what the process
is going on? What kind of different chemicals you are using? What are the process conditions,
etc? So what an earlier, if you recall difference type of set of questions, then you need to
identify the hazard, there are various tools to which you can find out that different hazard, one
is the, one foremost tool is your MSDS material safety data sheet.
Then you need to go ahead with the scenario identification, now this scenario identification is
attributed to two different aspect, one is the accident probability, you need to carry out that
what if analysis? Sometimes it happens, sometimes it may not, than if this accident happens,
then what are the consequences, suppose LPG cylinder blast then what are the consequences,
entire 15 kilogram of LPG exposed to the atmosphere, it may catch fire or it may not, if it
catches the fire then what is the impact, what is enthalpy? How it can impact the atmosphere?
So based on this particular analysis you need to determine the risk, now if this particular risk
is acceptable go ahead with the process and if it is not, then again you need to relook the entire
study, so there are various subcomponent of all step like hazard identification method it
attributes to process hazards check list that is purely based on your system description, hazards
survey, HAZOP hazards safety reviews, sometimes you may find that your worker or the plant
person it gives valid information okay, gentlemen something is leaking inside, it gives you the
things that some process is malfunctioning, so do not ignore those safety reviews.
17
You need to carry out the risk assessment, what can go wrong? What are the chances? What
are the consequences as earlier discussed, you go for extreme that what is the low probability,
slight probability may deal to the severity, what are the minimum consequences? So you need
to carry out this type of layout analysis for your hazard identification and safer operation.
Now again why? Why to identify the hazards so that they can be eliminated or controlled and
how? Using a number of available procedures, so these two things are very crucial, why I am
interested to find out that what is hazard at my workplace and if it is present, then what are the
different tools available to rescue me.
18
Now, these two things are related with three-step accidental process, the first thing is that
initiation, the event that starts the accident, the propagation, the event or events that maintain
or expand accident, the termination, the event or events that stop the accident to diminish it in
size, so probably if you go ahead then this type of accidental process then you must be in a
position to diminish the aspect of initiation, you must be in a position to diminish the aspect of
propagation and you must propagate the termination because in case of any initiation you have
to kill it as quickly as possible.
Now it is unrealistic to expect elimination of all initiations, it is practically impossible if you

are dealing in any kind of chemical plant, it is unrealistic to eliminate all initiation. A much
more effective approach is to work on all these areas to sure that accidents, once initiated do
not propagate and will terminate as quickly as possible.
19
Now there are various tools to defeat the accident process initiation, these are the various
procedures in listed over here like you need to diminish all those thing, then grounding,
bonding, inerting, explosion proof electrical, appliances, etc, propagation, it should be
diminish, it should be decrease, you must have an emergency like emergency material transfer,
reduce inventories and so on, that you can devise on your own based on technical knowledge
and technical competency.
Then termination, you must increase by firefighting equipments, procedures, relief systems,
sprinkler systems, etc, so you need to devise based on the technical knowledge, safety
knowledge, technical competency, manager supports, so based on all this aspects you can go
ahead with these three steps initiation, propagation and termination.
20
Now whenever we talk about accidents and loss statistics, they are important measure for
various effectiveness of safety process, now whatever data is available to you, this statistical
data must be used carefully, most of them, they represent only the average value and they do
not reflect the potential for a single episode involving the substantial losses.
I would like to give you an example that suppose a fatality rate of any component is say X, that
means if you are for working for an stipulated time, you may have X fatalities, but it does not
mean that every time if you work for stipulated hours you wait for fatality, that is why mostly
they represents only the average value, maybe it is an outcome of n number of accidents.
21
Now whenever we talk about the statistical information, there are three major system to deal
upon, one is the OSHA incidence rate, OSHA stands for Occupational Safety and Health
Administration U.S.-based agency, the fertile accident rate, the fatality rate or deaths per person
per year.
Now the OSHA incidence rate OIR, the term incidence rates means the number of injuries and
illness or lost work days per 100 full-time workers, else they are based on the 100 workers
years, so usually a worker year is almost 2000 hours, this attributed to the 50 work week per
year and 40 hours per week, so the OSHA incidence rate is based on 200,000 hours of worker
exposure to a hazards, this is purely an statistical information and usually this OSHA incidence
22
rate is calculated from the number of occupational injuries, remember there are two types of
injuries, one is the recordable one, another one is non-recordable one.
So the number of occupational injuries deals with the recordable occupational injuries, the
illness and the total number of employees hours worked during the applicable period, there are
certain things related to the occupational injuries, any injuries such as cut, fracture, sprains, etc,
which results from a work accident or from an exposure involving a single incident in the work
environment, this is the standard definition for the occupational injury.
Occupational illness and employee is any abnormal condition or disorder other than one
resulting from an occupational injury caused by exposure to environmental factors associated
with the employment. It includes acute and chronic illness or diseases which may be caused by
inhalation, absorption or direct contact, now the role of these occupational illness or
occupational injury is that sometimes a worker may away from the workplace, so if he or she
is away from workplace, then definitely there would be a loss to the industry, so these type of
things must be recorded, so whenever there, he or she is away from workplace, maybe in terms
of hours, maybe in terms of days then there is a concept of lost work days.
23
So lost work days are those days which the employee would have worked, but could not
because of occupational injury or illness, remember whenever we are dealing with trained
employee that means an industry has implemented certain quantum of resources towards the
training of that particular employee, so the number of lost work days should not include the
day of injury or illness because the person has reported on that very day.
The number of days includes all days consecutive or not on which because of injury or illness,
the employee would have worked but could not, the employee was assigned to a temporary
job, this not only deals with the two type of work, one is that he is away from its original
workplace and simultaneously some other standby person he or she was assigned to do the
same type of job with that particular environment, the employee worked at permanently
24
assigned job, but could not perform all duties normally connected to it, so these are the few
points which are attributed towards lost work day.
Now again there are two things as I earlier talk that about the recordable cases or a non-
recordable cases, so recordable cases are those involving an occupational injury or occupational
illness, this including death, non-recordable cases they are the first aid cases which involved
one-time treatment, so this may not be contributing towards the statistical information of that
particular process or chemical.
25
They are certain non-fatal cases without lost work days, these are the cases where the
occupational injury or illness which did not involve fatalities or lost work days, but did result
in transfer to another job or termination of employment again, the economy is involve, the
medical treatment other than the first aid again, the economy is in at that stake, diagnosis of
occupational illness and sometimes the efficiency of the worker plus plant is at stake, restriction
of work or motion again, the economy is involve, so these type of things should be taken into
the consideration.
So OSHA incidence rate based on the recordable injuries and illness there is a statistical
formula:
OIR = (No. of injuries & illness × 200,000) / (Total hours worked by all employees during
period covered)
An incidence rate can also be based on lost workdays.
OIR (based on lost workdays) = (No. of lost work days × 200,000) / (Total hours worked by
all employee during period covered)
26
Apart from this OSHA incidence rate, another parameter is that fatal accidental rate, this reports
the number of fatalities based on 1000 employees working their entire lifetime, so usually this
is a figure of a 50 years where an employee is assume to work, the FAR is based on 108 working
hours, so,
FAR = (No. of fatalities × 108) / (Total hours worked by all employees covered)
Now remember, we are dealing with the industry in question, both of these formula, both of
these are statistical methodology, they are not dealing with the outer periphery or the people
residing outside the industrial premises.
27
The third one is the fatality rate or death per person per year,
Fatality rate = (No. of fatalities per year) / (Total no. of people in applicable population)
That means you may cover the plant as well as the outer periphery, just like in the Bhopal gas
tragedy, none of the fatality was attributed within the plant premises, but whatever the fatality
took place that is around the plant side, so fatality rate was on the higher side, irrespective that
FAR was the same as the previous one, this approach is useful for performing the calculation
on general population, where the number of exposed hours poorly defined.
Now usually accidental and loss statistics are a paramedical type of incidence, you need to look
into various kind of unsafe behavioral conditions, you need to find out the near misses in which
the accident may occur or may not, there may be certain cases that obviously the less number
of cases compared to the near misses that is, in which the property loss or you may experience
the first aid treatment, there may be certain other cases where the occupational injury or
occupational illness may reported, they are the medical aided cases and a very few number,
less number of cases where the serious disability or the fatality may take place, but you cannot
ignore all kind of unsafe behavior conditions because ultimately all these reviews give you
proper information that gentleman something is going wrong within the plant itself, so you
need to vigilant, you need to find out and you need to record all those statistical information.
28
Now the exact number, usually vary by the industry, location and a time, your industry suppose
deals with say insecticides, pesticides, then it is more harmful, maybe hazardous compared to
the industry those who are producing the drinking water, it all depends on the locations, if it is
situated at the populate, densely populated area, maybe the older one.
But the densely populated area may be more hazardous compared to the industry those who
are situated at the remote location and the time because sometimes it may happen that the
accident may took place at general shift, then the number of persons may be on the higher side
compared to the time, when say midnight when the persons they are poorly defined, so it is
frequently said that the cause of an accident is visible the day before it occurs, only thing is
that you need to find out based on your technical knowledge competency, you need to find out
29
those near misses, so how you can find out the proper inspection, by the proper safety reviews
and careful evaluation of all circumstances which are listed in this particular slide.
Now again, you may say that a safety this is a very general notion that safety should have
management support, it must have a proper attitude, you must have a proper understanding of
fundamental, you must be properly experienced to handle such type of scenario it is just like a
LPG leaks and if it you are just by any, by any unexperienced people may immediately turn it,
turn on the ventilation fan, but it may cause a problem, then the time to do the thing safely and
actively participation of all those who involve.
So in the first lecture we deal with loss statistics because ultimately it gives a very good
information about the economic of this chemical industry, second thing is that how the accident
30
takes place initiation, propagation and termination? How we can identify the things? What is
the impact? And how we can analyse the things in gravity? So in subsequent lectures we will
discuss that what is the impact of those statistical information to the safety aspect by this way,
thank you very much.
31
Prof. Shishir Sinha
Module 01
Lecture 02
Risk Management & Hazardous Substance Rules
Welcome to the second module of this safety course, in this particular module we are going
to study about the concept of risk management, what are the different laws applicable in
different context? Now before we go into this particular module just, let us have a brief
glimpse about that what we have studied in the last module?
In the last module we have got an idea about what is chemical process safety? Hazards and
risk, what are the different type of hazard present at workplace? And how we can analyse
those hazards, what are the different risk factor involved at the working placed or in the
process industries? Now to quantify the things you must, we had a particular analysis about
the loss statistics, we have studied about the different methods to calculate the accidents and
how do we can go ahead with the quantitative things.
32
Now in this particular module we are going to study about the concept of proper risk
management, different type of risk control measures, what are the different hazardous
substance rules, factories act and different environmental rules, etc
Now there is small concept of risk management because safety is a very good business and
everywhere there is an involvement of economy, so suppose you are going through a road or
through scooter or car, whenever you are putting your seat belts or helmet that means you are
investing certain quantum of money towards your safe process, likewise safety is a very good
business and has an optimal level of activity, beyond which there are diminishing returns.
33
Now this is a brief glimpse about what is the risk management? Now at the startup you are
having certain expenditure on safety, now obviously your plants are prevented from blowing
up an experienced the worker safety because in the last model we have studied that
everything is governed by the economy, now result is the increased return due to the reduced
loss expenditure and reduced loss in the man-hour or workdays.
Now if safety expenditure further increases, then the return increases more, but it may not be
as much as before and achieve by the spending more money elsewhere, then again you are
pumping more money towards safety expenditure, the price of product increases and sale,
obviously the sale will be on lower side and people are spared from the injury, of course, this
is the good humanity, but the cost has decreased sale.
34
Now, finally, if you are pumping more and more money, then ultimately you will be
uncompetitive and the cost of product will be on the higher side and as a result, you will be
out of the business, so each company needs to determine an appropriate level of safety
expenditure, beyond which the product cost or your process cost will be on the higher side
and you will be out of the business.
So this excessive expenses could have a higher safety returns if assigned to a different safety
problem, so as an engineer, your objective is need to consider other alternatives while
designing proper safety devices, now this is the particular concept of risk management, first
thing as per the last module you need to identify the various hazards, you need to assess the
35
consequences as well as the risk, what kind of the risk present? Because if you recall the last
module we have analysed that what is risk? Risk is the probability of any accident occur.
Then you need to determine the action control rating that what is the consequences and based
on those consequences, based on the probability of the risk you must implement control
measures to control the risk, now whenever you are implemented these type of, this control
risk, then you must review the risk control measures, so based on your control measures you
need to review and monitor continuously.
Now there are three different type of risk control measures physical protection, procedural
protection and educational production, I am going to give a glimpse about that, what kind of
all three different protections, now first thing is the physical protection, you must follow the
36
strict and rigorous approach in following the relevant standard, codes and practices because
in every country, in every state at every zone they are having set of standards, every industry
they are having set of standards, every state, every legislation they are having the set of codes
and the usual safety practices, so you must follow all those safety standards, codes and
practices.
There are certain built-in safety devices and safety systems, so you must follow and you must
be aware about those system and devices, there are certain things like field monitors for
different toxic gases, flammability metres to analyse any kind of, presence of any kind of
flammable mixtures, so you must be aware of all those things, there are certain personal
protective equipments through which you can protect yourself as well as your workers like
aprons, like safety goggles, like helmets etc, so you must be aware and all the workplaces
must be equipped all such kind of PPEs.
There are certain inherent passive protection system, so everybody should be aware of those
kind of passive production system, there are certain active cum dynamic protection system,
so these active or dynamic protection system, everybody should aware and everybody should
be well acquainted how to use all those kinds of protective system, there are certain automatic
production system, those like fire monitors, fire sensors etc they can be actuated at the time of
eventuality, there must be certain improved waste management concept, we will go in detail
that what is this include waste management and good housekeeping in subsequent models.
37
Apart from this, there are certain procedural protections like there must be fire and
emergency procedure, if you go to any hotel, a good quality hotel you will find that the
behind of every door you are having the fire protocol like what is the, where is the exit?
Where is the fire emergency exit etc? So you must, for every process industry, you must have
all kind of fire emergency procedure if you are dealing upon.
There must be certain disaster preparedness plan, there is a concept of mutual aid systems, so
if anybody is in problem or if it is in danger, suppose anybody inhales the toxic substance,
then you must provide aid to that particular person, there must be no smoking policy, you
must investigate all kind of accidents, even if there are near misses because sometime all
those near misses play a very vital role and sometimes, these near misses may lead to a big
disaster.
There must be certain hazard identification through the safety committees, good
housekeeping committees, safety audit committees, remember in the previous module we
have discussed about the two tire audit system, internal audit and external audit, so you must
follow that particular procedure, conducting plants survey and safety survey that is a must,
there must be work permit system, work permit system means suppose if you are in a
particular arena where you are dealing with a toxic substance, so everybody should not be
allow to enter in that particular arena because there may be certain toxic vapours, those who
may part, become the part and parcel of that particular visitor.
So without having any kind of safety equipment or safety devices, he or she should not be
allowed to enter that particular things and before releasing the permit system, everybody
should ensure that he is well equipped with all kind of safety system, you need to follow the
statutory requirement as laid down by either state government or federal government or
central government, there must be certain safety promotional activities because nowadays
everything is related to economic, apart from this safety is everyone responsibility, so there
must be some safety promotional scheme from the managerial aspects.
38
There must be certain information should be placed regarding the unsafe condition, if you are
entering into any unsafe arena, then the proper notes, play cards should be displayed for all
kind of unsafe condition, people must be aware about material safety data sheet MSDS stands
for material safety data sheet, in the subsequent model we have discussed in detail that what
is material safety data sheet?
There must be annual medical check-up for employees so that you can be aware about any
kind of toxic release and sometimes because of body structure we make get to acclimatize to
this toxic substances, if anybody goes into the medical check-up, annual medical check-up,
then definitely any kind of release may be detected and the impact of that particular release to
the employee may be detected, there are regular and preventive maintenance, well audited
regular and preventive maintenance, the periodic testing of all kind of firefighting appliances,
apart from all kind of toxic substance detection devices.
39
There are certain educational protection, everybody should go for mock fire drill if applicable
in that particular plant, there are certain safety manuals and everybody should follow, all
those safety manuals, there are regular safety and health news bulletins, so that you may be
aware that what is going on inside and outside the world, there are safety motivation schemes
and all these safety motivation schemes should be supported by management.
There must be periodic training program on safety, fire safety and hazardous properties of the
material so that your plant worker and officials they are well aware acquainted with what
kind of hazardous process is going on and what kind of things moving on within the plant, so
training program is a must, the plant operating manual should be readily accessible to each
and everybody, those who are involved in that particular process, educating the public living
nearby about the activities in the industry and that is a must because I would like to give a
brief example of Bhopal.
In Bhopal when the MIC was leaked, the public nearby, they did not know that what is the
particular chemical? In the prima facie information given to the public nearby was it is a
chlorine gas, so they did not know that how to handle such kind of scenario, now educating
the public living nearby about the activities in the industry is must, reason is that the people
should know that what kind of different activities is going on within the industrial premises,
so that in case of any emergency, they should be in a position to handle such kind of scenario,
so educating as well as the training for the people nearby is essential.
40
Now there is a growing importance of risk management, this is basically attributed to the
proper legislation, the customer attitude, the societal expectations and the management
attitudes, now every government and everybody is sceptically aware about that this is the
gravity of not only environment as well as for the human being, so they frame the proper
legislation.
There is a customer attitude as far as then as a customer, we used to buy anything than in the
subconscious mind we used to follow the concept that did they follow all the legislation, all
the environmental norm or the human aspect, there are certain societal expectations, I am
going to detail in the subsequent slides, there must be the management attitude, the reason is
that ultimately everything is again govern by the economic.
So whenever there is loss in company that means there is a diminishing return to the
company, so management attitudes is growing nowadays just to safeguard not only that
environment but to the human being within the company because ultimately whenever there
is any kind of problem, then they need to pay the compensation.
41
Now the second part of this particular module deals with the hazardous substance rules, 1986
and factories act 1948, the previously before 1986 we use to follow the factories act 1948,
now there are certain constitutional provisions before we go into detail what is the hazardous
substances rule 1986?
Now the constitution says, as according to the article 21 this guarantees all the persons a
fundamental right to life and personal liberty. This included a life of dignity, to be lived in a
proper environment, free of danger and diseases, that means to live in a safe and healthy
environment is my fundamental right. Article 51, says the fundamental duty of every citizen
and a state to protect and improve the environment, including forests, lake, river and wildlife
to have a compassion for living creatures.
So these two articles, not only deals with the fundamental right and fundamental duty, so as a
citizen I am not allowed to encroach, I am not allowed to distort any kind of environment,
which may cause danger to anybody else, now article 48 i.e. 42nd Amendment act 1976 added
a new directive principle, State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and
safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country.
So all this three constitutional provisions need a clear that no industry is allowed to discharge
any kind of toxic, flammable or any kind of dangerous thing within the factory premises as
well as the outside, so that in the event of any release the problem may created.
42
Now there are certains statuary remedies that is liability of the polluter under the law of tort,
now what is law of tort? Law of tort says that civil wrong things for which the injured
sufferer party may seek the legal redressal and the purpose is to ensure that people reasonably
coexist with each other, so this, the law of tort is applicable to industry as well as the people
those who are living outside the particular industry.
There must be certain avoidance of nuisance which annoys and hurts of everybody,
sometimes the whistle, sometime of other machinery part, they may cause hurts or annoys,
any kind of person, which is either nearby or working within the factory premises, the
trespasses, the intentional or negligent interference with the personal or proprietary rights,
etc. The negligence duty to take care but not too principle of fault i.e., there must be certain
strict liability, so based on this law of tort the government, both the central as well as state
government, they are liable to frame certain statutory laws.
43
Now in a broad spectrum we can divide our legislation into two aspects. One is the pre-
Bhopal phase another one is the post Bhopal phase, no doubt after independence or pro-
independence era, we did have certain laws like explosive act, 1884, the petroleum act, 1934,
the factories act, 1948, the insecticide act, 1968 and the static and mobile pressure vessel
rules, 1981.
Now, after Bhopal gas tragedy because all the qualitative and quantitative parameters they
have change after the Bhopal accident because of the death of thousand and thousand people,
then government of India they regulated and they frame the different laws which are covered
under the hazardous substance rules, 1986.
44
The key features of all these law are focused on on-site safety of the workers because again,
these are the key players, the legal system to regulate is to off-site emergency system, the safe
storage of all kind of hazardous material because there are certain laws through which you
cannot store more than the stipulated things within the premises, the safe transportation of all
kind of hazardous plus inflammable materials, now previously it was never in existence, but
after the certain accident they frame this type of rules.
There was again a factories act, Amendment in 1987, now as per the preamble, the main
objective for the amendment of the factories act was to provide the safeguard to be adopted
and using and handling of hazardous substance because previously there was hardly existence
of any law in such periphery, now to lay down the emergency standards and measures
sometimes any kinds of hazardous substance may get leak, then what kind of measures
emergency standards or emergency protocols we need to follow.
To lay down the procedure for setting of hazardous industry, now there are several types of
zones in which you can lay down all kind of these industries plus there are certain zones
where you cannot lay down or you cannot start those hazardous industries, so the government
laid down the procedure for setting of hazardous industry, to ensure the workers participation,
in the previous module we studied that is an everyones responsibility, so the legislation
ensured that it should be the workers participation baseline for effective safety management.
45
There are certain provisions made by these factories, Amendment act in 1987, the provisions
are section 41 B, compulsory disclosure of information by the occupier, in this case, the
occupier is the industry owner or the Corporation those who owns that particular industry,
there must be in a position to disclose the information, now these information are of various
categories.
There is a specific responsibility of the occupier in relation to the hazardous process, this is in
listed in section 41 C, the section 41 G, deals with the workers participation in the safety
management, this includes the training as well as the safety knowledge, those we have
discussed in the first module that is the cup of tea with five ingredients, the section 41 H says
the right of workers to warn about the imminent danger, that includes that as a worker, it is
my right to have a knowledge that what kind of hazardous activity is going on within my
workplace, so it is my right, so that mentally I should be prepared to be handle such kind of
situation, because if I am not prepared with this kind of things, then definitely I will not be in
a position to help others out.
46
There are certain environmental protection act and the first Amendment or first act was
passed in 1986, the definition of major accident is a part and parcel of this particular act, the
major accident means an incident involving loss of life inside or outside the site or ten or
more injuries inside and one or more injuries outside or release of toxic chemical or exclusion
or fire or spillages of hazardous chemical resulting in on-site or off-side emergencies or
damage to equipment leading to stoppage of process or adverse effects to the environment.
Now if you go through this particular definition we can see that all kind of hazardous
activities are covered, maybe on-site, maybe off-side, maybe within the plant, maybe the
outside the plant, so all occupier or industrial person must be aware that particular basic
definition.
47
Now as far as the storage in the plant premises is concerned, we are having three different
type of aspects low-level storage, medium level storage and high-level storage, now low-level
storage there are certain actions needed by the occupier and that has to be carried out by the
occupier as far as the losses, you must identify the major accident hazards that is the first
thing, the second thing is that you need to take the steps to prevent the major accidents and to
limit the consequences because previously we have identified those accident, those hazardous
scenarios, we know that what are the consequences, so we had to take the proper steps to
prevent such kind of major accidents.
That you have to train the person at site to provide equipment for safety, these safety maybe,
these equipment may be in terms of the personal protective equipment, these may be in terms
48
of active or passive protective equipments, you need to notify the major accident within 48
hours, the reason is that the civilian authorities may take the appropriate action accordingly, it
is the responsibility of the industrial person to prepare the MSDS of all hazardous plus all the
novel chemicals present within the plant promises.
This MSDS gives you all kind of information physical, chemical, reactivity, name of the
supplier, all kind of information, in different modules we will discuss that what are the
integral part of this MSDS? There must be the responsibility of industry person or occupier to
level all containers containing the hazardous chemicals, so that it is well notified by all the
person, those were working within that particular arena, inform import of hazardous material,
so all the regulatories bodies must be properly informed about the import of any kind of
hazardous materials, so that they may inspect, they may check, they may audit that whether
you have follow the safety norms or not.
The medium level aspect says to give the necessary information to the authorities for any
kind off-site plan, you must be in liasoning with the local authorities or local person, the
inform persons in the neighbourhood regarding the nature of hazards and safety measures and
you must supply the proper information dos and donts, so you must inform, you must train
the neighbour or the person, those who are leaving outside the particular plant zone that what
kind of hazardous activity is going on within the plant promises and in case of any
eventuality, how we can handle the scenario, so dos and donts, you must provide all kinds of
information because one of the major accident took place, because of this person they did not
follow the dos and don’ts.
49
Notify the side and obtain the necessary approval because sometimes we feel that this kind of
approval takes time and unusual delay that it again give a safeguard to the industry, notify the
changes if any, sometimes process modification or sometimes environmental norms or energy
efficiency norms, they force us to change our process methodology, so in case of any change
over please notify all kind of things.
Prepare on-site emergency plan and that is a must, because in case of anything because
anything can be hazardous like even water may become the fatal, so in case of any
emergency, you must prepare on-site emergency plan, frequently you must go for the mock
drill, usual protocol says every six months, but as quickly as possible or as early as possible
you must go for this mock drill concept and you must prepare the mock drill report because
sometimes any kind of deficiency, any kind of lackness give you proper review, sometimes it
may lead to the correctiveness of your system.
Another thing is the high-level chemical storage and this is the very severe one, this is the
action that is the forward copy of safety audit with the comments to the authorities, you must
perform before handling such type of scenario, you must perform the safety audit and you
need to forward a copy of this particular safety audit with your comments as an engineer with
your comments to the authority, so sometimes you may suggest any corrective measures, so
authority may take an appropriate decision and those decision can be implemented on-site.
You must prepare a safety report, you must update safety report based on your mock drill,
based on the chemical in question, based on even weather reports, etc, you must perform the
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independent safety audit by an external expert, that is a must, so that because sometimes you
may acclimatise to the scenario, so we may ignore the certain type of lackness in the safety,
so external auditor may trap all those lackness and this gives you a corrective measures, the
carry out the fresh safety audit once in a year, apart from your regular internal audit.
Now there must be certain things related to the on-site emergency plan by the occupier,
occupier to prepare and keep up-to-date and on-site emergency plan with the specific details
detailing, dealing with the major accident on-site name of the person responsible for a safety
on-site at the time of eventuality, name of the authorised person to take the action as per the
plan in case of an emergency, suppose a toxic substance releases, now if a worker who is,
sometimes, who is illiterate, he or she may not be in a position to provide the adequate
information to handle such kind of scenario, what kind of the remedial measures? So the
notification in this regard that the person who is in charge is contact his or contact detail, give
a proper help in that particular aspect.
Occupier to ensure that on-site plan includes modification and all person on-site affected by
the plan they are informed accordingly, they must conduct the mock drill of on-site
emergency plan in every 6 months, detailed report of mock drill to be maintained
immediately available to the authority so that in case of any deficiency the corrective
measures can be taken up.
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Authority to prepare and the keep up-to-date offsite emergency plan giving how emergencies
arising out of possible major accident on-site would be dealt with, in case of any emergency,
they must design because sometimes the modification on a building where your hazardous
activities is going on, sometimes you need to modify those building plants, etc, it is the
authority who usually takes the decision, the authority to consult the occupier and other
persons.
The authority to provide the information to the occupiers from off-site plan relating to his
duties, the authorities to ensure the conducting or rehearsal of the offsite emergency plan
once in a year because this is the legislating binding and the authorities they may enforced
this activity to the occupier, occupier in this particular case is the industrial person.
52
Now information to be given to the person liable to be affected by a major accident, now the
occupier or industry person to arrange, to inform person directly or through district
administration or authority likely to be the affected area, the nature of major accident hazards,
the safety measures dos and donts to be adopted in case of any major accident and remember
in the Bhopal gas tragedy, there was a lack of communication between the occupier, occupier
in that particular case was union carbide and the civil authorities that was the Bhopal
administration because as the prima facie Bhopal administration did not know that what this
particular gas is.
53
Now the major chemical accident means an occurrence, including any major emission, fire or
explosion involving one or more hazardous chemical and resulting from uncontrolled
development in the course of industrial activity or due to the natural event leading to serious
effect both immediate or delayed, inside or outside the installation, they cause a substantial
loss of life and property, including the adverse effect on the environment and sometimes
these kinds of major accident may lead to the permanent environmental conditional damage,
so remember this particular definition must be in your mind so that you must be aware that
what kind of control because sometimes the chemical thermal runaway reaction, these
reactions are practically uncontrolled, so you need to identify that what can go wrong.
Now there are different class of labels and everybody should be aware and all the plant
workers, they should be aware about these kind of labels that what it means for? Like this is
the explosive one and sometimes non inflammable compressed gas they are there and
flammable gas, so you cannot have the same type of protocol for both the scenario, so these
labels indicate because sometimes, some of the workers may be illiterate, so this kind of
labels or depiction gives proper idea.
They are certain poisonous gases, so the activity or the safety measures would be different
those with the compared to the flammable gases etc, there are certain flammable liquids, so
sometimes the workers may not be in a position to identify the things accordingly, there are
certain flammable solids, spontaneously combustible, there are certain chemicals in the
industry, they are spontaneously if they are becoming the contact with air.
54
They can be combustible and this may lead to the several other accidents, there are certain
dangerous scenario, those are dangerous when wet, there are certain oxidising agents like
benzoyl peroxides, et cetera, there are certain organic peroxides, so all kind of things must be
listed not only in terms of text form, but also in the pictorial form.
Now in the subsequent modules will discuss the four significant disasters, the reason is that
three major things occur in any kind of chemical industry in terms of disaster, fire, explosion
and toxic release, so there are four significant accidents or disaster in the chemical industries,
these are the landmark accidents, a lot of things happen after the accident, a lot of theories
been proposed, a lot of statistical information has been changed after these accidents,
Flixborough this dealt with fire, Seveso, Bhopal and Jaipur, in the subsequent modules we
will discuss all these accidents in details.
So in this particular module we have discuss about the various hazardous rules applicable in
Indian context and every state and central government, they are free to choose, free to frame
the different laws based on the benefits of the citizen and we fix the, we have chosen the
concept of fixation of responsibilities, so by these words I am summing up this particular
module. Thank you very much.
55
Professor Shishir Sinha
Lecture 03
Nature of Accidents & Disasters
Welcome to this third module, in this particular module we will study the different type of
accidents, nature of those accidents and various disaster, now the major, we are going to
discuss four major disasters in brief, the reason is that prima facie must know that what was
the problem and what are the different theories involved prior to the study of proper theories?
Now uptil now we have studied in different modules about safety, what are the different types
of hazard and risk at workplaces? We have performed the analyses of loss statistics, different
methods to calculate the accident and loss statistics, we have studied about the concept of risk
management and what are the different control measures to have this particular concept of
risk management, we have a belief glimpse about the hazardous substance rules, 1986 and
factories act 1948.
56
Now in this particular chapter we are going to study about the nature of accident, basically
we will discuss three different kind of nature, fire, explosion and toxic release and based on
that particular thing the introduction of four significant disasters of world Flixborough,
Seveso, Bhopal and Jaipur because these four accidents, these accidents are landmark
accidents and these accident gave a very important information about the chemical process
safety.
Now there are three most common types of accident fire, explosion and toxic release, now in
detail, we will discuss all three aspects in subsequent models, now basically because at this
particular point of time, we must know the different type of accidents plus what are the major
hazards? So what went wrong for those particular hazards?
57
Now in this particular table, we find that the type of accident fire, the probability of
occurrence is on the higher side and potential of fatalities is on the lower side and the
potential for economic loss is in between high and low, now will discuss why all this things
happened, the explosion because of the release of large quantum of energy, the potential of
economic losses is on the higher side, it may not lead to the fatality on the larger segment, it
may be in the range of intermediate and the probability of occurrence is intermediate, the
toxic release, the toxic release, the probability of occurrence is extremely low or low, but the
potential for fatality is on the higher side and economic losses are on the lower side.
Now you can see by the evidence because in the subsequent slides, when we go through all
kind of accident in brief, you will find that the fatalities in terms of toxic release with respect
to Bhopal gas tragedy was on the higher side compare to the fire in the Flixborough or a
Jaipur or explosion in case of Seveso, with respect to fatalities accident, maybe because of
toxic release having the greatest potential, may be sometimes the fire may lead to an
explosion and sometimes explosion may lead to fire.
58
Now most accidents follow three-step sequences as we discussed in module 1, the initiation,
the event that starts the accident, for example, somebody threw away a burned cigarette bud
into the dried bushes, now in that particular case, sometimes propagation may lead, the event
or events that maintains to expand the accident, a portion of those dried bushes ignited and
release the thick smoke and hot flame, fire starts to progress to another art of bushes and the
termination, the event of or event that stop accident or diminish it in size, the consumption of
combustible material in process or sometimes fire extinguisher.
Now remember, I talked about the Jaipur incident, IOCL depot caught the fire and that
particular accident followed the three, initiation, propagation and termination steps, we will
discuss this thing in subsequent slides.
59
Now that is inherent safety, the major approach of to inherent safe process design divided
into four, five different segments intensification, that means you need to intensify the process,
so that the chances for any kind of fire, explosion or toxic release may be diminished, you
must be in a position to substitute with the help of suitable chemicals which are those who are
less toxic, those who are less inflammable, you must give a proper attenuation, limitation of
effect, you must analyse and you need to simplify the process or you need to simplify the
error or tolerance.
The four buzzword to describe the inherent safety the minimize, the substitute, you must
substitute, moderate conditions, maybe use of low-temperature or low pressure, sometimes
may, of course it may give you low yield or low conversion but sometimes your expenditure
on the safety may be on the lower side, simplify, you must follow the concept of KISS, keep
it simple and safe.
60
Now before we go into detail of fire, toxic release and explosion, we must have a brief idea
about the different accidents, those landmark accidents, the first one is the Flixborough, UK
cyclohexane disaster took place on 1st June, 1974, this was purely based on the vapour cloud
explosion, this Flixborough disaster was an explosion at a chemical plant owned by Nypro
UK Ltd and this occurred in Flixborough, England on Saturday 1st of June, 1974, at about
4:53 PM, this particular figure is taken just immediately after the accident.
61
Now before I give you a brief description about accident, let us have a product description,
the raw material was cyclohexane, the formula C6H12, molecular weight 84, and boiling point
81, now this is a very vital information and you can have this particular information from
material safety data sheet for each and every component, now cyclohexane is a volatile liquid
with a low boiling point at ambient conditions something like petrol, now it is having a liquid
density of 780 kg/m3 and a vapour density is 2.4 kg/m3.
Now this particular aspect is essential, the liquid is lighter than water, while the vapour is
heavier than air, this is common with the many kind of hydrocarbon, now this is again a very
important information because for every accident you need to go for accident investigation,
so that it cannot occur in near future for a same type of scenario, so this particular
information, all this information, you can have it from material safety data sheet.
62
Now the Flixborough works of Nypro was virtually demolished by an explosion of war like
dimension on the afternoon of the Saturday 1974, the explosion was estimated to be
equivalent to the force arising from 15 to 45 tons TNT, this was due to the ignition of vapour
cloud which was formed when the pressurised cyclohexane escape from a reactor vaporised
and ignited.
Now remember the initiation, propagation and termination these all three things took place in
that particular accident, on-site 28 people were killed and 36 injured and if explosion had
occurred during the week, there would have been many more casualties.
63
Now what happen? Because this is the reactor battery and this Flixborough plant, they use to
produce in this particular reactor battery, they used to produce cyclohexanenone from
cyclohexane and this particular battery consisted of six different reactor having the capacity
of 20 ton each and all these reactors were pressurised, so with the help of air, the cyclohexane
is converted into cyclohexanenone, now there are four different segments through which they
can get the purified cyclohexanenone, scrubber section, distillation, separator and after
reactor.
Now what happen? The reactor number 5 was faulty, so they sensed that this particular,
something went wrong, so what they did? They bypass this reactor, this reactor number 5 and
they just installed a flexible pipe to connect reactor number 4 with reactor number 6, no
doubt, there was a very small amount of conversion loss because of the kinetics, but
simultaneously, it is extremely dangerous in nature, we will go in detail when we discuss
about this particular accident in detail of attributed to the accident investigation.
But without much loss in yield, they bypass the things and it took around 2 months, because 2
months prior to the explosion cyclohexane, they discovers that there is a leaking because of
some variety of reasons, so they detected a leak and they decided to bypass like this.
Now what happened because of the pressure fluctuation, this particular pipe was dislocated
and 80 tone of cyclohexane or mixture of cyclohexane and cyclohexanenone was exposed to
the atmosphere and it created a vapour cloud and source of ignitions was enormous at that
64
particular time and somehow this particular vapour cloud got ignited and it is just like a fire
cloud.
So as a result 28 people killed and 36 seriously injured, the record and charts for the start-up
were destroyed, fire remained burning for over 10 days because they did have a large quantity
of inventories, in their store, warehouse large quantity in cyclohexane, cyclohexanenone and
other like products they are having the, other inflammable product they are having the large
quantum of those inventories, property damage this extended over wide area, more than 1800
buildings within three miles radius of the side were damaged, blast heard till 30 miles away.
Now reason was the pressurised, vessels, they were exposed to the atmosphere and
cyclohexane is extremely flammable in nature, now you can evident through the previous
data given in the previous slides.
65
Now after accidental analyses, they found out there are certain points that is changes to the
design should be overseen and authorized by properly qualified person, the carry out
systematic search for possible causes of the problem before any modification process being
done, because unfortunately they did not carry out any kind of pressure and temperature
analyses for this particular modification, knowledge and understanding of hazard of the
process might have prevented the accident from occurring.
66
Another toxic release accident attributed to the Seveso dioxin pollution, it happened 1976,
this was an extremely serious accident happened in the 1976 in a small chemical plant located
not very much away from Milan, it is known as Seveso disaster and prior to Bhopal disaster,
it was turned the most serious disaster in the toxicological studies, this industrial plant owned
by a ICMESA company, a subsidiary of Givandan, which is in turn was a subsidiary of
Hoffmann-la Roche, it is a famous chemical company. The plant was built many years before
the accident and was manufacturing dioxins, dioxins are more serious component to the
human kind.
Now due to the mechanical failure, the temperature rose to around 300 degree Celsius and
relief valve eventually opened, 6 tons of material, including 1 kilogram of TCDD, Tetra
67
chloro dibenzodioxin , this is more, extremely toxic in nature for the human being, it was
released over 18 square kilometre area. Dioxin it first came into widespread public notice
during the Vietnam War, when it was identified as a component of the defoliant Agent
Orange, previously the substance had been banned from agricultural use because of its
alleged toxic effects on human kind.
Now the safety measures because this is again the lack negligence from the company official
point of view because, because it was a two-step process, first step is usually carried out at
distributed temperature and there was a necessity to lower down the temperature by the
addition of water and it was neglected by the plant official that is called of the human error
and it was neglected, once it was neglected the temperature remained at 150, 60 degree
Celsius and due to the thermal runaway reaction the temperature rose of up to 300 degrees
Celsius and all the safety devices failed at that particular point because the reactor was not
designed to handle such type of scenario.
So all TCDD, which is in very low quantity in the discharge but obviously because it is
extremely dangerous to human kind, it released into atmosphere, so the safety measures and
the clean-up and restoration, the safety measures taken by the company and the authorities
were badly coordinated, in the previous module we have discussed about the responsibility of
the occupier, as well as the responsibility of the authorities, so at least a week passed before it
was publicly stated that a dioxin pollution occurred and another week passed before the
evacuation began.
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Now within a day total 3,300 animals were found dead, mostly poultry and rabbits,
emergency slaughtering started to prevent a TCDD from entering to the food chain of human
being and in 1978 over 80,000 animals had been slaughtered, so you can imagine that it took
around two years to completely restore and clean-up the things based on this particular
discharge.
Then a lot of judiciary cases were filed, in 1980, the director of the production of the
company was shot by a member of terrorist organization because it was outcome of that
particular incident. A few months later the compensation agreement was signed by the
representatives of region, the president of the Italian Republic and the company officials, the
total amount of the agreement was about 20 billion lire. The technical director of the
company was sentenced to five years imprisonment in the first degree trial and then had his
sentence reduced to two years and was paroled on appeal.
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70
Now the third major accident is Bhopal gas tragedy, you can see the severity of that particular
accident, this was occurred on 3 December night 1984 and the company who owned that
particular plant was Union Carbide Corporation and the chemical, which was released was
Methyl Isocyanate and it was released in the quantity of say 20 to 30 tons, now the severity
you can see in this particular slide, that a half a million people were exposed to the gas,
25,000 have died to date as a result of this particular exposure, this is an approximate figure,
more than 120,000 people still suffer from different type of aliments caused by the accident
and the subsequent pollution at the plant site and this may be attributed to the gene change
over because MIC is again more prone towards changing the genes.
This ailments includes the blindness, extreme difficulty in breathing and different type of
gynaecological disorders, now this site has never been properly cleaned up and it continues to
poison the residents nearby, we will discuss this particular, this Bhopal gas tragedy in details
with attribution to accidental analyses.
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Now Union Carbide Corporation they started their activity in Bhopal in 1969 and the material
they use the Phosgene, Monomethlyamine, Methyl Isocyanate and Pesticide Carbonyl and
they use to produce the pesticide name as, commercial name as Sevin, it was taken over by
the DOW chemicals in 2001, unfortunate part is that DOW refuse to take the Union Carbides
liability in Bhopal, now see almost 25,000 killed and is still 1.2 lakhs severely affected. Still,
they are suffering and we thought that only weapons could cause the Mass destruction, this is
Mass destruction.
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The Jaipur terminal fire, it happened on 29th of October 2009, IOCL, they are having this
Jaipur terminal and in addition to this, the plot accommodated the facility for pipeline
division, which operate the cross-country because it was on the pipeline grid, the Koyali
Sanganer product pipeline feeding that particular terminal, they are having the marketing
terminal occupied 105 acres land and a pipeline division facilities were located in 15 acre in
the North East corner of the facility.
Now there was a certain release of petrol and diesel from this particular facility and a vapour
cloud was formed and somehow this vapour cloud was got ignited and initiation took place,
now because of the combustion of this petroleum product a lot of heat being liberated and
because of this, because of delta H, enthalpy content of those petroleum product, now
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because of the net release of energy on other tanks they got heated up and vapour clouds
tends to form.
Now because of this vapour cloud the propagation took place because through conduction,
through auto ignition or through radiation these remaining tanks they got ignited and
propagation took place and plant officials were not in a position to control this things, so
termination could not be possible at a moment and they followed the let it go policy, so they
waited for a long period to consume all the petroleum product within the plant by the fire.
So, about 60,000 kilo litre of petroleum product stored in that particular terminal at the time
of accident and the installation was totally destroyed, building in the immediate
neighbourhood were heavily damaged and minor damages and window panes breakages
occurring up to 2 kilometre from the site, you can see the gravity because the formation of
vapours due to the attributed, due to the heat.
So the total loss estimated on account of fire and explosion as reported by Indian oil
Corporation, in press, which includes the loss of finished product, stores, fixed assets and
compensation for third-party losses, amounted about rupees 280 crores, 11 people within the
site lost their lives in the accident, six from IOC, five they were outside and several others
were injured, so this is the true example of initiation, propagation and termination and
termination usual control measures they did not work, they were not in a position to control
that particular fire because of the generation of lot of heat.
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So overall lesson learned based on Jaipur incident the a few lessons are learnt they are
highlighted like facilities and installations with the inherently high hazards should
incorporate redundancy in safety systems and ensure their upkeeps at all times, management
should ensure that reliable systems are in place to give timely feedback on the current
practices and state of readiness in different facilities, management must ensure that identified
actions are being carried out, a high priority on safety from the senior and top management
groups will send the right signals down the line to ensure the safety and production.
Now in this particular module we have studied about the safety, different accidents, we have
studied about what are the major things in the safety things like fire, toxic release and
explosions etc, in the subsequent modules we will discuss all this things in detail. Thank you.
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Fundamental Principles
Lecture 04
Scale-up & Runaway Reaction
Welcome to this module of runaway reaction or reaction runaway problems because this
runaway problems are more critical in chemical process safety, so we thought that we must
give you an overview about those reaction runaways and scale-up aspect, so in this particular
module we are going to discuss certain fundamental principles those who are related to the
reaction runaway.
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We will discuss about the causes of various kind of over pressurization will discuss about the
basic concept of heat of reaction, Adiabatic temperature rise, Arrhenius relationship and will
discuss about the thermal runaway aspects, then Phi factor, heat losses changes with time of
scales, then we will discuss about reagent accumulation and onset temperature related to the
exothermic aspects and will discuss about certain safety factors for thermal hazard data.
So let us have a look about the hazards, those who are arising from the pressure, so while we
consider the reaction hazard the temperature is rarely a hazard on its own, although
sometimes when it is within the domain, within the controllable domain then temperature
never put forward any kind of hazard, so the impact of any temperature rise, sometimes this
temperature rise may take place because of certain conditions like exothermicity or cooling
temperature failures etc.
So the impact of any kind of temperature rise on the system is much more important, because
this may lead to the other catastrophic problems, so there are three potential sources of
overpressure. One is the gas generation from the normal processes and this took place in the
Bhopal gas tragedy, when because of the high temperature the CO 2 built up inside the MIC
tank while reacted with the water and it create a lot of problem and all the safety processes
were failed, the second aspect is the vapour pressure effect as a consequence of heat from the
normal processes, the third one is the heat from the normal process leading to the secondary
reaction at elevated temperature that is gas or a vapour pressure effects in other words, you
can say.
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Now let us have a look about a vapour pressure effect, now this vapour pressure effect is
attributed to the Antoine theory and this theory you can look in the chemical engineering
thermodynamics aspects, so this vapour pressure effect is attributed to the Antoine plot, now
this plot is attributed to the Antoine equation, so the Antoine equation is a class of semi-
empirical correlation describing the relation between the vapour pressure and a temperature
for pure components.
Now why there is a need of this plot or this relationship because in the previous slide we have
discussed that sometimes the temperature may lead to because temperature sometimes is in a
safer limit, but this temperature may create the problem of overpressure, so whenever you
talking about the relationship between the temperature and pressure, then we must have a
certain correlations, so Antoine equation provide the solution for this particular aspects.
Now this Antoine equation is derived from the Clausis-Clapeyron relations and it can be
derived by from the sealed cell data, so this is the Antoine plot log of
– loge(Pressure) = A + (B / (C + Temp))
that is the T is the temperature, so for a vapour pressure system, the log pressure, the
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so by this way you can plot this logarithmic plot with the pressure versus 1 by T.
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Now if you recall, if we have a gas generating system, then
now a τ is a factor that is due to the generation of permanent gas and in that particular case
this log LN pressure is not directly proportion to 1/ T and you may see that the nature of the
plot would be like this.
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Let us have a look about the heat of a reaction, this is a very common phenomena, so we will
not devote much time towards this particular aspects because in chemical thermodynamic or
engineering thermodynamics we have gone through this heat of reaction aspects, usually
represented by ΔHr and it is having the unit of kilojoule per mole, so let us see that for a
reaction A plus B this gives the product say may be C, so the heat of a reaction is the quantity
of a heat released or absorbed as a products are formed, so there are two type of heat of
reaction one is exothermic when the heat is released and second is the endothermic when heat
is absorbed by the system.
Now you can see in this particular slide will have listed some reference heat of reaction like
Acid or Base neutralization may have an exothermicity of 60 KJ/mole, then Esterification of
a methanol or acetic anhydride is having the exothermic heat of reaction 67 KJ/mole, then
hydrolysis may have a heat of a reaction of minus 97 KJ/mole, Diazotization that is the
substituted amine hydrochloride having the heat of reaction. In the range of say minus 117
KJ/mole, then Methylation that is, this may have heat of reaction of minus 104 KJ/mole and
Grignard reaction may have a heat of a reaction minus 200 KJ/mole.
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Now the standard heat of reaction you can have from various handbooks. Now let us have a
look about the adiabatic temperature rise, so the total temperature rise in the reacting system
due to exothermic activities were there no heat loss to the surrounding and it is given by
Now here N is the number of moles of reactant, Cp is the heat capacity having the units of
Joule kilogram inverse and Calvin versus, delta Hr is having the heat of reaction, m is the
mass in the reactor, which is having the unit of kilogram and Phi factor, we will explain this
in the subsequent slides later on.
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Another aspect is the reaction rate, this is attributed to the Arrhenius relationship and which is
represented as
k = A.exp (-E/RT)
Where K is the rate constant, A is the frequency factor, E is the activation energy, R is the
rate of heat production is dependent on reaction rate for the pseudo 1st order by
dQ/dt = k.ΔHr.m
now this dQ, dt is the rate of heat production, now this K is the rate constant having the 1 st
order and m is the quantity of reagent available at time t.
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Now let us have a brief look about the reaction kinetics and you must not confuse about the
ΔHr and EA, they have the same units, so ΔHr that is heat of the reaction is the overall energy
change during a process, so high ΔHr that is the heat of reaction, a lot of energy change and a
low heat of a reaction, then a small amount of energy change takes place, so low EA, EA is the
energy required to initiate a change, so if you are having the low EA that is facile reaction
occur at a lower temperatures or pressures and if you are having the high EA that is the
difficult reaction only occurs at high temperature or a pressure, so these are the certain
suggestive measures for the reaction kinetics.
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Let us have a discussion about the kinetics of heat release or sometimes loss, the heat release
rate that is from an exothermic reaction increases exponentially with the temperature, so this
is a very, you can say the catchy line, so that you can analyse that if any kind of catastrophe
may take place then how we can analyse that how much quantum of the heat release from the
kinetics studies.
Now heat loss rate, now from a chemical reactor increases linearly with the temperature with
this formula
dQ/dt = U.A.ΔT
Where, U is the heat transfer coefficient having the unit of Watt/m2K and A is the heat
transfer area, usually represented in a m2 and ΔT the temperature difference between contents
and a jacket, so ΔT is important.
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Sometimes you may experience a thermal runaway problems, and as we have discussed the
governing equation is this one, now here the dQ by dt is on the y-axis and the temperature on
the x-axis, so you need to find out that what is the critical temperature over which there may
be a chances of thermal runaway reaction, so in case if by any means if there is any
exothermic process and access heat been liberated then you need to find out that how much
quantity of heat removal is required for cooling so that it may work below this critical
temperature radiation.
Now since if by any means it goes beyond this critical temperature range, then there may be a
chance of thermal runaway and you need to take the appropriate safety measures to overcome
such kind of scenario, in past there may have several reaction that took place because of this
thermal runaway aspect, now remember a thermal runaway is the progressive production of
heat from a chemical process and occurs when the rate of heat production exceeds the rate of
heat removal. So, that means certain imbalance took place between the cooling aspects and
the heat production of aspect because the exothermicity is known.
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So you can analyse this scenario and you can take the appropriate measures to control this
particular catastrophic approach.
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Now there may be several causes for the thermal runaway, so studies have determine that
thermal runaway reactions occur due to the various reasons and we have enlisted four reasons
for this one, sometimes insufficient understanding of the process chemistry and the energy
kinetics of the desired reaction, that means sometimes you may negate the effect of
exothermicity.
Sometimes it may lead to the improper design of heat transfer capacity required for the plant,
now this is again very important because you know theoretically that how much quantum of
heat been generated in that particular process, so if your design is below the particular heat
capacity, then definitely you are approaching towards the thermal runaway aspect, sometimes
insufficient understanding of the adverse reaction and control including plant safety backup
system as well as adequate emergency venting.
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Again, it is very crucial aspect and attributed to the design of the reactor, sometimes
inadequate return batch procedures and a poor operator training because sometimes it may
approach to this particular reason and the process conditions surpasses this particular critical
temperature zone and if the operator they are not trained to handle the scenario, then
definitely the plant may land in trouble because of that thermal runaway aspect, so never
assume a chemical is non-hazardous because of a low hazard rating and many incident
involve material having the National Fire Protection Association hazard rating between 0 to
1, but they became the catastrophic in due course of time
so it is best to develop proper testing program to identify and characterize all reactive
materials and reaction mixtures under a variety of process condition, so that is very much
needed because like in Bhopal, there was I mean it was unlikely that water will meet MIC
and these are the very much reactive and created and the reaction is exothermic in nature and
the system was not designed at all for to cater this type of scenario, so if you are having the
hazard rating in between 0 to 1, do not say that, dont think that this particular system is safe,
you to take the proper measures to safeguard the system.
Subsequently a process hazard analysis that can be used to assign the appropriate control and
a safeguard to reduce risk of an adverse event, that is again very important aspect because no
chemical is non-hazardous. Now, it is important to remember to update the process safety
information as the process undergoes changes during the life cycle. Now, the interim process
safety information reports can then serve as a reference for the technology transfer purpose,
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as a process scales from research and development aspect, labs, pilot plants to the commercial
production stages.
Now, once the process has been set the final process safety report then can be used by the
variety of end users, maybe in-house or by outsourced facilities. So, when developing the
safety documentation, it is important to keep in mind that it must comply with the company
or industry policy and procedures as well as the country and a local regulation because
sometimes based on the gravity of the system, the local authorities or national authorities may
impose certain regulation to the thing.
So while designing or while developing all kinds of safety-related issues we must know
(because certain areas may be designated as a green area, certain maybe as an industrial area),
so we must know that what are those regulations those who are governing and which we need
to comply while designing the safety documentation.
There are certain things they are related to the kinetic complications. Now, beware of
assuming simple kinetics for autocatalytic reactions, sometimes heterogeneous reaction, mass
transfer may be the rate determining step, sometimes face transfer agents may dictate the rate,
so you must know the complexity of the reactions, maybe the multiple steps or in a single
step, what are the different routes of those complex reactions? These are the various
complications they are associated with the kinetics or chemical kinetics of the process in
question.
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Now let us have a look about the phi factor, this is a correction factor which is based on the
ratio of the total heat capacity of the vessel and the total heat capacity of the vessel contents,
so the phi factor approaches the value of one for a large vessels and for extremely light
vessels or at a genuine adiabatic conditions. Now, Phi factor is usually equivalent to the
thermal inertia.
Let us have a look about this again the basic equation A plus B, they are converting into the
product, so phi factor is designated as
so it is quite simple.
Now the heat generated in an exothermic reaction is consumed in three ways.
Usual way is to raise a temperature of the reaction mass, so whatever inside the reactor.
Sometimes it is used to raise the temperature of the reactor and sometimes it may attributed to
the heat loss to the environment, so you may experience that reactor is having the heat.
Now if phi is greater than 1 then it is considered in a thermodynamic and a kinetic

calculation, so we have enlisted several cases when 1 cubic meter glass lined reactor, then
jacket is empty, the phi factor is 1.41. 10 metre cube glass lined reactor when jacket is empty,
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1.13. 10 gram of carious tube screening test that is 2.50. Accelerating rate calorimeter 1.50.
Then adiabatic pressure Dewar calorimeter are 1.05.
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So let us think about the testing. The testing should consider the consequences of all
conceivable process deviation, this should be conducted under the plant scale heat loss
condition or have an appropriate safety factor applied, they should replicate the plant
condition in all ways possible, including the use of plant material consideration of material of
plant construction etc.
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Now let us have a look about the rate reaction accumulation, we are not going to devote much
time because we are all aware about the accumulation, so this is a condition when a rate of
reactor in addition is more than the rate of reaction, so you need to plot this dQ/ dt versus
time, so initially you may experience the rapid reaction growth and then there is a scenario
when there may be chances of slow kinetics, so this is, the zone where you can think about
the work of a period.
Now this is usually determined by the process analysis, discuss about the causes not in a very
exhaustive manner, now sometimes you may take the wrong kinetic assumptions and this
may be a very extremely catastrophic, but fortunately in chemical engineering aspect,
whatever wrong kinetics we take it is only just at the design level, so when it is scale up,
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when it is under the pilot plant study, then we can remove all kind of deficiencies which we
have taken the list stages.
Sometimes it may attributed to the inefficient agitation because in agitations, sometimes the
particle may get deposited to the impellers et cetera, if you are using those impellers, then the
rate of agitation may go on decreasing and that particular things, maybe the problematic and
attributed to the reaction accumulation, sometimes the poor temperature control may lead to
the reaction accumulation, sometimes the impurities is attributed to either to the reactant and
sometimes the non-intermediate remover of those impurities from the reaction mass may
create the problem of reaction accumulation and sometimes the incorrect initiation, maybe
because of the contaminated raw material, sometimes may be attributed to the poor
temperature and a pressure control at start-up, this may attributed to the (())(21:43) reaction
accumulation.
Now let us have a look about the onset temperature, that is the basic concept, the onset
temperature is a temperature at which a reaction can be detected under the prevailing heat
loss and a phi factor condition of the test, so for a given reaction, it is equipment dependent
and they are not a constant and normally quoted as a temperature at which the rate of self-
heating exceeds a threshold value, so sometimes the knowledge about this particular aspect is
essential while designing the safety aspect.
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Now let us have a look about there is safety factors, so safety factors are applied for this
runaway reactions to collect data in high phi factor or high heat loss test equipment, now
5200 Kelvin for screen test, 10 to 15 K for the adiabatic test, now this is always apply for a
conservative factor to account for kinetic deviation between the reaction types, now one must
beware of autocatalytic reaction or process within induction or inhibition period, you may
also consider the availability of air, while accessing the results.
So let us have a preliminary hazard assessment in safety consideration, you need to determine
the thermal stability of all reaction components or mixtures within the minimum and
maximum process temperature which you can attend under the worst-case scenario because
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worst-case scenario, they are sometimes the designing factors, you need to identify the
unwanted interactions between the reagents and a solvent, sometimes you need to identify the
potential reaction contaminants that may have an inhibitory or catalytic effect on the desired
reactions.
Now another is the quantification of the desired reactions, so you need to determine the heat
of reaction and off-gas rates for the desired and quench reaction including the heat resulting
from accumulation of reagent or slow forming intermediates, sometimes you need to
determine the maximum adiabatic temperature for the reaction and determine the basis of
safety relative to estimate boiling point of the reaction mixture and understand the relative
rate of all chemical reaction and sometimes this inclusive of all kind of side, unwanted
reactions and a major reactions, et cetera.
Then you need to go for the quantification of the adverse reaction, now by this way you need
to assess the thermal stability of a reaction mixture over a wide temperature range.
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So while optimising the robustness of the process, consider other reaction variables such as
pH, concentration, conversion rate, off-gas rate, stability of starting and product substrate et
cetera in solution or as a slurry et cetera, so you may consider all the probabilities, all the
prospects of this particular thing, then consider the potential and impact of unwanted vapour-
phase reactions and develop a chemical interaction matrix for material present in the reaction
mixture, when you need to classify the reactivity and communicate this information to the
operational personnel, so it has a various step involve for whenever the quantification of
these adverse reactions are in questions.
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Then next phases the plant consideration, now you need to conduct a basic energy balance to
consider the heat during the various editions, heat generation, during the chemical reaction
and the heating removal capacity or capability of the plant reactor system, now remember to
include the reactor agitation as a source of energy because sometimes we may skip this
important aspects while considering this plant consideration, now consider the impact of
possible deviation from the intended reactant charges and operating conditions.
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Then you need to identify all heat sources connected to a reaction vessel and assume the
maximum possible worst-case scenario. Then you determine the effect of lowest possible
temperature to which the reactor heat transfer fluid could cool the reaction mixture, maybe
that is the coating of heat transfer surfaces et cetera and then consider the impact of
temperature gradient and other issues such as increased viscosity, freezing at reactor walls,
falling and so on and plant scale equipment.
So in this particular module we have consider the various aspects of runaway reactions, what
is the importance we discuss about the safety consideration issues et cetera, so if you wish,
you can have a look for all this references in this particular slides those are given. Thank you
very much.
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Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Lecture 5
Problems related to Safety & Accident Loss Statistics
Welcome to the module related to the problem statements of loss statistics, so let us have a
look about that what we had discussed in the previous modules. We have gone through about
the introduction about safety, we have defined that what are the different hazards and risk,
discussed about the loss statistics, we had gone through the different method to calculate the
accident and different kind of loss statistics because these loss statistics plays a very vital role
while designing any kind of safety operation within the plant or any kind of process, we have
gone through the concept of risk management and different control methodologies, we had
discussion about the hazardous substance rule in related to 1986.
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Now, in this particular module we are going to discuss the various problems related to the
accidents and loss statistics and other topics related to the study which we have gone through
so far. So let us have a look about the first problem. Now here in this particular problem this
is related to the FAR (Fatality Accidental Rate) and a process has reported FAR of 2. So you
need if an employee works standard 8 hour shift for 290 days per year, so you need to
compute the death expected per person per year. So we are having the standard formula for
this FAR.
Now, this
8
FAR = ( No. of fatalities × 10 ) / ( Total hours worked by all employees covered )
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So here you are having a shift of 8 hours per day, so,
Deaths per person per year = (8 hours per day) X (290 days/year) X (2 deaths/108 hours)
= 4.64 X 10-5
So the FAR is so the death per person this is the death sorry this is the deaths per person per
year, so this is the death per person per year is coming out to be 4.64 X 10-5
So, you can anticipate 4.64 X 10-5 death per person per year based on the statistical
information given to you in this particular problem.
Now, let us have another problem, this problem says that if twice as many people used
motorcycles for the same average amount of time each, what will happen to the OSHA
incidence rate, number 2 the FAR, number 3 the fatality rate, number 4 is the total number of
fatalities? So in this particular problem the OSHA incidence rate will remain same because
the number of injuries and death will double but the total number of hours exposed will
double as well.
Now, the second problem says that you need to calculate the FAR, now here the FAR remain
unchanged for the same reason which we have discussed in part number A that is related to
the OIR. Now the third problem says that what would be the fatality rate? Now the fatality
rate or death per person per year will double, the fatality rate does not depend on the number
of hours exposed. And the last part covers that the total number of fatalities, so based on the
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information because twice many people use the motorcycle the total number of fatalities will
be doubled in this particular case.
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Now, let us have problem number 3. This problem says that if all riders used their motorcycle
twice as much what will happen to the OIR? Now let us come to the problem number 3, now
here the problem is a bit similar to previous one. Here the slide change that if all riders they
use their motorcycle twice as much what will happen to the OIR and FAR the fatality rate
and the total number of fatalities. So the OSHA incidence rate will remain the same and the
number of injuries and death that will be doubled, but the total number of hours exposed will
double as well.
As far as FAR is concerned the FAR will remain unchanged for the same reason which we
have discussed for the OSHA incidence rate, regarding the fatality rate, the fatality rate will
double because the riders they are using motorcycle twice. So the twice as many as fatalities
will occur within this particular group.
The last part of the problem says that what would be the total number of fatalities? So in that
particular case because they are the riders they are using the motorcycle twice as much so the
number of fatalities would be double in this particular case.
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Now, let us have another problem that is problem number 4. Here a friend states that more
rock climbers are killed travelling by automobile than are killed by rock climbing, is this
statement supported by the accident statistics? So for this particular aspect we require couple
of data and these data are always available in the reference book. So FAR for rock climbing it
is given that 3000 and FAR for automobile it is given that the 47. So as per the data, it shows
that the travelling by automobile which is having the FAR of 47 is safer than the rock
climbing.
So, rock climbing produces many more fatalities per exposed hour than the travelling by
automobile. However, the rock (climbing) rock climbers probably spend more time travelling
by automobile than the rock climbing. So as a result the statement is very ambiguous that a
statement might be correct but we may require some more data because it does not reflect any
kind of uses of either rock climbing or the travelling by the automobile, so sometimes you
may say that some more data or some more statistical information is required to solve this
particular problem.
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There are you may in this particular problem you may list to six different products produced
by any chemical engineer that are significant benefit of the mankind, it is a very interesting
question. So there are may be like you can say the penicillin, gasoline, synthetic rubber,
paper, plastic, sometimes concrete and you can say the all kind of food items, etc.
Our other problem says it is a bit long problem you can say that the following accident report
has been filed, that “the failure of threaded 1.5 inch drain connection on a rich oil line at the
base of an absorber tower in a large that is having the 1.35 MCF per day the gas producing
plant allowed the release of rich oil and the gas at 850 psi and -40 degree Fahrenheit. So the
resulting vapour cloud probably ignited from the ignition system of an engine driven re-
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compressor and a 75 feet high and 10 feet diameter absorber tower eventually collapsed
across the pipe rack and on two exchanger trains.
So, the breaking pipeline added more fuel to the fire and severe flame impingement on the on
an 11,000 horsepower gas turbine driven compression, waste heat recovery, and the super-
heater train resulted in its total destruction. Now here you need to identify the initiation,
propagation and termination step for this particular accident. Remember whenever we
discussed about the initiation, propagation, and termination it all depends about the
perception to persuasion of a human being, sometimes engineering perspective maybe
different than a common people perspective.
So, let us talk about the engineering perspective, so initiation maybe referred as a failure of
threaded drain connection, propagation because once initiation start let us discuss about the
propagation so the release of rich oil and the gas and the formation of a vapour cloud, ignition
of that vapour cloud by the re-compressor and the collapse of absorber tower across pipe
rack, so this is the propagation.
And of course the termination is the consumption of all kind of combustible material present
within the plant periphery. So by this particular problem you can have a look about different
aspect of initiation and propagation.
Now, let us have a look about the problem number 7. Here a rock climbing club has 900
members working in a chemical industry, on average each member spend 4 hours per day in
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driving and 2.5 hours per month in climbing. So in 8 years how many members will die due
to this rock climbing aspect, road accident and occupational statistics?
So for this particular aspect you may require certain data related to the fatality accidental rate
which we will utilize while solving this particular problem.
So here, let us take the first example of rock climbing. So,
Number of fatalities = (FAR/108) total hrs climbing by all member in 8 years.
So this fatality is comes out to be,
Number of fatalities = (4000/108) X (900X2.5X12X8)
So it is comes out to be 8.64 fatalities, so this is attributed to the rock climbing.
Now, let us have a look about the road accident. So number of fatalities is again we are
having the same formula, so here we are having:
Number of fatalities = ( 57/ 108 ) X (900X4X365X8)
= 5.99 deaths.
So here you may expect 5.99 deaths in respect to the fatality.
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Now, in the next aspect we are having the occupational accident. So again we will utilize the
same formula which we have discussed in the previous slide. So,
Number of fatalities = ( 1.2/ 108 ) X (900X2000X8)
= 0.173 deaths.
So these are the answers for this problem number 7.
Now, let us have a look about the next problem. Here if an employee breaks their leg on a
Monday and loses the rest of that day plus 3 additional day of work and has given restricted
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or we can say the limited work task and then loses another 2 days when their (its his) cast is
removed, so here you have to calculate that how many days will be counted on lost day? So
here if an employee breaks their leg on Monday and loses the rest of day the three additional
day of work that is the employee comes back on the Friday and then loses another 2 days
when his cast was removed, so as the day of injury or illness occurred is not counted as a lost
work day because he was present on that very day, the total number of lost day would be 5.
So, you may take a note that for a incident that have lost time occurring over longer period of
time weekend are counted as a working day and the number of lost day is kept at 180 days.
So this is the aspect of this particular problem.
Now, let us have a look about the next problem that a company has 17 full-time employees
and 3 part-time employees that each worker 20 hours per week. So this equates that 28,400
labor hours each year. Now if company experienced 2 recordable injuries, then you need to
calculate the OIR or OSHA incidence rate for this particular aspect.
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So here, let us have a look about that what OIR says,
OIR = (No. of injuries & illness × 200,000) / (Total hours worked by all employees
during period covered)
OIR = (2 × 200,000) / 28400
= 14.08
so this is the answer. So for every 100 employee 14.08 employees have been involved in a
recordable injury or illness. So this is the problem related to the OIR.
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Now, let us have a look about the next problem that is problem number 10 that is using the
previous example which we have discussed that is problem number 9. Assume that one of the
two recordable cases had lost work days associated with the incident. So now you again need
to evaluate the OIR based on this particular statement.
So, again refer back to the original one which we had discussed in the previous problem
OIR = (1 × 200,000) / 28400
= 7.04
So for every 100 employee 7.04 employees have suffered lost time because of the work
related injury or illness.
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Let us see the other problem that is problem number 11. So a plant employs a plant employs a
1500 full time workers in a process with a having the FAR of 5. So how many industrial
related deaths are expected each year?
It is quite simple problem because we are having the FAR of this general formula:
FAR = ( No. of fatalities × 108) / ( Total hours worked by all employees covered )
So it is given that FAR is given 5,
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5 = ( No. of fatalities × 108) / ( 1500 X 2000)
No. of Fatalities = 0.15 deaths
So that is in other words you can say that one death is expected in every 6.6 years that is the
answer. So here we have calculated this one.
Now, let us take the problem number 12. Here an airline industry claims that commercial
airline transport has fewer deaths per mile than any other means of transportation. Now do
the accident statistics support this claim? First thing. In 1984 the airline industry posted 4
deaths per 10 million passenger miles. So what additional information is required to compute
FAR? A fatality rate, etc.
So, here you are having the FAR for Car riding 57, FAR for Bicycle riding 96 and FAR for
Airline it is given 240.
Now here, let us solve this particular problem that due to the high speed of aircraft more
miles are accumulated, so on a peak hour basis they are travelling by plane is approximately
4 times more dangerous than by travel.
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So, FAR: this need total hours exposed. So let us assume that average air craft speed is 250
miles per hour,
Total hours exposed = (10X106 miles)/ (250miles/hour) = 40,000 h
FAR = (4 deaths X 108) / (40000 hours) = 10,000
This FAR is greater than 240. So you can see that the problem is bit severe.
Now, let us see that the fatality rate so assume that a person travelled 350 miles, so,
Total passengers = 10X106 miles X 1 person/ 350 miles
= 28,570 persons
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So, the fatality rate,
Fatality Rate = 4/28,570
= 1.4 X 10-4 (high value)
This is relatively very high value. So this is I mean you can say that we have calculated this
fatality rate and it is more than expected one.
Now, let us take another problem, here you need to look at there is a picture below and you
may need to identify as many as hazardous situations. So here they are 2, 3 figures are given
to you. So let us find out that hazardous situation. Now this is a fire water valve and cannot
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be operated because of the branch growing all around which you can see in the photograph
and this restricted the operational ability of this particular valve.
And valve is locked in a position with the branches of the tree, so the general housekeeping
of the trees has deteriorated and trees are left to grow to the extent that they prevent the
access to the critical piece of equipment, so this is extremely hazardous scenario for this one.
So once if it is required to use this particular valve then probably it may not be in a position
to operate.
Let us have a look about another problem, again you need to look at the figure below or
picture below and identify the hazardous situation. So here the flexible hoses are used to
connect the piping which do not fit together properly remember. So also the flanges on the
right they appears to be missing at least one bolt we can see and the phases of the flanges do
not align properly, so the hose behind it would appear to be home made by attaching a
flexible hose to a pipe using a cable tie.
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So, this is again a very dangerous situation and sometimes this kind of makeshift or rough
arrangement will not solve its purpose. So in this particular module we had discussed various
problems, some psychological problems, some numerical problems related to the lost
statistics and again you can have a look of the first reference where you may find several
other unsolved problems and you may try those problems for your further reading. Apart
from this we have listed couple of more references to help you out to solve this type of
problems, thank you very much.
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Lecture 6
Toxicology
Introduction, Routes and Exposure
Welcome to the toxicological studies module and toxicology is one of the most dangerous
thing in the process industries apart from fire and explosion. Now it is not only possess the
immediate danger but sometimes its affects you may observe in due course of time or even in
the later part of your life. So in this particular module we will deal with what is toxicity, what
is toxin and how we can go ahead with the toxicological studies? What are the different
routes through which any toxicant can enter your biological system? What are the exposure
symptoms, et cetera.
Now, this as per the United Nation organization report published in year 2016-17 almost 8.3
percent of all deaths are attributed to the environmental exposure. These exposures are
attributed to the selected chemicals each year and remember do not forget the Bhopal Gas
Tragedy, it is because of one of the most toxic substance Methyl isocyanate. Now major
contributors to this toxicological aspect are indoor smoke from solid fuel used, outdoor air
pollution and second-hand smoke, followed by the occupational particulates, chemicals
involved the acute poisoning and pesticides involved in self-poisoning.
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Now remember, whenever we talk about the pesticides they are intermediate during the
production and even raw material causes a severe problem.
Now, question arises what is toxicology? This involves all aspect of adverse effect with the
chemicals on the living system. Those effects which are damaging to either the survival or
normal function of individual, so this is toxicology. So whenever we study the toxicology
then question arises what is toxicity?
So, the term toxicity is used to describe the nature of adverse effect produced and the
conditions necessary for their production. So remember we will consider the process as well
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as end use. Now before toxicity can develop a substance must come into contact with a body
surface such as skin, eye, mucosa or any other alimentary or respiratory tract. So in this
particular chapter we are going to deal with all these aspects.
Now, before we go ahead, let us understand that what is toxic, toxicant and toxin. Now toxic
substance they are available in two forms, one is the nature oriented and second is the man
made toxicants. So toxic, this term relates the poisonous or deadly effect on the body. Now
toxicant, this term toxicant refers to the toxic substance that are produced by or are by a by-
product of human made activities. Now the term toxin refers to the toxic substance that are
produced naturally. So you can clear cut remark it the three different aspect of toxicity.
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Now, if we consider the history of toxicity or toxicological studies; in between 50 to 400 AD

roman used to poison for execution and assassination of their enemies. The philosopher,
Socrates, was executed using the hemlock for teaching radical ideas to youths. Avicenna
between 980 to 1036 AD Islamic authority on poison and antidotes. 1200 AD is Spanish
rabbi Maimonides writes first-aid book for poison and poison and their antidotes because
whenever we talk about the poison, whenever we talk about the toxicity, whenever we talk
about the toxin then definitely must think about their remedial measures.
Now, Swiss physician Paracelsus in 1493 to 1541 credited with the being “the father of
modern toxicology” because it is a science rather than the poison, it is a science. So all
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substances are poison it is his verdict, there is none which is not poison. The right dose
differentiate a poison from a remedy. Even water may become fatal if you take the access
dose of water definitely it may become fatal and sometimes it may create a further problem.
So that is why all substances are poison and you have to find out that what is the actual dose
which is required for the body system and if you take the access dose then definitely it may
create a problem to your body structure as well as environment.
I would like to quote an individual view by S G Gilbert; the sensitivity of the individual
differentiates a poison from a remedy. The fundamental principle of toxicology is the
individual’s response to a dose. Now remember whenever we talk about the individual's
response that discovers the age, atmospheric condition, sex, et cetera because sometimes if
you are young then you may overcome any kind of toxic exposure, but if you are a kid or if
you are little bit older then definitely you may be over exposed to those kind of dose and if
you go to the doctor then definitely based on these parameters they decide the actual dose of
any medicine.
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Now, there is hairline difference between the toxicity, and hazard. The toxicity; the ability of
a substance to have an adverse effect on the health or well-being of human. The toxicity of a
chemical depends on the degree of exposure and absorption. However, the hazard is the
probability, hazard/ Risk is the probability that a concentration will occur at the site in the
body. So you need to find out that whenever you got an exposure with the toxic substance,
what is the route and at which point of time and at what point of time it is going to affect your
body? And what is the target organ which is being affected? So in this particular chapter, in
this particular module we will discuss all these things.
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The two chemicals can possess the same degree of toxicity, but present in different degrees of
hazard. It also attributes several other parameters like your age, weight, physical conditions,
etc. The best example is odorless and non-irritating versus pungent odor. Remember nature
gave you a beautiful things to determine that which one is correct and which one is not
correct? So chemical with the warning properties may present the lesser degree of hazard.
Now, when we go ahead with the systematic study of toxicology, we must know that how
these toxicants can enter into the biological system means your human body or animal body
et cetera or to the environment? Then second question must be asked that how these toxicants
cam affect the organism? Means whenever you are under the contamination of those
toxicants then how these can affect your body system?
Now, once these two questions are answered then you must answer the things that how
toxicants can be eliminate from your body system or they can leave from your body system?
Now all substances, remember again; all substances are toxic if taken in a wrong quantities.
So you must know that what is the dose and what is the actual response for that particular
dose?
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So based on these particular aspects the right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy. It is
just like that whenever we got the vaccination then a limited quantity or required quantity of
that particular virus being injected into our body system. So the harmless substance such as
water even becomes the fatal if delivered to the biological organ in a large kind of doses
which is not required to your body system.
So the fundamental principle of toxicologies is; there are no harmless substance, only the
harmless ways of using the substance.
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Now, based on all these discussion the people have predicted the most advance definition for
the toxicology. Now toxicology is more adequately defined as the quantitative and
quantitative study of adverse effect of toxicant on biological system. So a toxicant can be a
chemical or a physical agent, including dust, fiber, noise, radiation, etc. A good example of
physical agent is the asbestos fiber a known cause of lung damage and cancer.
So government is now thinking to ban all kind of asbestos fiber, previously it is used as
asbestos sheet for roofing or panelling. Now toxic hazard is the likelihood or damage to the
biological system based on exposure due to the transport and other physical factor of usage.
The toxic hazard of a substance can be reduced by the application of appropriate industrial
hygiene technique.
So, you must create a barrier between yourself and exposure of toxic substance, but the
toxicity of particular substance cannot be changed under any circumstances. So you cannot
change the toxicity of methyl isocyanate, you cannot change the toxicity of arsenic. The only
thing is that you must know that what is the barrier and what is the threshold limit for the
intake for MIC to intake the body system.
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Now, there are basically 4 routes of exposure for any toxicant entry into a biological system.
One is inhalation, ingestion, skin contact, and injection. Now these are the 4 prominent routes
through which anything can enter into your body system.
Now, before we go into the detail that how injection, how inhalation creates a problem we
must know several other factors like acute that is the effect of exposure, the acute a one-time
event that is the rapid absorption of a material and sometimes it may cross the threshold limit
values, the exposure sudden and severe, the critical period for death or survival. Similarly the
chronic that is a small doses versus over a long time sometimes if you are working in a
workplace and where the small quantity of toxic substance being released then you may get a
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very small doses, those doses of toxicant may accumulated within your body system and the
effect may appear after a long time, so sometimes suppose you are working for a year or two
and you are continuously bring exposed to that particular toxic and that may create a chronic
problem.
So it all depends on the rate of intake, the rate of elimination it is both things are all together
substitute to each other, the material remain in the tissue, injures like if the material remain in
the tissue that may get deposited into the fatty tissues and when you become progressive and
you are become older then all those fatty tissues may decomposed and the effect of that
particular component or toxic substance may be prominent.
Now, there are various type of toxic effects like mortality, pathological changes, sometimes
the growth rate changes, physiological injury, the biochemical change, behavioural effect,
sometimes reproductive system may get damage and there are mutagenic changes. So you
must know that what kind of effect is going to take place within your body system by the
exposure of any toxic substance.
Now, sometimes these toxicity or toxic effects are govern by the target organ. So you must
know because sometimes if you inhale something first it goes to your upper or lower
respiratory tract and then it may go into your lungs and if you sometimes if you take or if you
things or any toxic substance through a dermal absorption then the target organ maybe little
bit different. So you must know that which of the organ is going to be affected by any toxic
substance which you are going to take.
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Now, these are the things which are important in this particular thing irritant sometimes
suppose if you are exposed to the chlorine environment then first prima facie you may
experience the irritation, then anesthetic, the hepatotoxic, nephrotoxic, neurotoxic and
sometimes pulmonary so you must identify the target organ.
Now, target organ that is a systematic toxin is one that affects the entire body or many organs
rather than a specific site. Like potassium cyanide, toxic to every cell and organ in the body
by interfering with the cells ability to utilize oxygen. The same happened in the Bhopal Gas
Tragedy. The toxin may affect also affect only to specific tissues or organs they are called the
target organ or the target tissues like; Benzene toxic to blood forming tissues, Lead toxic to
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CNS, kidney, hematopoietic systems. So you must know that which kind of toxin and which
kind of toxic substance is there.
The adverse effects occur at the level of molecular cell. The molecularly, chemical can
interact with the proteins, lipid, DNA. Cellularly, chemicals they can be effected by interfere
with the receptor ligand bindings, interfere with the membrane function, interfere with the
cellular energy production, bind to the biomolecules. Remember all four factors they play a
very vital role when you study the toxicological effect for the later part of life.
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Now, there are various factors influencing the intensity of toxic action. Usually they depend
on route of entry if it is being inhaled by your nose then definitely at what part is going to
effect, then the rate of exposure sometimes acute, sometimes chronic, sometimes the
concentration of toxic is on the higher side then you may get exposed more spontaneously,
then age of your body system. Suppose if I am young my physic is good then there is a
prominent production of different fatty tissues within my body system then I may be in a
position to retaliate all those toxic exposure so it all depend on age of host and suppose a
person is old then definitely because of lesser number of excretion routes he or she may be
get exposed on a dangerous level.
Then prior exposure sometimes you are acclimatized to the system of toxic environment then
definitely all those exposure may play a vital role for the multiple exposures, then
environment suppose I am working in a humid environment and most of the toxicants they
are hygroscopic in nature so they may get deposited in your body system or they may enter
into your body system through the skin or inhalation or sometimes ingestion.
Again the host factor that is your human body that is gender male or female, genetics what is
your pedigree, et cetera and there are several other factors which we are going to discuss in
due course of time.
Now, first question arises that how toxicant can enter into biological system? First is
inhalation through mouth, nose to lung and then into the blood stream. Ingestion via mouth to
stomach, suppose by mistake you have taken the benzene, benzene is available in both liquid
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and vapour phase. So by any chance you take the liquid benzene and you take through your
mouth then it may become the part and parcel of your blood stream.
Injection with the help of some certain cuts, puncture in skin and sometimes people may
deliberately inject certain poisonous substances into your body system and sometimes by
mistake any poisonous system may enter through your medicine or any other injection route,
so sometimes cuts and your blood vessels are exposed to the atmosphere and if you are
working in a toxic vapour environment and those toxic vapour may get in contact with the
blood stream so it may become the part and parcel of your body system.
Dermal absorption through skin into the blood, sometimes there are certain components
because the dermal skin, skin plays a very vital role in absorption and because of their pores,
because of the hair follicles, et cetera. So through dermal absorption into the blood stream
they involve the membrane transport and this is the greatest threat to the industry. So out of
four routes the inhalation and dermal absorption routes are the most significant to the
industrial facilities because whenever you encounter to any kind of cuts, puncture in the skin
definitely your first attention is towards to take the first-aid so your attempt is to minimize the
exposure of those cuts to the atmosphere.
So dermal; because you skin sometimes your skin is exposed to the environment and
inhalation because you cannot avoid this thing because you have to breathe. So that is why
the out of four routes the inhalation and dermal routes are most significant route of the entry.
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Now, for higher-order organism, the path of chemical agent through the body is well defined
because either if you take through dermal absorption or you take the inhalation because it will
go through upper respiratory tract then the lower respiratory tract and then it will become the
lungs it will become the part and parcel of the lungs and in the lungs with the Bronchi and
alveoli it may become the part and parcel of your blood stream and through blood circulation
it can go upto anywhere.
So after the toxicant enter into the organism it moves into the blood stream and eventually
eliminated or it is transported to the target organ. The beautiful thing given by the nature is
that whenever your body is contaminated to any foreign body the foreign chemical then first
of all body tries to retaliate all those things by the various symptoms, so you need to identify
those symptoms first and simultaneously body reacts in an adverse manner to overcome the
effect of those particular toxicant, so you must utilize that capability.
Now, if it is not then you have to take certain external things to overcome the effect of those
toxicant. So the damage is exerted at the target organ if you fail any kind of or by any chance
you are unable to remove all the toxic effect into the body system then the damage is exerted
with the target organ.
Inhalation is the easiest to quantify by the direct measurement of airborne concentration, the
usual exposure is by vapor, but small solid and liquid particles can also contribute, sometimes
missed, sometimes small solid particles they are supported by (())(21:00) et cetera they may
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create a problem. Injection, inhalation and dermal absorption generally result in the toxicant
entry into the blood stream they are usually unaltered.
Now, in this particular table we can summarize that there are four different entry route,
ingestion the entry organ is mouth or stomach you can control this entry by the enforcement
of rules on eating, drinking and smoking. Inhalation that is again from the mouth or nose, you
may adopt the method of control in terms of ventilation, respirator, hoods and other personal
protection equipment so that the concentration of those toxicant may below the lower level.
Injection usually happens in the cuts in skin or through deliberation, you must have a proper
protective clothing. Dermal absorption again it may happen or entry through the skin, you
must have a proper protective clothing. So these four things are the rule of thumb and
whenever you study the toxicological study you must know these four rule of thumb.
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Now, entry routes for toxicant and method for control deals with the toxicant that enter by the
injection and dermal absorption are different to measure and quantify. Some toxicants are
absorbed very rapidly through skin based on their molecular structure, based on their
concentration to the atmosphere. The expected blood level concentration as a function of time
and route of entry the blood level concentration is a function of a wide range of parameter, so
large variation in this behaviour are expected.
Again there are because there are n number of parameters those who govern this particular
aspect. So as an engineer we must identify that what are those parameters and if you are
unable to find out those all those parameters you must enlist four, five different major
parameters.
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The first prominent route of toxicant entry into the biological system is gastrointestinal tract,
the gastrointestinal tract apart from skin and other respiratory system plays a significant role
in the various route of entry. The GI tract as depicted in this particular figure plays a most
significant role in toxicant entry entering the body through ingestion. Food, drink is the usual
mechanism of exposure. Airborne particles either solid or in a liquid form can also lodge into
the mucous and the upper respiratory tract and be swallowed.
The rate and selectivity of absorption to the GI tract are highly dependent on many conditions
that what kind of chemical and its molecular weight because the heavier the molecular weight
the entry maybe a little bit different compared to the lighter molecular weight component,
what is the molecular size and shape? Like benzene is having the cyclic molecule then it may
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create other problems rather than the linear molecules, what is the acidity and basicity of the
component? What are the chances to attack by the intestinal flora because I told you that your
body system is designed in such a way that it retaliates to the foreign body and suppose you
encounter with the toxic substance so initially your intestinal flora attack to that particular
toxic substance.
The rate of movement of that particular component to the GI tract that is again based on this
parameter and molecular size and shape.
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Now, next aspects when this toxic substance enters through your GI tract the next concept is
how it distributed to your body system? So blood carries this is usually they are carried by the
blood stream, so blood carries the agent to and from its site of action, storage depots storage
depots sometimes the fatty tissues, bone marrows, et cetera organs of transformation and
organs of elimination.
Now, rate of distribution depends upon the blood flow characteristics of toxicant affinity for
the tissues and partition coefficients and distribution may change over the time. Again there
are several factor govern this particular aspect that is what is the molecular size, molecular
weight, age of the host, etc.
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The next route of entry is your skin. Skin plays important role in both the dermal absorption
and injection route of entry. Now injection includes both entry of absorption through cut and
the mechanical injection with the hypodermic needles. So usually sometimes either in the
medicinal way or sometimes deliberately this type of effect plays a vital role.
Now, this is the schematic representation of human skin. Now stratum corneum is at the top
of the five layer making the epidermis usually composed of keratinised dead cells glued by
the lipids. Now these are the keratinised cells glued by the lipids that lipids are fatty tissues.
So whenever you are growing up or you are young those fatty tissues may get deposited over
the period of time. And if after the aging these fatty tissues may get decomposed so it is quite
evident that when you become older and older the wrinkles they form because of the
decomposition of those fatty tissues.
So it is shed off and this stratum corneum it is shed off and replaced every two weeks, so
depending on the part of the body its thickness varies from 0.05 mm to 1.5 mm, so most
thickest part is your palm.
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The respiratory system, the respiratory system plays a significant role in toxicant entry into
the body through inhalation, you can avoid, you can cover up your all skin but you cannot
avoid the inhalation because you cannot avoid breathing. The main function of respiratory
system is to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and inhaled air. So these
are the main sects or alveoli or bronchi through which the carbon dioxide and oxygen they
are exchanged from the blood stream.
So by any means if they get blocked then the available surface area for this carbon dioxide
and oxygen exchange is diminished and you may experience a breathing problem. And
sometimes there are so many chemicals those who destroy the active sides available at this
port and sometimes certain solid particles those who are having the low size or in the micron
size they may get deposited in these (())(28:28) by blocking the active surface area.
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The respiratory system is divided into two areas, the upper and the lower respiratory system.
The upper respiratory system is composed of nose, sinuses, mouth, pharynx, larynx that is the
voice box and the trachea or windpipe. So you can see I do not know how much visible is this
figure, but you can see all these things in this particular figure.
The lower respiratory system is composed of the lungs and the small structures like bronchi
and alveoli which I showed in the previous figures. The bronchi tubes usually carry the fresh
air from the trachea through a series of branching tubes to the alveoli. These alveoli are small
blind air sacs where the gas exchange with the blood stream. The upper and lower respiratory
tracts respond differently to the presence of toxicants. Now remember this is a key factor
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when we are discussing because we cannot overlook the importance of inhalation so you
must know that which chemical affects which respiratory tracts! (Refer Slide Time: 29:46)
The upper respiratory tract is effected mostly by the toxicants which are water soluble,
remember your body is having sufficient quantity of water. These materials either react or
dissolve in the mucous to form acid and bases.
The toxicant in the lower respiratory tract affect the alveoli by physically blocking the
transfer of gases as with the insoluble dust or reacting with the wall of the alveoli to produce
the corrosive or toxic substances. Remember phosgene, for example they reacts with the
water on the alveolis wall to produce HCL and carbon monoxide and both the things are
dangerous.
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Like suppose, in case if you are in presence of phosgene gas and by any means you inhale
this phosgene gas, so it may react with the water present in your body system or in your lungs
or in your lower respiratory tract to produce the HCL and carbon monoxide, carbon
monoxide is very reactive to your blood stream and HCL is having the corrosive property. So
it may destroy the inner wall of either alveoli or bronchi, so the blood vessel may get
exposed, so they can be more reactive to a carbon monoxide.
And moreover, the available sites or the available surface area for oxygen carbon dioxide
exchange diminishes, so be particular, so this is the effect of one of the effect of any toxic
gas.
Now, as far as the toxic effects are concerned, it depends, another parameter is that duration
of exposure, usually in engineering term we talk about three terms which are used to describe
the duration of any dose or exposure Acute, Chronic, Subchronics. In the subsequent parts we
will, we will study all these things under these three heads.
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Now, Acute Exposure, application of a single or a short term generally less than a day dosing
by a particular chemical or sometimes spontaneous exposure. Now, if toxic symptoms are
expressed, they are referred as symptoms of “acute toxicity”.
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Now, Chronic Exposure, the expression of toxic symptoms only after repeated exposure to a
chemical in doses regularly applied to the organ for a time greater than half of its life
expectancy. So, sometimes if you are working in say ammonia environment, so gradually you
may get exposed to those environment and sometimes because of our nature of body we may
get acclimatized and we cannot experience the adverse effect of ammonia and sometimes our
body is acclimatized to give the prima facie symptom like suppose first hand if you expose to
the chlorine environment, you may experience the irritation, you may experience the skin
dryness, et cetera.
But if you are continuously working in that particular environment, your body may get tuned
in such an environment so you may not experience, only thing you experience is if there is
any change in the chlorine concentration, then you may experience that something going
wrong. So this may be a chance of a chronic exposure.
Now, if toxic symptoms are expressed, they are referred to as the symptoms of “chronic
toxicity”.
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Now, usually in this particular table discuss that over time, the amount of chemical in the
body can build up, it can redistribute, or it can overwhelm repair and removal mechanisms.
Because based on the duration, they may become the part and parcel of your blood stream
and they may get deposited in the various your body parts of your human body.
Now, there are 4, 5 different fore effects. Acute, usually the time domain is less than 24 hours
and sometimes it is attributed to 1 exposure.
The Subacute, the new term usually the time of exposure is 1 month and sometimes you may
get the repeated doses. Repeated doses; sometimes every dose is not having the same
concentration, sometimes it is on the higher side, sometimes it is on the lower side.
Subchronic, usually 1 to 3 months, repeated doses.
And the chronic one, it is greater than 3 months. So, suppose you are working in an industry
and the work place is and your small dose, small amount of toxic release it may club under
the head of chronic and you may experience the repeated doses, maybe the stagnant doses,
maybe the fluctuating doses, so this is the exposure pattern.
So in this particular module, we have discussed about the different aspects of toxicity, the
different definitions of toxic substance, toxic, toxicity, toxin, etc. Then different routes of
entry through which any toxicant can become the part and parcel of your body system and
what are the different qualitative analysis through which we can analyse the exposure of toxic
substance. Thank you.
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Lecture 07
Toxicology
Elimination, Responses, Treatment
Welcome to this toxicological elimination module. In this particular module, we will study
about the various elimination techniques in theoretical, that how once toxicant enters into the
body system, then how we can eliminate it in a theoretical way, what are the various
responses for those toxicants and where they may give their symptoms, where may they get
deposited over the period of time and what are the prima facie or primary treatment to handle
such type of scenario when anybody get exposed with the toxic substance.
So, first thing is that if a toxic substance enters into the biological organism, then how we can
eliminate it. So usually there are three basic ways through which they can be eliminated from
biological system. One is the excretion through kidney, liver, lungs or other ways of means,
this usually the first three things like kidney, liver and lungs it is being provided by the
nature, so once you are exposed to that toxic environment or somehow by the inhalation or
dermal absorption, you are encountered with this toxic substance then the kidney, liver and
lungs they try to repel the effect of that particular toxicant into the body system.
Another route is the detoxification, by changing the chemical whatever chemical enter into
the body system into something which is less harmful through the biotransformation.
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Remember by actuation of your human body, by contamination your human body is tuned to
repel the effect of that particular toxicant and in this particular process they release certain
hormones, certain enzymes to detoxify that foreign chemicals.
The last option is the storage and usually the toxicant or toxic substance they may get
deposited into the fatty tissues, either in the decomposed form or as such.
Now, among all available elimination tools, the kidneys are the dominant means of excretion
in the human body and you may see that if anybody is having the kidney problem sometimes
they may go to the dialysis, et cetera to remove the toxic substance from the body system or
through the blood stream. The toxicants are extracted by the kidney from the blood stream
and they are excreted with the urine.
Now, toxicants that are ingested into the digestive tract are frequently excreted by the liver.
So, once they become the part and parcel of blood stream, then with the help of liver then
body system can detoxify, body system can remove their toxicant. Lungs are also means of
elimination of substance particularly those which are volatile in nature.
Now, this is again the thing when you expose or you are working in a environment and
sometimes toxic substance may get release, first thing is that when if you inhale or sometimes
through the mouth if it goes into the body system, your lungs, et cetera that nature gave you
another thing that you try to resist the things by sneezing, by coughing, et cetera.
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So chloroform and alcohol for example they excreted partially by this route of lung. Other
route of excretion are skin via sweating, hair, nails, et cetera. And sometimes you may
experience that the color change in nail give a prominent information that something is going
wrong within your body system, maybe the contamination of a toxic substance, maybe your
body is not working properly.
So you need to identify those symptoms and there are so many evidences in the history like
one of the most prominent story is that toxification of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was given a
regulated quantity of arsenic and the first hand after his death his hairs was analysed by
physician and they found that he was toxified by arsenic.
Now these routes are usually minor compared to the excretion processes of kidney, liver and
lungs, but importance of these routes cannot be overlooked.
Now detoxification; liver is the dominant organ in the detoxification process. The
detoxification usually occurs by the biotransformation where the chemical agents are
transformed by reaction into either harmless or less harmful substances and biotransformation
reaction can also occur in the blood, intestinal tract wall, skin, kidney and other organs.
Now remember, sometimes this biotransformation is useful to detoxify your body and
sometimes it is highly undesirable. The reason is that whenever you come into the contact of
any kind of toxic substance which after decomposition may produce a lesser harmful toxic
substance and it may get deposited into the fatty tissues and the later part of your life it may
create a problem. So be careful while adopting this detoxification route.
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Now storage, this particular process involves the deposition of chemical agent mostly in the
fatty areas of the organism, but also in the bones, liver, blood, kidney, et cetera. Now, when
you are young then definitely you can overcome such type of scenario, but the later part of
life when these chemicals or your body is not supported by the fatty tissue formation then
definitely this may create a problem.
So that is why the storage can create a future problem, if organism food supplied is reduced
and the fatty deposits are metabolized over the period of time. The chemical agents stored
will be released into the blood stream and resulting the possible damage. So you may
experience by seeing all parts of society that some people those who are working in the
chemical factory the later part of their life they may encounter several other disease which are
uncommon in nature.
So this type of thing is again creates a problem and sometimes that these decomposed product
which are deposited into the fatty tissues may create a gene problem, mutagenic problem, et
cetera. Now, once we study the different (())(8:13) responses of the toxicant to the biological
system, we must see the thing into two aspects, those responses which are irreversible in
nature or those responses which are reversible in nature. So sometimes these toxicants may
create a genomic problem which are highly irreversible.
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So we have enlisted different type of responses of the toxicant like Carcinogen they causes
the cancer. Mutagens they causes the chromosome damage and sometimes like methyl
isocyanate they created a problem still say after 30, 40 years still the people are suffering for
those kind of ailments. Reproductive hazards cause damage to the reproductive system. The
teratogen they cause the birth defect.
Now sometimes you may experience certain responses those who are reversible or may not
reversible like dermatotoxic affects the skin, sometimes you may experience that your skin
may get contaminated with the toxic substance maybe either in the vapour form or in the
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liquid form and there are permanent damage to the skin or sometimes the skin is decolorized,
et cetera.
Hemotoxic they usually affects the blood, hepatotoxic that affects the liver and sometimes
there are certain deposition may take place into the liver and those effects are quite visible in
the liver function. Nephrotoxic usually affects the kidney so the detoxification step is
hampered. Neurotoxic affects the nervous system. Recall the world war when the Germans
they use the nerve gas or mustard gas, they particularly affected the nervous system.
Pulmonotoxic affects lungs because it attributed to the dangers. The asbestos sheets or a lead
particles, they may destroy the available surface area for oxygen and carbon dioxide
exchange with the blood.
So the problem is to determine whether exposures have occurred before substantial symptoms
are present, so you need to assist that particular problem before going ahead with the
toxicological studies.
The major objective of toxicological study is to quantify the effects of suspect toxicants on
the target organs. So, how we can identify those things, we will study. The most toxicological
studies the animals are used, but within the regulations or regulatory body supervision,
usually with the hope that you can extrapolate those result with the human being and
sometimes it proves to be beneficial and sometimes it not!
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So once the effects of suspect agent have been quantified, the appropriate procedures are
established to ensure that agent is handled properly. And then you may go ahead that what
are the symptoms, how you can detoxify it and how it can be stored and how your body
system is being protected from the contamination.
Now before we go ahead with the toxicological study because once you start your step, you
must know that who is your enemy! So before you undertake any kind of toxicological study
you must identify the following five factors. The toxicant, what is the toxicant? What its
MSDS says Material Safety Data Sheet says? What are the different limits?
Then what is the target or test organ? Where it is going to affect first? Where it is going to
deposited first? Which organ is responsible for the detoxification? So you must identify those
target or test organs.
The effect or responses to be monitored. Now remember there are two type of responses, one
is based on the primary symptoms. Suppose you are working in chlorine environment, so first
symptom you may experience the dryness of the skin and irritation to your eyes. So this
responses must be monitored and this is a clear cut indication that something is wrong within
the system.
Then if it enters into the biological system, which system is going to be effected? And how it
can be affected? Sometimes you may experience the stomach ache, sometimes you may
experience some problem related to the kidney.
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The fourth aspect is the dose range. See, it all depends on various factors including your age
suppose if I am young or you are young then definitely you may require a certain higher
quantity of those doses compared to their kid having a age of say 5 to 10 years or having the
elder person who is having the age of 60 plus. What is my physique? What is my sex? So it
all depends on the dose range, because dose range is a primarily factor through which you
can monitor your responses. It is just like you take a 1 peg of wine, then definitely your dose,
your responses would be different compared to if you take 3, 4 different peg of wines, then
what is the period of test that is how much and what is the time duration of exposure?
Because ultimately by this way you can analyse that whether it is acute exposure, sub-acute
exposure, chronic exposure or sub chronic exposure. So while taking any kind of
toxicological studies you must remember 5 different points.
Now, toxicants must be identified with respect to the chemical composition, its physical sate.
For example, benzene can exist in either liquid or vapour form. So the entry route will be
different because if it is in the liquid form one may take the benzene through the injection
route and if it is in a vapour form then he or she may take through the inhalation. So the entry
route will be different, as well as the target organ would be different. And simultaneously the
responses and other things would be different. So you must identity with respect to its
chemical composition.
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And each physical state preferentially enters the body by a different route, requires a different
toxicological studies. So the whole line of action would be different if you are taking this
thing into account. (Refer Slide Time: 15:38)
Now, while going for a treatment of any kind of toxic substance for acute poisoning, et cetera
you must remember the five-finger rule. What is the elementary aid covered with this A, how
we can decontaminate it, what is the antidote therapy, how the person or human being been
transported to the safe place, and how we can secure the evidence? So this is the five-finger
rule. Because each and every aspect is essential. I am going to discuss this particular thing in
detail in the subsequent slides.
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Now, first thing is that once anybody is contaminated with the toxicological toxic substance,
then you must provide the elementary aid so that primarily you can decontaminate the things,
you may start the detoxification process, this may be by the breathing, the circulation with the
help of primary drug, you may go for hospital for the ECG, then fibrillation, then different
type of airways.
So everybody, see this is the first thing because you are practically aware about the toxic
substance. So you must adopt this type of elementary aid to elementarily detoxify the things.
The second thing is that Detoxification. Now, these are the usual routes of detoxification. By
vomiting may be with the help of pharmaceuticals within the first hour that may be with the
help of stomach wash, et cetera may be with the help of solvents, acids, alkaline solution that
is purely based on your toxicant. It may be the gastric, may be conscious or unconscious.
Adult, it may require the 100 to 300 cc of warm water with the normal saline, stomach wash.
The children, isotonic sodium chloride solution, this is one of the most usual way. Sometimes
active charcoal may be administered together with different laxatives, through gastric tube so
that the other routes of detoxification or other routes of excretion may be active. The other
possibilities like forced diuresis, hemodialisis, hemoperfusion, plasmapheresis these are the
different other routes and remember all these things must be administered by trained person.
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There are certain antidote therapy, these are applicable to various specific cases. Now these
cases must be defined a priori. The reason is that for various kind of poisons there are
antidotes, there are availability of antidotes, the only thing is that you must be well
communicated. The problem in the Bhopal tragedy happened, the prima facie, the
information supplied to that the civil authorities that it is a chlorine leak, but it was not, it was
a methyl isocyanate leak, the primary treatment for chlorine leak is to take as much as water
as you can, but it is the fatal for MIC because MIC is highly reactive to water and it creates
the cyanide poisoning.
So you must aware that what is the remedy and it should be well communicated, so if you are
working in a plant, all kind of information must be available ready hand and the same thing is
applicable for antidote therapy because if there is anything poison, then the antidote must be
well communicated. It must be less specific.
Active charcoal binds poison in the GI and inhibits their absorption, you must know all these
things. Chelating substance bind heavy metals and enable their elimination. All these things
can be found in ICU, ambulance. So the first hand thing is required in this case is that the
knowledge of material safety datasheet. Once you know that how hazardous this particular
chemical is then you can go ahead with this type of therapy.
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Now, once the things are not working like antidote therapy is not working, detoxification use
of detoxification or primary treatment is not working, the patient or those person, those who
are get contaminated with the toxic substance should be transported to the proper institutions
or hospitals for a medical care as soon as possible. This transportation is only possible when
circulation has been stabilized and airway is cleared. The reason is that in during the process
you may be in a position to detoxify the things.
Now, remember securing the evidence is extremely important, the reason is that this not only
provides the legal help, but also it gives a proper information that what is the chemical, how
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it was released, how the person was exposed to that particular chemical, what are the
different reasons? So once the things are stabilized, you must secure the evidence.
Again I am giving you one example of a Bhopal Gas Tragedy, that the first time when the
MIC was released and people became fatal, fatal, fatal then the first autopsy which took place
after a day or so, then they found out after the stomach that they found out there is a cyanide
poisoning. Then they scrutinized the things that how this cyanide came into picture and then
they found out that this is the Methyl-isocyanate, primarily they were treating for chlorine.
So securing and disgave the information that MIC was leaked and then reverse engineering
gave a proper information. So securing evidence is extremely important. This is critical in
diagnosis that what is the substances, what is the route of entry, what was the target organ?
This can be carried out with the help of sampling, blood, urine, stool, air, et cetera and you
must perform the accurate labeling from where the sample are collected, what is the age,
what is the sex, how concentrated toxicant was?
Blood and urine samples should be secured before administering any antidote because
sometimes because I told you in the previous modules that water may become the fatal, only
thing is that the right dose differentiates between the poison and a remedy. So, suppose for
chlorine water is the antidote, but for MIC it is not, so blood and urine sample should be
secured, analysed before you administered any antidote.
Now, there are various difficulties associated with the toxicological studies, the major
problem is that there is no ethical way to get human volunteer, hence used to model system,
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we are bound to have some certain model system like rates, cats, dogs, rabbits under the
administrative control of certain ethical societies.
Now this hinders the production of new chemical, almost has stringent as a new drug because
you are not getting the proper samplers. So in this particular chapter we have discussed the
different type of excretion, remedial measures, et cetera. And in the subsequent studies, we
will discuss that how we can go ahead with the various toxicological studies, what are the
different parameters, those who administered the proper toxicological studies, how we can
get, how we can create the dose versus response curve because these dose versus response
curve was an integral part of the toxicological studies. So by this way thank you very much.
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Department of Chemical engineering
Module 02
Lecture 08
Dose-Response Relationship
Welcome to this Dose Response Relationship module. In this particular module, we will
discuss about the Dose response relationship, in which suppose anybody gets contaminated
with any kind of toxic substance, what are the responses, what are the different parameters
deals with responses and because this particular information is essentially specially when we
need to detoxify or we need to overcome the effect of those toxicant to the human body. It is
closely related to our day-to-day affairs, it is closely related to our knowledge to the medicines,
et cetera. And one more thing is essential that the knowledge about our body system is quite
important in that while we are studying this dose response relationship.
(Refer Slide Time 01:24)
Now, the biological organs they are responsive in different manner to the same dose of a
toxicant. In the previous model we discussed that the same type of concentration maybe
harmful to the younger people or to the older people, but it may not be harmful to the middle
aged people. So these differences whatever differences towards the response they are the result
of age, sex, weight or the physical condition, diet, general health and other factors. For
example, consider the effect of an irritant vapor on human eyes, given the same dose of vapour.
Some individuals will barely notice any irritation, this is very weak or low response while other
individuals will be severely irritated, they are the high response.
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The other factors are like my body is acclimatized, suppose I am working in ammonia and
environment, so my body is acclimatized to that particular ammonia concentration which is
continuously being released from my workplace, but if a visitor comes then this particular small
quantity of ammonia may be slightly irritant to him, so this is clubbed under the other factor.
Or sometimes in that particular environment if a small kid comes then it may be even fatal for
him, sometimes older people may come then again it may be very difficult scenario for them,
so it depends on various factors. So while considering to the dose response curve or while
forming dose response relationship you must know that what are the different parameters those
who govern this particular type of relationship.
Now before we go ahead with this type of relationship we must understand that what is
threshold dose? The threshold dose suggests that there should be a dose or exposure level below
which harmful or adverse effects are not seen in population or in individual. It is just like that
if you go to the doctor or a medical practitioner, usually he or she suggest a particular dose for
any kind of disease that is purely based on the information available to him that what are the
symptoms, what is your age, what is your physical condition, and based on this particular
information he usually suggests the dose, maybe OD, maybe BD, once in a day, both time of
the day, or in 6 hours duration or 8 hours duration, so that depends on the information available
to him and maybe 5MG, maybe 10 MG, et cetera. So he needs to find out that what is the
threshold so this particular information is essential.
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Now what is dose? Somebody may ask that what is dose. This is the amount of chemical or
medicine entering into the body system, this is usually given as milligram of a chemical per
kilogram of body weight, milligram per KG. This dose is dependent on environmental
concentration, the reason is that suppose you are working in a humid environment then certain
chemicals may have very good affinity with water, they may get absorbed into the body system
through either dermal absorption or it may enter into your body, you must know that what is
the environmental condition, what are the properties of toxicant you may get this particular
information from MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet. What is the frequency of exposure,
suppose I am working over here, the concentration maybe on the higher side compared to the
person who is at the corner of this particular room, so what is the frequency of exposure.
And sometimes I am working over here, I am exposed to the concentrated toxicant and then I
go outside to the room for a cup of tea that means the concentration gradually decreases up to
the tea mart and then I am coming back, so what is the frequency of exposure? What is the
length of exposure? Continuously I am working for 8-hour shift then definitely the exposure
will be on higher side compared to intermittent exposure. What is the exposure pathway? That
is the route of entry, maybe inhalation, maybe dermal absorption, maybe injestion, maybe some
other mode.
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Now this is a very good example that is effect of amount on response. Suppose I am a wine
taker, then definitely how much quantity of wine I am taking, maybe small glass, maybe
medium or maybe larger one, so how much quantity I am taking in a single dose? Maybe a
larger pack, maybe a smaller one or maybe medium one so the response would be different to
the body system. Second thing is that how much I am taking in a repeated manner, like suppose
I am taking the same quantity up to say 4, 5, 6 different times then definitely the response
would be different for a single exposure.
If it is on the larger size then definitely the response would be different.
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Now this is a very interesting Dose response curve, suppose you are taking one glass of wine
based on your body structure, based on physical condition, you may experience no effect. And
if you are acclimatized then obviously in the subsequent glasses you will not see any kind of
effect. But if a small kid takes a glass of wine then definitely the effect would be more
prominent. Then again you start taking second glass then marginally you will see response,
sometimes your voice may fluctuate, sometimes your body language says ok you are drunken
and if you take third one then again the effect is on the higher side subsequently. And if you
take larger quantity beyond your expectation, beyond your capacity then definitely you will
observe all kinds of effects, even sometimes it may become fatal.
So if you plot the dose response curve with the glass of wine, maybe one parameter of your
analysis is the person feels difficulty in walking so primarily you will not see any effect, then
slight difficulty in walking, and if you go and sometimes you will fall yourself in a gutter. No
doubt, it is a very interesting example, but it gives you prima facie information that how we
can create the dose versus response curve. Now in engineering perspective, this Y axis may be
different, this X axis may be different. And suppose if you replace this glass of wine X axis
with the medicine or with any kind of toxic substance, and this is towards the response to your
body system, so primarily you may experience something is irritating, then it goes into the
body system then it affects the bloodstream, then it goes for the deposition or detoxification
aspect, so you may experience all kinds of effects, so this is the start-up of your formation of
dose versus response curve.
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So while creating this dose versus response we must know that what is the acute exposure (we
have already studied in the previous module), what are the sub-chronic exposure and chronic
exposure.
Then we must understand that where it goes? Maybe the body water may become the part and
parcel of fat, may get deposited into the bone marrow or may go into the bones, and where it
accumulates because sometimes the after-effect is a prominent form of study.
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We must know that how our body reacts in terms of metabolism, how our body breaks it down,
it is evenly applicable for different types of medicines. And it is why doctors or medical
practitioners they used to suggest that you take this particular medicine for 6 hours, 8 hours, et
cetera because their effect will be up to a certain level and there after it may go into downward
trend, then again you need to repeat the dose. What it turns into? If you are encountered with a
toxicant then after decomposition or after affecting with the body system what it turns into and
how fast it is. Sometimes it may create instantaneous problems, sometimes after a day or
sometimes after a week or so.
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Then you must analyse that how long it takes to go. Means these are the time, how much time
and these are the effects. So at the start of it is just like a medicine theory, at the start-up it
works very well and then over a period of time the effect is on the lower side, so at this
particular point of time you need to take another dose so that you can have sustainable effect.
But it is not true for toxic substance, instantaneously you are taking that toxic substance through
four roots of entry instantaneous and then it may take longer hours to decontaminate, detoxify
your body system, so you need to find out that what is the deficiency, and deficiency is depicted
by this particular Delta E, Delta E is the effect.
So you have to analyse this Delta E because this gives you a very vital clue for your future
treatment because whatever toxic substance left it may get deposited into the fatty tissues, et
cetera so you need to find out this one because of the inherent ability of our body structure,
body system. Our body usually retaliates and it starts the remedial measures immediately after
the intake of that toxic substance. So this is the effect where our body fails to retaliate for those
particular toxic substance so you need to find out this particular Delta E.
Now usually, whenever we studied the dose versus response, usually it is desirable to run that
test on a larger population and to form this Gaussian distribution curve, given the same dose
usually in the form of dose versus body-mass. Determine the number or fraction of individuals
that have responses because again I am giving you a practical example. When Methyl
Isocyanate was released from Union carbide plant in Bhopal, a large concentration of MIC was
released to the nearby people of Union carbide, and the effect of that particular concentration
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was different to each and every individual because the population was comprises of small kids
to older people so the large population was covered under the head.
The concentration was common to all, then only thing is you need to determine the number of
fraction of individuals that have responses, they may be small kids, 10, 20, 30 percent of small
kids, even 10, 20, 30 percent of middle aged people, maybe a larger quantity of old age people.
So you need to collect all those responses and number of individuals affected and then you
need to form the dose versus response curve so that you can analyse that which population is
great affected more compared to this one and compared to this one so that you can start a
remedial measure for that particular population.
Now if your results are not satisfactory then you need to repeat the test using different doses,
of course impractical since you cannot do that is why you need to perform this test in laboratory
scale. Find average response to each dose, then you plot response versus logarithm of the dose,
sometimes you may get this type of Sigma shaped curve and this gives vital information.
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You need to find out the Gaussian distribution with the help of this mathematical formula;
1 −1 𝑥−𝜇 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒2( 𝜎
)
𝜎√2𝜋
f(x) is the probability or fraction of individuals experiencing a specific response. x is the

response, 𝜎 is the standard deviation and 𝜇 is the mean, so you need to find out and you must
know that where these average responses are placed.
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This is the mathematical relationship through which you can find out the 𝜇 and 𝜎 , and n is the
number of data points, how much samples you have collected would, and the quantity Sigma
square is called the variance.
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You must find out the dose limit values, and these dose limit values are termed in terms of 3
aspects; EDf- Effective dose for f percent of population, it has reversible response. TDf- Toxic
doses for f percentage of population, usually undesirable responses that is irreversible. LDf-
Lethal dose for f percentage of population. Now before we go ahead, let me tell you one thing
that EDf is reversible and sometimes if you are working and toxic released is most favourable
condition because this is the effective dose of percentage of population, this reflects the average
effect. So this is the irreversible response because based on your response, your body system,
your body may reverse this particular effect of toxic substance, these TDf and LDf, usually
they are the undesirable one.
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There are certain susceptibility and variability and these are certain parameters; you are young
or old it depends because your body structure depends on how old you are! If you are young
then based on your immunity, based on other body structure you may overcome the effect of
toxic. Male or female, individual variability based on the lifestyle, if your physic is good then
definitely you can overcome those problems, there may be certain genetic differences, some
people may have certain hereditary problems, et cetera this is one of the most prominent
parameters. There are certain species differences may be African countries, Asian, European
countries. so these are the certain theoretical parameters.
Now before we go into the creation of this dose versus response, we must know that what are
the quantitative factors through which we can assess the toxicity, we can assess the problem’s
gravity. The first thing is that LD50, the amount dose of a chemical which produces the death
in 50 percent of population of test animals to which it is administered by any of a variety of
methods, usually expressed in terms of milligrams per gram.
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The LC50; concentration of a chemical in an environment generally air or water, which

produces death in 50 percent of an exposed population of test animals in a specified time and
usually expressed in terms of milligrams per litre.
Now the correlation between the amount of exposure and the resulting effect usually expressed
in these terms. It is equally applicable for medicine, equally applicable for toxicological
studies. Now if you are having increasing amount of dose, prima facie you may experience no
effect then giddy, sleepy, deep sleep, unconsciousness, and even it may lead to the death. So
these are the various responses to be recorded, and sometimes fortunately or unfortunately, all
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the accidents in the past they gave vital information for the corrective measures in terms of
qualitative and quantitative analysis.
There are certain lethal doses; LD50 dose required to kill 50 percent of population, LC 50 the
concentration required to kill 50 percent of the population. So that means you must analyse if
you are working in that particular toxic substance environment, you must analyse that how
much quantity of dose and how much concentration is lethal because these effects are
irreversible in nature.
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Now the question arises that how toxic logical data be obtained? There are various ways
enlisted in this particular slide through which you can obtain those data. Maybe with the help
of animal toxicological studies, again we need to look into various ethical issues. Accidental
human overexposure, maybe in terms of different accidents like Bhopal gas tragedy, the data
gave a very crucial information about MIC and other activities. There may be certain controlled
exposure of the human volunteers, although certain governments banned these types of test
volunteers. Epidemiological studies, they may be descriptive, retrospective, that is usually
conventional one, prospective usually it is a cutting edge things.
Now again one important aspect is that from where I can get all kind of toxicological
information. The prominent source is the material safety data sheet. If you are a chemical
company, you are a producer of any chemical then it is mandatory for you to prepare the
material safety data sheet not only for the product but also whatever chemicals being used in
your site. It gives you prominent information about the identity of the chemical, it gives
information about the hazardous ingredients, it gives proper information about the physical and
chemical characteristics because in the previous module we have studied that Benzene is
available in 2 phases; liquid and vapour phase. So sometimes because based on boiling point,
freezing point, et cetera, sometimes if your working condition is designed in such a way that
you have to work at elevated temperature then you cannot overlook the importance of this
physical and chemical characteristics.
You must have readily available fire and explosion data, this you can have from MSDS that
how whether this particular instance is flammable or inflammable and sometimes it may create
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explosion or not what is the reactivity because obviously if any particular substance is reactive
in nature then definitely your intention would not be in such a way to store in reactive vessel
like H2SO4 is highly reactive towards metal, it causes corrosive properties, so obviously you
wont to store concentrated H2SO4 in a metal vessel. And similarly the other compounds like
sodium, it requires a specific storage attention so that is why it is usually stored in kerosene,
you cannot store metal sodium in humid environment.
It is enlisted health hazard data, health hazard data is quite essential not only for the person
those who are working in that particular arena but for the nearby people, those who are residing
at the outside of that particular plant because it gives information that if that particular
component is hazardous then how it can impact to the person those who are working in the
nearby area and those who are residing in the nearby area. So you must provide because if this
index is on the higher side, definitely you will be more careful. It is just like if you are working
in the kitchen then you are more careful towards the LPG Rather than anything else. Then this
material safety data sheet, they give you proper information about precautions for safe handling
and uses, what kind of control measures need to be adopted in case of any spill over and release,
et cetera, we will discuss this material safety data sheet in due course of time.
Now go back to LD50, this is the quantum responses can be treated as a gradient when data
from a population is used. The cumulative proportion of the population responding to a certain
dose is plotted per dose; 10-30 fold variation with respect to in a population. If mortality is the
response, the dose that is lethal to 50 percent of the population and LD50 can be generated
from the curve. So it gives you precautionary measure that if this particular dose is lethal for
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the person those who are either working within the plant or residing outside the plant. Different
toxicant can be compared and the lowest dose is most potent.
Then you must acquainted that what in exposure pathways. Usually we have discussed in the
previous modules, the routes and sites of exposure, these are the 4 routes through which they
can enter into the body system. Ingestion is purely based on iv intravenous, intramuscular or
intraperitoneal, so typical effectiveness of the route of exposure is
iv > inhale > ip > im > ingest> topical
So you must know that what is the exposure pathway.
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We have already discussed in the previous module about this acute Subchronic effect that if
acute is less than 24 hours usually one exposure, sub-acute for one month repeated dose, sub
chronic 1 to 3 months repeated doses, chronic greater than 3 months again it is repeated doses.
Now you must know that distribution, the blood carries the agent to and from its site of action,
storage depots, organs of transformation and organs of elimination. Now rate of distribution
depends on usually the blood flow, the characteristics of toxicant, affinity for the tissue and the
partition coefficient. And this particular distribution of the things may change over the time,
again the dominating factors are age, et cetera.
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There are certain issues with related to storage and binding. Storage in adipose tissues a very
lipophylic compounds like DDT will store in fat and in later part of life may create a problem.
Rapid mobilisation of fat can rapidly increase the blood concentration, storage in bone like
chemicals analogous to the Calcium: Fluoride, lead and Strontium et cetera because Calcium
et cetera Fluoride et cetera they are the part and parcel of your body structure. Binding to
plasma proteins; this can displace endogenous compounds. Now only free is available for
adverse effects or excretion.
Already we have discussed about the targeted organs, a systematic toxin is one that affects the
entire body or many organs rather than the specific site. Potassium cyanide affects virtually
every cell and organ in the body by interfering with the self-ability to utilise the oxygen, so
usually potential cyanide affects adversely. Toxin may also affect only specific tissues or
organs while not producing damage to the body as a whole.
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Now these specific sites are known as target organs or target tissues; benzene is a specific organ
toxin in that because toxin is a man-made thing. Toxin in that it is primarily toxic to the blood
forming tissues. Lead is also having a specific organ toxic, however it has 3 target organs;
kidney, haematopoietic system, and CNS. Adverse effect is dependent upon the concentration
of active compound at the target site for enough time.
Now remember, not all organs are affected equally because all toxic substance follow a specific
route, and sometimes the route itself tries to detoxify the things. So you must know that the
greater susceptibility of the target organ, the higher concentration of active components. So
you must be aware about this thing. Liver; usually the high blood flow, oxidative reactions.
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Kidney; the high blood flow and the concentrate chemicals. Lung; high blood flow, site of
exposure. Neurons; oxygen dependent, irreversible damage, et cetera. Myocardium; oxygen
dependent. Bone marrow, intestinal mucosa; rapidly divided.
Now adverse effects occurs at the level of molecule or a cell. So molecularly chemical can
interact with proteins, lipids and DNA. Cellularly, chemical can interfere with the receptor-
ligand binding, interfere with the membrane function, interfere the cellular energy production,
bind to biomolecules, perturbed with the homeostasis.
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Now once these types of things being analysed, then we should analyse the excretion aspect.
The toxicants are usually eliminated from the body by several routes; urinary excretion we
have discussed this thing in the previous module, water soluble products are filtered out of the
body by kidney and excreted into the urine. Exhalation; volatile compounds are exhaled by the
breathing.
Now usually this excretion route is a Biliaral excretion via fecal excretion, compounds can be
extracted by the Liver excreted into the bile and this bile drains into the small intestine and
eliminated into the feces.
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Metabolism, usually metabolism is the process by which the administered chemical that is the
parent compound are modified by the organisms by enzymatic reactions. One degree objective
is to make the chemical agents more water soluble and easier to excrete; decrease the lipid
solubility, decrease amount at target, increase ionisation by increasing excretion rate or
decrease the toxicity. Bio-activation; usually biotransformation can result in the formation of
reactive metabolites.
This can drastically affect the rate of clearance of compounds, can occur at any point during
the compounds journey from absorption to excretion. The key organs in the biotransformation
are Liver, Liver plays a very vital role or you can say among all available organs Liver plays
the highest role. The lung, kidney, intestine, they are you can say having medium role, and
others which we will discuss in due course of time have a very low contribution towards the
biotransformation.
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Usually we have to know that, what are the biotransformation pathways. The phase 1; is to
make the toxicants more water-soluble. Phase 2; that is links with soluble endogenous agents
like conjugation, et cetera. Now you can see in this particular table that various compounds
without metabolism and with metabolism how much the biotransformation affects. Ethanol, 4
weeks without metabolism, and with metabolism 10 ml in an hour. DDT infinity, and days to
week, so it all depends that with metabolism and without metabolism what is the response
towards the chemical.
So in this particular module we have studied about the various aspects of dose verses response,
different parameters, how we can go ahead with the qualitative as well as quantitative analysis
because these are the integral parts. In the subsequent module we will study that what are the
chemical parameters and what is the individual susceptibility towards those parameters while
creating the dose verses response, thank you.
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Lecture 09
Dose-Response and Threshold Dose
Predictive Models and Extrapolation
Welcome to the Dose-Response and Threshold Module. In this particular module we will
discuss the different predictive models and we will learn that how we can extrapolate those
data to the real time things. Now, mathematical modeling has been advocated to provide
assistance in developing a dose response relationship in particular when extrapolation to low
doses is necessary.
Now, the reason is that as we discussed in the previous module we cannot overlook the
importance of dose versus response because the dose is directly applies to the various
parameters like age, different environmental condition, physique, et cetera. So and every time
you cannot perform the experimentation or you cannot utilize the previous data available. So
the best way is to perform the mathematical modeling and you can extrapolate all those
modeling data to the to the industry or to the real-time situations.
So the mathematical models may facilitate the dose response assessment exercise, and provide
the useful information while accounting for variability and different type of uncertainty. Now,
remember these kinds of things, they are always governed by the different parameters.
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So, let us take one by one the toxicological disease process usually we follow a set pattern or
a set protocol once a particular person get exposed then based on the exposure it gets infection
and this may lead to the illness and sometimes directly it may get recover. Now, after illness
there are certain skill and sometimes it may lead to death or sometimes it may recover.
So, biological basis for dose-response model derives from major steps in the disease process
as the result from the interaction between the pathogen and host and the matrix. So these three-
four different things we must encounter while go for this type of modelling.
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So, first let us understand that what is modeling concept, several key concepts they are required
for formulation of biological things in dose response model these relate to the threshold versus
non-threshold mechanism. We have gone through this threshold aspect in the previous
modules, independent versus synergistic action and the particular nature of inoculum. So we
must know these concepts a priori.
Ideally the dose-response models should represent the following series of conditional event,
one is the probability of infection given exposure (go back to this previous slides all these
things they are under the representative conditions). The probability of infection given
exposure and then the probability of acute illness given infection. Because sometimes you may
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recover and sometimes you may not, so what is the probability of this acute illness given
infection and the probability of sequel or mortality given the acute illness?
Remember if you recall the first module, we have discussed the accidental pyramid, then the
number of responses on the bottom of the pyramids on the larger side and it goes on diminishing
and there may be one or two fertility for every kind of scenario. So you must find out all three
aspects that is the probability of infection, acute illness, and mortality et cetera so that you can
have perform the model analysis adequately.
In reality, the necessary data and concepts are not yet available for these kinds of approach
therefore, you require a model which is discussed that directly quantify the probability of illness
and mortality for a given exposure.
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Go back to the threshold versus non-threshold mechanism the traditional interpretation of those
response information was to assume the existence of threshold level of pathogen that must be
ingested in order for microorganism to produce infection or disease. A threshold exists if there
is no effect below some exposure level, but above that level the effect is certain to occur.
Now, there are attempts to define the numerical values of such threshold in test population have
typically been unsuccessful because you will not find all those testing modules, et cetera,
although the concept is widely referred in the literature as the minimal infectious dose. So an
alternative hypothesis is that due to the potential for microorganism to multiply within the host
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infection may result from the survival of a single viable. Now, infectious pathogenic organisms
that is called a single hit concept.
Now this implies that no matter how low the dose, there is always at least a mathematical sense,
and possibly very small, a nonzero probability of infection and illness. Obviously, this
probability increases with the dose, so you are taking more and more than definitely the
probability will be no on the higher side. The probability of illness given the infection depends
on the degree of host damage that results in the development of clinical symptom.
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For such mechanisms, it seems to be reasonable to assume that the pathogens that have
developed in vivo must exceed a certain minimum number. A non-linear relation may be
enforced because of because the interaction between pathogen may depend on their number in
vivo, and high number are required to switch on virulence genes.
Now, go to the independent action versus synergistic action. The hypothesis says that the mean
probability “p” that is per inoculated pathogen to cause or help cause an infection symptomatic
or fatal is independent of the number of pathogens inoculated and for a partially resistant host
it is less than unity. In contrast, the hypothesis of maximum and of partial synergism postulates
that the inoculated pathogen cooperate so that the value of “p” increases as the size of dose
increases.
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Now, how do we select the models and that depends on certain factors like specific properties
in the data become meaningful only within the context of model; one thing. Second is a
different model may, however, lead to different interpretations of the same data. So a rational
basis of model selection is always needed. For any model to be acceptable it should satisfy the
statistical criteria for goodness to fit. Now the criteria for model selection this is based on two
things, goodness of fit and conservativeness or and flexibility.
From a risk assessment perspective, a model should be restricted to describing the data and
trying to discriminate the biological signal from the noise. Now adding parameters usually
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improves the goodness of fit of a model, but using a flexible model with many parameters may
result in greater uncertainty of estimates, especially for extrapolated doses.
Now, we go to the toxic load.
For the correlations of toxicity data requires the information about the toxic load. Now toxic
load is an independent variable which is used to express the toxic injury. Hence, it is an injury
factor which can be determined as follows. For orally administered dose, the toxic load “L”
will simply be equal to the dose swallowed “d”.
So therefore, L = d.
In case if toxic gas is inhaled, then toxic load will be the function of concentration “c” and a
time “t”. So “L” is a function of “c” and “t”.
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Now, this “L” is a function of “c” and “t”, this can be simply a product of both terms as
L = c.t;
like this, or it can be in the complex form
L = ctm
For acute inhalation the toxicity of irritant gases the value of m for animal tends to be less than
unity and is often in the order of 0.5.
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Now, you must establish the toxic load response relations. A distribution which is used to
correlate data for toxic injuries, as for injury of other kind is log normal distribution associated
with the log normal distribution is the probit equation. So a particular problem arises at low
level of toxic load because the precise relationship between toxic load and the proportion
affected is a critical issue in setting exposure limit.
Now, here you can see the toxic load response relation, this figure. The proportion population
affected and dose and there are two responses A and B.
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Now, this particular figure illustrates the two possible relations with relations, “A” there is no
lower limit below which there is no noxious effect this one. Now with sigmoidal relation “B”
be there be many may be said to be the threshold below which the effect of toxic load is
negligible. Now it is frequently difficult to distinguish between these two type of curves to
establish whether there is or not a threshold. Now, this is the case particularly where the number
of workers involved are small and the conditions of exposures exposure are variable.
Now, toxicokinetic modelling, this is the one compartment model, another modeling concept.
There are two cases, one is the impulse response refers to the instantaneous introduction of
chemical sometimes all of sudden the concentration is increases, then step response refers to
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the constant input of chemical to the bodies. So this is this based on the frequency. So the
original concentration is being zero for both the cases.
Now, for impulsive response we may utilize this mathematical equation
𝑑𝑋
= −𝑘𝑒 𝑋
𝑑𝑡
With,
𝑋(0) = 𝐷0
Where, “D0” is the dose of chemical and “k” is the elimination constant and “X” is the mass of
chemical in the body.
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For step response this mathematical equation prevails
𝑑𝑋
= 𝐷 − 𝑘𝑒 𝑋
𝑑𝑡
Concentration “C” is given by,
𝐶 = 𝑥/𝑉𝑑
Where, “Vd” is the apparent volume of distribution of chemical in the body.
Now, the chemical is distributed between the bloodstream and other body matter, both aqueous
and non-aqueous and the total effective capacity constitutes the apparent volume of
distribution. For elimination after an instantaneous input of chemical
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𝐶 = 𝐶0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑒 𝑡 .
The half-life of a particular chemical can be calculated as
𝑡0.5 = 0.693/𝑘𝑒
Now, these are the typical half-life of some drugs in our body like Aspirin 0.3 hour, Morphine
3 hour, Quinidine 6 hour, Diazepam 50 hour, Phenobarbital 86 hours. So the model describes
the elimination of chemical with the time and it is totally based on assumption that body has a
tendency to eliminate the chemical. So elimination occurs by metabolism or secretion.
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Next is the dose infection model, for microbial pathogens dose infection model based on the
concept of single hit and independent action are regarded as scientifically most plausible and
defensible. So when the discrete nature of pathogens is also taken into account, these concepts
lead to the single hit family of models.
Now, empirical or tolerance distribution models such as log-logistic, log-probit, or weibull-

gamma model have also been proposed for dose response modelling. The use of these
alternative models is often motivated by the intuitive argument that a single hit models
overestimate risk of low doses.
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Now, this is a hit theory model. The probability of infection of a host that ingest exactly n
pathogens can be expressed at this particular mathematical relations like
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑓 (𝑛; 𝑃𝑚 ) = 1 − (1 − 𝑃𝑚 )
Where, P m is the probability of pathogen to survive and number of pathogens. So the

probability of the infection as a function of dose is given by this particular mathematical
equation,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑓 (𝐷; 𝑃𝑚 ) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝐷.𝑃𝑚
where D is equal to mean ingested dose.
Now, if p m is considered as a constant value “r” then the equation can be represented like this,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑓 (𝐷; 𝑟 ) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝐷.𝑟
when D;r <<1, then this particular equation reduces to this one,
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑓 (𝐷; 𝑟 ) ≈ D.r
If the probability of starting an infection for any organism in any host and is assumed to follow
the beta distribution, then that particular equation becomes like this.
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑓 (𝐷; 𝛼, 𝛽 ) = 1 − 1𝐹1(𝛼, 𝛼 + 𝛽, − 𝐷)
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Now, if α<<β and β>>1, the beta Poisson formula becomes like this
𝐷
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑓 (𝐷; 𝛼, 𝛽) ≈ 1 − (1 + )−𝛼
𝛽
or another alternative is that
𝛼
When 𝛽 . 𝐷 ≪ 1 in this particular aspect, this formula is approximated by
𝜶
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒇 (𝑫; 𝜶, 𝜷) ≈ . 𝑫
𝜷
𝛼
For both 𝛼 → ∞ and 𝛽 → ∞, while → 𝑟. ; the Beta-Poisson formula is converted to the
𝛽
exponential model
P = r.D
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Now, to prove this, we will discuss, we will discuss one numerical problem.
The problem statement is that; eighty people they are tested for lung infection because of a
specific dose of a substance. Responses were recorded on a scale from 0 to 10, with 0 indicating
no response minimum, and 10 indicating a high response that is maximum.
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The number of individual exhibiting a specific response is given in the this table, that is 0
number of individual affected null, 1 response 6, 2 12, 3 14, 4 11, 5 12 and again 6 9, 7 6, 8 4,
the 9th response 3 and 10th response is 3, so total number of individual affected 80.
Response Number of Individuals affected

0 0
1 6
2 12
3 14
4 11
5 12
6 9
7 6
8 4
9 3
10 3
Total 80
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Now, you have to determine the mean and standard deviation, you need to plot a histogram of
the number of individual affected versus the response and you need to plot the normal
distribution on histogram of the original data.
So, now I am giving you the solution of this problem statement. So you can calculate the mean
by using the equation i is equal to n, xi fxi divided by summation i is equal to 1 and f xi, here i
is equal to 1, 2, 3, up to 10 that is the number of responses and the total affected persons 80
that is the affected persons which is listed in the table. So summation i is equal to 1 10 f xi is
equal to 80, so we can calculate the Mu by this way this is response multiplied by the number
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of person affected 2 into 12 plus 3 into 14 plus 4 into 11 plus 15 into 12 plus 6 into 9 plus 7
into 6 plus 8 into 4 plus 9 into 3 plus 10 into 3 and the whole divided by 80.
So it is comes out to be 361 by 80 which is 4.5125 and approximately 4.51, so Mu is equal to

4.51. So you can calculate the standard deviation by this particular formula small Sigma square
is equal to i summation i is equal to 1 to n xi minus Mu square f xi divided by summation i is
equal to n f xi, so we have calculated Mu from here and we will calculate the standard deviation.
So this small Sigma square is equal to 1.4.51 square multiplied by 6 plus 2 minus 4.51 square
12 plus 3 minus 4.51 square into multiplied by 14 plus 4 minus 4.51 square multiplied by 11
plus 5 minus 4.51 square 12 plus 6 minus 4.51 square multiplied by 9 plus 7 minus 4.51 square
6 plus 8 minus 4.51 square 4 plus 9 minus 4.51 square 3 plus 10 minus 4.51 square multiplied
by 3 the whole divided by 80. So this comes out to be 5.54985 and standard deviation is equal
to 5.54985, 2.3558 approximated to 2.36, so this is the standard deviation of the problem
statement.
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Now, we can see the histogram, so based on your calculation and based on the formula in
question we have plotted the histogram and the normal distribution curve, so this is your mean
and these are the various responses and the number of persons affected. So you can have a look
of this histogram.
Now, in the third part first we need to calculate the normal distribution with the equation. A
normal histogram, a normal distribution can be calculated using this equation f x equal to into
x minus Mu square or 1 upon 2.36 into 2 Pi exponential minus 1 upon 2 into x minus 4.51
which is already being calculated in the previous slides 2.36 square. So this comes out to be f
x is equal to 0.169 exponential minus 0.09 x minus 4.51 square. So the calculated distribution
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can convert a function representing the number of individual affected by multiplying with the
total number of individuals that is 80. So the corresponding values these are tabulated in table
2 and normal distribution curve is plotted in figure 1 which are which I am going to show you.
So the calculated distribution are converted to a function representing the number of individuals
affected by multiplying the total number of individual that is 80, so the corresponding values
are tabulated in this particular table, you can see that the x and f x values which has been
calculated by the formula which we have just now achieved and this is the 80 multiplied by f
x. And the normal distribution curve is this one. So by this way you can analyze that how we
can calculate the different models and in different slides, in next modules we will discuss the
other models, thank you very much.
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Lecture 10 - Industrial Hygiene: Regulations & Identification
Welcome to this Industrial Hygiene and Identification module. In this particular module, we will
discuss the various aspect of industrial hygiene process involved in any chemical process
industry, how we can identify it and what is the gravity of that particular hazard present at your
workplace. And once you analyze the gravity of that particular hazard, then how do we can
control those particular hazards at workplace?
So, first question arises that what is industrial hygiene? Now, basically in a systematic manner,
industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating of any kind of hazard present at workplace,
maybe in the liquid form, maybe in the solid form or maybe in the gaseous form. Then recognize
it based on your technical competency, technical knowledge, you must recognize. Suppose you
are working in kitchen, then you must recognize that one big hazard LPG is present at
workplace. So, you must be in a position to recognize it, then based on your technical knowledge
and based on the malfunctioning of the system, you must evaluate that how hazardous that
particular system is. Now, because this is the ultimate objective of this particular chapter, that
you need to evaluate the gravity of that particular hazard.
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Now based on this particular knowledge that you have anticipated the hazard present at your
workplace, then you recognize this properly, and when you evaluated it properly, you designed
or you adopt the control measures to the workplace. So in a nutshell, the industrial hygiene is the
science of anticipating, recognizing, evaluating and controlling workplace condition that may
cause workers’ injury or illness. Now remember, whenever any worker got injured or illness or
sometimes the fatality, then the industry or process industry may need to pay the compensation
or sometimes it may loss in terms of men, men hour or men days.
So, there are two key factors in the industrial hygiene, one is that employees’ exposure to hazard,
because sometimes the employee exposure may lead to the exposure to the atmosphere and this
is extremely dangerous scenario. So employees’ exposure to the hazardous, suppose I am
working at this particular place with a toxic substance or a (flame) flammable vapors, then what
is my contamination or what is my exposure to that particular workplace? Suppose I am working
over here, the concentration may be on the higher side compared to the person who is sitting at
the corner of that particular room. So, what is the employee exposure to that particular hazard,
then how we can control that particular hazard to protect the workplace?
So, these are the two key factors or in just you can say these two major things we are going to
study in this particular chapter.
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Now, as far as when we go ahead with the industrial hygiene, there are three subcomponents or
you can say the major components: identification, evaluation and control, you must identify the
hazard substances at your workplace, you must evaluate that what is the exposure and based on
the exposure because unnecessary if you are adopting the control measures, then ultimately your
economy will be hampered.
So, as far as the engineering perspective is concerned or a chemical engineering part is

concerned the chemical engineers, they are responsible for selecting and using instrumentation to
monitor the workplace during the identification, you need to go ahead with the proper type of
sensors and control phases of industrial hygiene projects. So, this is the role and responsibility of
the chemical engineers when they are dealing with the industrial hygiene projects.
Now, this entire thing divided into four steps: One is that anticipate the potential hazard based on
your knowledge of hazard, based on your competency, based on the research risk assessment
ability. You anticipate that what kind of potential hazard present at your workplace, may be in all
three phases, may be present in any one phase, then you recognize the potential hazard that is
purely based on your technical knowledge and competency.
If you are not aware that the peculiar smell belongs to LPG, then you wont be able to recognize
it. Then you need to evaluate the exposure and the risk, that how much quantity is being involved
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in due course of time or if there is a continuous evaluation, then what need to do? So based on
this particular aspect, you need to adopt the proper control measures so that you can avoid the
exposure as well as you may create the barrier between the worker and the exposure source and
you minimize the risk. So, these four, so do not forget these four steps.
Now, as far as the exposure in operations are concerned, you must know that what chemicals are
used in various operations. See in this particular aspect, your technical competency plays a vital
role, because suppose there are four colorless liquids at your workplace, one belongs to water,
another belongs to benzene, another belongs to say hexane and another belongs to say NaCl, then
which one is hazardous and up to what gravity? Sometimes, NaOH is having the normality of
say one normal, H2SO4 is highly concentrated. So, you need to aware that what kind of different
chemicals are present in your workplace or in the different operation. Second thing in this aspect
is that you must know that which one is hazardous and how.
So, based on this particular knowledge, you can go ahead with the second aspect that how can
employees be exposed? See, you cannot say precisely that water is…water will become the fatal
or water may cause occupational injury or occupational illness, but sometimes HCl vapor may
cause the occupational illness or occupational injury. Sometimes the hexane vapors may cause
the occupational illness or injury and simultaneously that hexane vapor may lead to the
formation of inflammable vapor.
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So, how can employees be exposed? Sometimes suppose the working temperature of normal
hexane is say 60-65 degrees Celsius, then in cases all of sudden the temperature rises up to 90
degree or 100 degrees Celsius, then definitely the vapors will form and the employees those who
are working at the periphery then definitely they may get exposed. So, you need to know that
how your employees or how your worker may get exposed to that particular substance.
What toxic effects do these chemicals have? So, for this particular information, you must refer to
some reliable sources that what kind of toxic effect and where they can impact to your body
system, how can they enter into the biological system and what kind of effects, sometimes they
may create irritation, sometimes skin dryness, sometimes they may become, they may react the
water inside the body and may create a future problem etc.
So, you must know that what toxic effect to do these chemicals have. That means, you must have
proper information to (hand) know this. How can employees be protected from these effects?
You need to know that if in case of any exposure, in case of any evaluation, then how you can
protect your employees from these toxic effects? You either you need to create a barrier between
the worker and the exposure or you must develop certain scenario through which those toxicants
or those flammable vapors are not evolved at your workplace.
So, this is purely an engineering perspective, so you must know these particular aspect. Now
before we go ahead, we must know what is the history of industrial hygiene. Remember
industrial hygiene not only deals in a positive manner to protect your workers to workplace, but
simultaneously, it creates a problem, in (the) past people used , people use this particular
knowledge to kill their enemies. So, the history of industrial hygiene is very interesting.
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Disease resulting from exposure of chemical or physical agents have existed ever since people
choose to use or handle material with the toxic potential. In the far past, causes were not always
recognized. So, the earliest recording is that lead poisoning among miners by Hippocrates in 4th
century it was the first recorded that people got exposed to the lead in the miner or children.
Then zinc or sulfur hazards by Pliny the Elder in 3rd century BC. So, these are the earlier
recording.
Now, we are not going into the history because up to say Pliny or Hypocrites up to Napoleon
Bonaparte, because based on the body structure and based on your geographical conditions, the
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toxicant may enter in your body system and may create a problem. So, what we are going to
cover and what is the industrial hygiene coverage is like toxicology, occupational health
standards. We are going to study airborne hazards, we must know that indoor air quality and see
nowadays people are very much aware about the particulate matters and that is why the air
purifiers are common in every household.
There are certain skin disorders, noise exposures, various type of radiation, various type of
thermal stresses etc. Now, before we discuss all these things, we must know that where they can
impact. All these toxic substance can impact although in the previous modules we have studied,
in the toxicological studies, they may create the problem of in the human anatomy, they may
create a problem of biohazards, various kind of chemicals involved in this thing and so and so
on. So, various coverage it is enlisted over here.
Now, industrial hygiene is a part of science and part of art, why we are saying this? Because
science, it tells you that this particular component is toxic to human being, this particular
substance is hazardous to human being or environment. Now part of art why we are saying, that
suppose if we must know that, what, how much quantity is harmful for human being. Now
remember, when we are talking about the human being that means we need to cover the entire
population. Entire population may make our, may have children with a different age group,
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middle aged person with a different age group and elder person and the effect of those toxicant
or flammable vapor may not be common to all.
So, in case if you wish to control the effect of toxicant and if you wish to control the effect of
flammable vapor, you need to analyze the things in a different perspective based on age, based
on environment, based on geographical condition. And whenever you know all these things, then
you need to apply the appropriate technique available as on date or you must evolve certain other
technique which may be useful for the area in question. So, industrial hygiene is the application
of scientific principle in the workplace to prevent the development of any kind of occupational
disease or injury.
So that is why because there are so many factors involved, so many parameters involved, that is
why it is called, that is this industrial hygiene is an art because this not only covers the
identification, this not only covers the evaluation, but also it covers the control and not only the
available control measures, but also you may need to design your own control measures. So, this
requires the knowledge of chemistry, physics, anatomy, mathematics etc.
Now, before we proceed further, there are certain governmental regulations, so we must know
the abbreviations because we will use these abbreviations in due course of time. So there are six
standard regulations or protocols available globally, OSHA, Occupational Safety and Health
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Administration and NIOSH the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, ACGIH
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienist, SDWA, the Safe Drinking Water
Act, TSCA that is a Toxic Substance and Control Act, FMSHA that is Federal Mine Safety and
Health Act.
So, these are the governing bodies, those who are responsible for designing the various control
methods and suggesting the things that which is the toxic, which is a flammable, which is
undesirable for human being.
Now, before because basically almost 50 to 60 percent coverage of industrial hygiene is based on
air contaminants, so we must know that what kind of air contaminants and different type of
things like Particulates, dust, fumes, mist and fibers, non respirable particles that is greater than
or equal to 10 micrometer in diameter, respirable particles those who are less than 10 micrometer
in diameter, you must know because based on this type of information you can design or you can
use the proper control techniques.
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Certain fumes, they are volatilized solid condensed in cool air, less than 1 micrometer in
diameter, hot vapor or air they may form certain oxide dioxins etc. This is again create a problem
for the human being or the person those who are living nearby; mist, suspended solid droplets,
they are generated by the condensation of liquid from vapor to liquid state.
There are certain type of fibers, in the previous module, I told you that the asbestos fiber is
banned in Indian context. So, fibers they may be solids, cylinders, elongated structures etc. They
may get deposited into a body system, length may be several times in the diameter. There are
certain gases, formless fluids that expand to occupy a space; arc-welding, internal combustion
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engine exhaust air etc. There are so many things. Vapors, liquid changes to, change to vapors,
organic solvents, etc.
Now, in industrial hygiene we need to perform several task and those, the example are enlisted in
this particular slide. We must monitor the toxic airborne vapor concentration available or present
at the work place because (the) this toxic airborne vapor may escape to atmosphere, create the
problem of, for nearby people like in Bhopal gas tragedy. We must monitor that they should not
cross the threshold limit values. So, in case if they cross then you need to adopt the proper
control measures and you have to ensure that your workers are not overexposed.
So, reduction of toxic airborne vapors through the use of ventilation, ventilation is one of the tool
to control the toxic vapors at workplace, so you need to know that what is my threshold limit and
by the applicable technique you must need to, to reduce the toxic airborne concentration within
workplace. You need to select the proper personal protective equipment to prevent the worker
exposure. That means, whenever you are using the personal protective equipment, then you
(need) you are creating a barrier between the toxic evaluation and your human being, sometimes
mask, sometimes goggles, sometimes cap, gloves, full body suits etc. You may sometimes…you
may require to develop the procedures for handling of hazardous materials.
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Suppose you are handling any scenario where you are practically unaware of any kind of toxic
release or sometimes by any chance by a chemical reaction, any kind of byproduct or unwanted
product being generated in due course of time, then you need to develop the procedure for
protection of your workers or environment and you have to take the decision. Sometimes you
may need to take this decision spontaneously; you need to continuously monitor and reduction of
noise, heat, radiation and other physical factor to ensure that workers are not exposed to harmful
level. So, these are the typical task you must know that how to get your environment protected.
Now, there are three basic steps in industrial hygiene: Identification that is a determination of the
presence or possibility of workplace exposure. I am giving you another example that I am
working at say pool of hexane, then I must know that hexane is not only flammable in nature, but
also it creates a health problem. So, we need to identify that hexane is present at workplace, then
evaluation that determination of the magnitude of the exposure. Now, if hexane is….evaluating
at a continuous manner and sometimes because of change in temperature, because of the change
in temperature, the vapors may generate in manifolds.
So, you must know that what is the magnitude of the exposure because this governs the control
aspect. If it is within the acceptable limit then there is no need to adopt any kind of control
methodology. Now, if it is, if my workers or if the worker at workplace they are overexposed,
then definitely you need to adopt a proper control methodology. Now, these control
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methodologies are of two types, one is the inherent control methodology, so suppose back to the
example of hexane, if the working temperature is around 60 to 70 degrees Celsius, then of course
the generation of the vapors will be supposed X and suppose if temperature rises up to 90
degrees Celsius, then sometimes the magnitude of vapors may be say 2 X, 3 X etc.
So, one thing is that if you are unable to avoid this particular change in the temperature then
definitely you need certain personal protective equipment and you need to adopt the
methodology through which this hexane cannot catch, cannot form the (flammable) flammable
mixture, and if it is formed then it cannot catch the fire, that is the first thing. Second thing is that
by any means, your workers cannot inhale this type of hazardous flammable vapor to their body
system. So, you must provide the barrier in between and sometimes another control methodology
is that if you by any means, if you are in a position to control the temperature and pressure then
try to reduce it.
So, these two factors are involved, one is the inherent and other one is that the external. Now, we
start with the identification step, this identification step requires a thorough study of the chemical
process, what the process going on? What are the different processes? What are the different
equipment available at the workplace, how these equipment are hazardous? How these chemicals
are hazardous? Sometimes you are, suppose you are producing ammonia by nitrogen and
hydrogen right. So, nitrogen may require certain attention because sometimes it is available in
the liquid form. Hydrogen because it is highly inflammable, hydrogen may require certain
special attention and ammonia of course, it requires the special attention.
So, you must know that this is an exothermic process and you need to give the due care to
nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia, all three, not to ammonia because sometimes you may say
okay, I am working in ammonia plant, that means I need to pay special attention to ammonia, but
it is not. You have to pay the proper attention to this. So, you must be aware about the plant
layout, you must aware about the different chemicals, different processes within the plant
periphery.
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Then you must know about the operating conditions, operating conditions cover, cover up with
the pressure, temperature, different type of zones. So, you must know that in case of any
imbalance in temperature or pressure what problem may arises, because risk is everywhere,
hazard is everywhere. So, you must know that what is my operating condition and what kind of
precautions we need to take care. Then we must know about the operating procedures, operating
manuals so that we should not cross the boundaries, we are practically aware that the operating
procedure says that you must, if you are working with the hexane, then at 1 atmospheric pressure
you have to maintain the temperature 60 to 70 degrees Celsius.
So, you do not forget, because in history there are so many accidents took place when people
forget these operating procedures. One is the Seveso, another one is the flixborough, when they
forget or they violated the protocol. So, you must aware about the operating procedures and
operating conditions.
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Now these particular things, all these things; operating condition, operating protocol and
chemical processes, they require the various kind of sources through which you can gather the
information. Now these resources includes the process design description, different type of
designs are available, what is the plant layout etc. You must know the operating instructions,
what the operating instructions is being given by the equipment supplier and what kind of things
you need to handle. Do not forget to take the safety review, the reason is that if there are N
number of plants working in globe, then definitely you must know that what kind of
malfunctioning and what kind of problems may occur during the smooth functioning of those
plants.
So, every time they usually all these plants, they usually maintain the log book and they usually
publish the different type of safety reviews. So, you must be acquainted with all kinds of safety
reviews. Sometimes equipment vendor they supply the proper information for the safe handling,
even in our domestic affairs. When we purchase any equipment then the equipment vendor or
equipment supplier, they usually supply a proper instruction manual.
So, you need to follow those instruction manual and sometimes because of the compulsion of
your process, you may need to violate all those things, do not forget to consult the equipment
vendor. You must know that in which form the chemical supplier they used to supply the
information and especially safety related information. So, this is again the source of
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identification because if you are borrowing or if you are purchasing H2SO4 from vendor, then
they used to supply the information that what is the concentration, what are the other ingredient,
what are the other components present in that and at what percentage they are present in H2SO4.
Now this provides a very crucial information because if suppose you are having the 70 percent
pure H2SO4, that means 30 percent are the allied component and if you are using in a particular
reactor, sometimes those allied chemicals may create a problem and may give rise to the thermal
runaway reaction or a chemical runaway reaction.
So, you must adhere or you must know that what is the information being provided by the
chemical supplier. Similarly those chemical suppliers, they provide the some safety precautions
and in the scenarios in which you may encounter, in case of spillover, in case of transportation
etc. So, you must know those particular information, we will discuss this particular thing in the
next lecture when we will discuss the Material Safety Data Sheet. You must gather the
information from operating persons because these are the person those who are directly in touch
with that particular process.
So, suppose any malfunctioning is there or suppose there is any contamination or adulteration in
the chemicals, so they can provide the proper information and a regular use, because they are the
regular user of that particular equipment. So they provide the proper information and sometimes
they may give you a valid suggestion to improvise the process. So, do not forget to take the
information from the operating person.
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Now chemical process technology is so complex that this task requires major efforts of
engineers, process designers, operators, laboratory persons, management etc. Remember the cup
of tea, so we must take the help of all these person to improvise the process. And (when)
whenever there is a lack in the synergy or coordination among all these resource person, then the
accident took place.
Now quality of this identification step is often a function of a number of resources used and the
quality of the question asked. So, you must ensure that you ask N number of question, you use N
number of resources, only then the quality will be improvised. So, in the identification step it is
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often necessary to collect and integrate the available proper information or useful information to
identify new potential problem due to the combined effect of multiple exposures.
So, you cannot eliminate or you should not omit any kind of useful information, unuseful
information or unnecessary information may create the confusion. So, you ensure that as an
engineer your responsibility is to collect the relevant information, go for all the all kinds of
reviews, ask N number of questions and integrate those information for the benefit of the system.
During the identification step the potential hazard and method of contact usually they are
identified and recorded.
Now before we go into detail, we will discuss that how we can have the prima facie information
for a particular chemical. Now, in this aspect the Material Safety Data Sheets, they play a very
vital role. This gives you the entire information about the particular chemical which is being used
at workplace and it is essential for every manufacturer or every producer of those chemical to
give the Material Safety Data Sheet.
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Usually the MSDS must be obtained and maintained for every chemical product used at
workplace. Now, these MSDS must be accessible for all personnel during their working hours so
that in case of any problem, in case of any doubt or confusion in the working system, then they
must get the information, appropriate information from those documents.
Now the MSDS is typically organized into various sections and every section deals with the
useful information. Remember, not all MSDS are same, section number and contents can vary
with each MSDS, this is the sample MSDS and in subsequent lecture, I will go into detail that
what is the significance of each and every section in the MSDS.
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So, in this particular lecture, in this particular module, we have discussed about the 3 integral
aspect of (chemi) industrial hygiene; identification, evaluation and control methodology. And
theoretically, now in subsequent lectures, we will go ahead with the identification aspects, how
we can get information that this particular component or this particular process is hazardous,
how it is having the major gravity and how we can control it.
There are several references enlisted which can be utilized for the identification step by this way.
Thank you.
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Lecture 11 - Material Safety Data Sheet-1
So, welcome to this module of Material Safety Data Sheet, now Material Safety Data Sheet is an
integral part of source of information of any chemical which is present at your workplace.
Now in the previous module we have studied about what is industrial hygiene, what is the brief
history of industrial hygiene, we have discussed some abbreviation related to the governmental
regulation through which we are going to handle in the subsequent modules. What are the various
steps involved in industrial hygiene, like in identification, evaluation and controlled methodology
and a brief description about material safety data sheet. Now, as I told you that material safety data
sheet is an integral part of any chemical because this is the prima facie source through which we
can have all information which we can think about for a particular chemical. So in this particular
module, we are going to discuss the various steps or various sections involved in material safety
data sheet. Remember this is a compendium for a particular chemical.
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So first section deals with the product identification and a different steps are like product name,
commercial or marketing name, this is just like that NaCl, usually we used to purchase the NaCl
in the form of common salt, table salt etc. So, commercial or a marketing name, but scientifically
it is available in the name of sodium chloride. Different type of synonyms, approved chemical
names and different synonyms, in which chemical family it belongs to.
So, chemical family, group of chemical with the related physical and the chemical properties, what
is the formula, chemical formula if applicable, that is the conventional scientific definition for a
material, that is essential. Then CAS number, CAS number is the identity, it is just like an Aadhaar
number, so CAS number, CAS number is the Chemical Abstract Service number. So if you wish
to have proper information or all information related to that particular chemical, you can go ahead
with this chemical abstract service number so that you will get the proper information which you
require for any particular process.
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Now in this particular section, this is the pictorial diagram through which you can assess that
whether this particular chemical is having the fire hazard, health hazard and in case of any specific
hazards, it is also enlisted. What is the reactivity of that particular chemical? And based on this
particular information, there are different numbers being provided. Now, suppose, if this particular
component is having a potential health hazard, that means this is this may have a higher number.
If it is having the high fire hazard then it may have a higher number. Usually these numbers are
designated from 0 to 4.
Now, suppose this particular (chemical) this particular line represents that this particular chemical
is not reactive with water. So this particular pictorial diagram, because sometimes it may not be
possible for you to go through the entire material safety data sheet because it may contain so many
pages, so this particular information gives you a just that how has hazardous this particular
chemical is. Like health hazard, this particular chemical which is presented over here is having the
extreme danger because based on this information. Now it is having the fire hazard below 200
Fahrenheit, they are having specific hazards related to other aspect like it is reactive, it is unstable
if heated, that gives you grading 1 etc.
So this section also deals with the name and address, phone number of the manufacturer. Now this
particular information is again useful. Whenever you require any specific information which is not
listed in material safety data sheet, then you can always have a liberty to ask the manufacturer,
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‘Okay, gentlemen, I am having this particular requirement, I am having this particular information
needed for my process, so kindly supply me this one’. The date of MSDS preparation, now this is
again very important because every chemical is having its own shelf life.
So when this particular chemical was produced or manufactured, then (they) must you must know
that the day the MSDS was written so that you can assess that what is the shelf life and how, what
is the half life of that particular chemical. There are certain rating, these all these ratings are
attributed to NFP and National Fire Protection Association rating and all these MSDS must possess
the storage color code like this, this and this one.
The second section deals usually deals with the component data, that is what kind of hazardous
ingredient etc present in it. This describes the percentage composition of the substance, listing
chemicals present in the mixture, if it was tested as a mixture lists chemical which contributes to
its hazardous nature, otherwise lists ingredient making up to more than 1 percent and all
carcinogens.
Now this is extremely essential because suppose your component which you are dealing upon is
say 50 percent pure or it is having the minimum assay of say 75 percent, that means rest other are
having some other component. This may create a future problem in your reactor or in the reaction
kinetics etc. So you must know because sometimes this may lead to some production of undesired
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component. So you must know this particular information so that the prima facie you can take
certain precautionary measures.
In this particular section, you must have all component data like OSHA permissible exposure limit,
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health Hazard standards, recommended exposure
limits, ACGIH standard threshold limit values so that you can adopt the preventive measures like
this. If you go through this particular (example) example, the CAS number is enlisted, the chemical
name is enlisted, what is the minimum assay is enlisted and what are the exposure limits so that at
your workplace your workers may not get over exposed.
So, be aware about this particular limit value. And moreover, it should also be mentioned that what
kind of methodology is being used like permissible exposure limit that is attributed to OSHA, like
TLV TWA attributed to an NIOSH, like 250 PPM TV STLEL short term exposure limit that is for
15 minutes. So, 250 PPM, it should not go beyond this; otherwise your workers will be
overexposed and you need to adopt a certain control methodology.
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Now, you must, this particular section must also enlist that the regulated standards, that is it is the
law, it is the regulatory aspect that you must enlist all the regulated standards and usually these
regulated standards are expressed in terms of parts per million or milligram of dust or vapor per
cubic meter of air, usually the time weighted average concentration averaged over an eight-hour a
day. And in case if the worker shift exceeds this eight-hour a day, then you need to recalibrate the
things accordingly.
The short term or exposure limit should also be listed so that instantaneously the workers should
not be overexposed, the ceiling limit usually a concentration which may not be exceeded at any
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time, it should also be there if applicable. A skin notation usually means that skin exposure
including the mucous membrane or eyes is significant in contributing to overall exposure.
The next section that is section three usually deals with the precaution for safe handling because
sometimes you aware that concentrated H2SO4 you cannot store in metal vessel, so how you can
handle the things safely and how you can store the things properly? Like sodium metal, you cannot
store in a hydroscopic environment, that is why it is being stored in Kerosene, so usually this
section provides the information for handling and storing a product, this information may be
sometimes found under the section seventh or under the section of reactivity, because obviously,
whenever you are storing a particular component, you will ensure that it should not be reactive
with the material of the vessel in which it is stored.
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This particular section that is Section Four usually in all MSDS possesses a very useful data, that
is the physical data, physical or chemical data. Physical data comprises of outlines of physical
properties of the material, this information may be used to determine condition for exposure like
boiling point temperature at which liquid changes to vapor state, it must be listed, melting point
temperature at which the solid begins to change to liquid. And remember whenever it is being used
all kinds of information, then it is also necessary to mention what is the process adopted for
calculating or determining these physical parameters.
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Vapor pressure, that is measure of how volatile a substance is and how quickly it evaporates. Vapor
density with a difference of air is equal to 1, weight of a gas or vapor compared to weight of an
equal volume of air. Specific gravity with a difference of water equal to 1, ratio of volume weight
of material to equal volume weight of water. Solubility in water, percentage of material that will
dissolve in water usually at ambient temperature.
Now remember, whenever you are violating these two references, then definitely you must or
manufacturer must ensure that he or she or it should give a proper reference on which they have
calculated the vapor density or a specific gravity. And moreover, whenever you are using these
physical data you must know the proper definition and when it should be used. That is why
technical knowledge and technical competency is important.
Then in this section, that is the appearance or odour, color, colorless physical state at room
temperature, size of particle consistency, odour or odorless as compared to the common substance
it should be there like this, here it is mentioned. Then odour threshold referred to the concentration
required in air before vapors are detected or recognized. Now this is again a very crucial because
you must know or you must experience all these odour thresholds so that you can recognize that
this is present at your workplace and this is beyond the threshold limit value.
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Then decomposition temperature because sometimes if by change in any temperature or
temperature rises by any means, then some component may get decomposed and sometimes they
may create a problem at the workplace.
So, you must know that what is my decomposition temperature, temperature at which a substance
breaks down or decomposes into small fragments and these small fragments sometimes may be
dangerous. Percentage volatile volume, the percentage of a liquid or a solid by volume that
evaporates at temperature of 70 degree Fahrenheit. Now, this particular temperature should be
mentioned because sometimes that is mentioned in degrees Celsius or sometimes in other units.
So, be careful about these units.
Then the evaporation rate, the rate at which a material will vaporize or changed from liquid to
vapor compared to the rate of vaporization of a specific and known material, usually normal butyl
acetate expressed as a ratio. Now again whenever you are using this as reference material, you
must know that what is my reference material, only then you must represent or you must interpret
these data. Viscosity usually a measure of fluid’s resistance to flow, pH describes the acidity or
basic nature of a particular material, usually scale ranges from 0 to 14 for an aqueous solution,
must know because sometimes certain accidents they took place in past that people forget to have
a knowledge about this pH. Other pertinent physical data, this information such as freezing point,
etc; it should be given as appropriate.
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Now, next section, it deals with the personal protective equipment, this includes the general
information about appropriate personal protective equipment for handling these materials. Now
this particular information is vital because you got that this particular information, that this
particular component is having fire hazard or it is prone towards the health hazards etc. Then you
know that what are the threshold limit values.
So if they are below the threshold limit values, then there is no harm. But if they exceeds then
definitely you need to adopt certain protective measures. So what kind of protective measures you
need to adopt both for the process as well as for the person those who are working in and around
that particular arena. So, this section deals to provide the information about the personal protective
equipment, you can see that there are headgears, goggles, gloves, mask, etc. So you must aware
all those that at what point of time and at what scenario you need what kind of personal protective
equipment. This is by the technical competency.
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These are the various personal protective equipment like eye protection, eye gears.
Recommendations are depend on the irritation, corrosiveness and a special handling process.
Because remember, your eye and skin these are the prima facie through which you can get
information that something at your workplace is wrong, because sometimes if there is a chlorine
exposure your eye may get irritated, the skin may become dry. So, if skin becomes dry then you
must adopt certain skin protections. So this describes the particular type of protective garments
and appropriate glove material to provide the personal protection. Now remember whenever you
adopt this gloves etc it should not be reactive with your skin, only thing is that they need to provide
a barrier between the toxic substance and yourself.
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There are certain respiratory protectors, they are appropriate because if your working environment
is overexposed, not only you are controlling the inherent things of your process, but sometimes
the things are overexposed or if you are gradually exposed to the toxic environment when the
concentration is no doubt is below TLV, but the repeated exposure may create the future health
problem. To overcome such type of thing, use the respiratory protection, this is the appropriate
respirators for condition exceeding the recommended occupational exposure limit. So if it
increased, if the workers are exposed by having the higher TLV then it is always recommended to
use this personal protective equipment.
Now contact EHS or relative measures for information prior to use of any respiratory protection
equipment. Because whenever you are using this kind of the respiratory production equipment,
definitely your efficiency is challenged, definitely you are compromising with your efficiency. So
before adopting any kind of respiratory technique, you must consult the environment health hazard
safety person so that they can give you that what kind of respirator is essential for you. Because
the respirator is of N number of time, they may have a certain cartridges, they may have a certain
canister through which the toxic substance may get neutralized over the period of time. Sometimes
they may have some filters or absorbent materials so that you can have a proper or purified air into
your for your breathing.
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Other personal protective equipment comprises of ventilation, the use of some product may require
the specific ventilation. Now ventilation is usually of two types, one is the local ventilation so that
you can remove the toxic substance from your workplace and some processes uses the dilution
ventilation through which you can reduce the concentration of toxic substance at your workplace
by either some inert gases or air so that it can go below the TLVs, threshold limit values. General
exhaust, usually a system of exhausting air containing contaminants from a general work area, this
may be referred as a dilution ventilation.
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The local exhaust, a system of capturing and exhausting contaminants from air at the point where
the contaminants are produced, capture style hoods like this, canopy type of hoods for welding,
grinding, sanding and operation of laboratory fume, fume hoods for working with the hazardous
chemicals. This is again a general type of local exhaust through which it can, the hazardous
substance may be sucked away from the workplace.
The next section deals with the fire and explosion hazard data because this creates another problem.
Suppose like hexane, like LPG etc, everything is which is flammable nature may create a future
problem, so you must know that how hazardous that particular substance is in terms of fire. This
contains the information regarding the recommended extinguishing media to be used in the event
of a fire involving the material. Because you cannot use water based (extinct) fire extinguisher in
place of electrical fire or if by any means the cooking oil catches fire, then you cannot use water
as an extinguishing media.
So, you must know that which kind of fire extinguisher is used for in case of any fire. It may also
provide this particular section may also provide the information regarding unusual fire and
explosion hazards associated with the material.
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Now under this section, the auto-ignition temperature must be listed, the approximate temperature
at which a flammable gas air mixture will ignite without a spark or flame, the Flashpoint must be
listed, the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapor to ignite when a source of
ignition is present.
The combustible, the term used by NFPA and Department of Transportation and OSHA to classify
liquid on the basis of a flashpoint ranges of 100 Fahrenheit to 200 degree Fahrenheit, so this
information is essential because when we talk about, when we discuss the Jaipur accident, then
this AIT and Flashpoint played a vital role because the fire at the Jaipur terminal propagated
because of the auto ignition temperature of petroleum product and a flashpoint right. So, whenever
this particular section is dealing with this or particular chemical is having this kind of hazard, then
this type of labeling must be there, that the Flashpoint in the range of 22 degrees Celsius to 32
degrees Celsius. And it is the level three type, that means extremely inflammable.
Or sometimes you may see that this type of label spaced for the various kind of time cards etc, in
which it is the mentioned that danger, away from that time card because it is carrying the
combustible liquid.
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Now flammable liquid, what kind of definition it possesses? Now usually as defined by NFPA,
this is a liquid with the Flashpoint below 100 degrees Fahrenheit. I am repeating it again that
whenever you use this, you carefully use this particular data because 100 degree Fahrenheit is bit
different from 100 degree Celsius. The OSHA definition is essentially same and in the close
proximity of NFPA, the Department of Transportation because sometimes you need to transport
these petroleum products or a flammable material from one place to another place, so they gave
their own specification.
So the DOT in definition of flammable liquid means it has a flashpoint of 141 Fahrenheit or less,
the EPA identifies the liquid with the Flashpoint of 144 Fahrenheit or less as a flammable liquid.
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There are certain flammable solids and usually depicted by this particular label, now the flammable
solids other than explosives are solid that will ignite readily or are liable to cause fire under the
ordinary condition of transportation through friction or retained heat from manufacturing or
processing. So, do not forget that friction has also played a vital role while causing the fire, solid
which burns so vigorously as to create the serious transportation hazard that is the DOT
classification.
Now, once we talk about the fire and explosion hazard data, we must specify there are certain
limits, like while we are handling the vapors or while we are handling the liquids, so we must
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specify that what are the safe limit under which we can work upon like in the toxic substance. So,
different agencies they give that, the two limits, LEL, the lower explosive limit, lowest fuel to air
concentration, in which the flammable vapor will produce a flash of fire when an ignition source
is present. At concentration below LEL the mixture is too lean to burn. Remember these two things,
LEL or sometimes it is called lower flammability limit or upper flammability limit or UEL upper
explosive limit, these are usually governed by the stoichiometric ratios.
It is just like that if you wish to burn one mole of a methane that is
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂
Now remember, this is the chemistry of combustion that one mole of CH4 requires two moles of
oxygen.
So if oxygen is present lesser than this required limit, then definitely there will be no fire. So, this
particular information must be known those who are working in that particular arena. Similarly
UEL or upper explosive limit, this is the highest fuel to air concentration in which the flammable
vapor will produce a flash of fire when an ignition source is present. At concentration above UEL
the mixture is too rich to burn, that means this concentration is on the higher side and this one is
having low and sometimes this particular concentration is referred as MOC, minimum oxygen
concentration.
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So, this much minimum oxygen concentration is required to burn that particular thing. So in the
module of fire, we will discuss this fire anatomy in detail. The LEL, UEL concentration usually
expressed as a lower and upper percentage range in air, so if a mixture is in between LEL and UFL
only then it will catch fire. If the mixture is too lean or mixture is too rich, then definitely the fire
will not be there. So you must know so that in case if you are working in hazardous environment
or just take an example of hexane, if the continuous hexane vapors are evolved, then your attempt
should be like this, that to reduce the concentration of hexane at the workplace or to reduce the
concentration of oxygen at workplace so that these (formed) formed mixture should not lie
between the LFL and UFL.
Now in case of fire, you must know that what kind of extinguishing media we should use, so
extinguishing media that is the appropriate extinguishment agent for the material so that the fire
can be extinguished. The proper firefighting procedure must be enlisted that is the appropriate
equipment and methods usually to be indicated for limiting hazard encountered in the fire situation.
So, all kind of procedures must be enlisted in MSDS.
The fire and explosion hazard, hazards and or conditions which may cause fire or explosion should
be defined and sometimes because of any accident or sometimes if you are handling particular
reaction which is exothermic in nature and if by any means the temperature rises and sometimes
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the particular substance because of the auto ignition ability it may catches fire and the things may
be dangerous. So, all kind of scenario must be enlisted in MSDS.
In this particular module, we have discussed the information, MSDS information related to the
product identification, how we can identify the product, how we can distinguish the product from
the chemical name to the family to the commercially available name, what kind of component data
related to the hazardous ingredients etc. We have taken the precautions how we can store it safely,
how we can handle that particular substance safely. How important and what kind of the physical
data should be there in the MSDS, in the section 4, what kind of based on the information available
what kind of personal protective gear should be used and how what are the different fire and
explosion hazards data and how we can deal it upon. In the subsequent lecture we will go ahead
with MSDS in detail with the remaining parts.
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Again, you can utilize these references for future studies. So thank you very much for this module.
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Lecture 12 - Material Safety Data Sheet – II
So, welcome to the next part of Material Safety Data Sheet. In the previous module, we have
discussed about what is industrial hygiene and what are the different scopes, a brief history of
industrial hygiene. Then some governmental regulations pertaining to the abbreviation, what are
the steps involved in industrial hygiene like identification, evaluation and controls and as a part
of the identification step we discuss the Material Safety Data Sheet.
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In the previous module, we have discussed partly the MSDS in terms of product identification,
component data, precautions for various kind of safe handling and storage, physical data, boiling
point etc, what kind of personal protective gears needed at workplace, fire and explosion hazard
data.
Now in this particular module, we will discuss the remaining part of material safety data sheet
and what are the, the other integral part of material safety data sheet. So, the section seven
usually deals with the reactivity data; so supplier, manufacturer, producer, they must provide this
particular information that the particular component for which the MSDS is reactive to those
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chemicals or those scenarios. So, this includes the information regarding the stability of the
material and any especially storage or use considerations.
So all kind of precautionary or all kind of advisory related to the storage, related to the reactivity
of the particular material with other components must be given. So, this particular information
sometimes may be overlapped with the previous section which, which contains the information
of handling and storage. So, you can see that this is the information that the particular component
which is incompatible with strong acids and peroxide and hazardous decomposition products
may lead to the water, carbon dioxide etc.
This particular section also deals with the stability aspect of particular component, unstable
indicates that chemical may decompose spontaneously under the normal temperature, pressure
and mechanical shocks etc. It may go on rapid decomposition, it may produce heat or may cause
fire or explosions. So what kind of conditions must be avoided should be enlisted in this
particular section. Also incompatibility with any kind of substance, they are certain chemicals
when mixed may create hazardous conditions, incompatible chemicals should not be stored
together so that they may create a problem.
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All kind of decomposition products information must be enlisted in this section. And what are
those decomposition product like chemical substance which may be created when the chemical
decomposes or burns. So this not only gives the storage information, but also provides the
information, useful information for the use or during the use. Polymerization, this is again
because certain like diagonal benzene etc, if they are not stored properly, if they are not handled
properly, they may get polymerized and they create a lump of mass. So, the chemical reactions in
which smaller molecule constituents or unsaturated molecule constituents combine with
themselves to form a larger long-chain molecular structure.
So rapid polymerization may produce enough heat to cause container to explode. So, that is why
what kind of advisory like sometimes they may need to be stored in a regulated temperature,
environment etc. So this kind of advisory must be there. Now, the next section deals with the
first aid because sometimes the user may encounter different type of problems. Like a spillover,
like sometimes by any accidental procedure the worker or work man they may get exposed with
that particular chemical. A cut, spray, cut etc may create a future problem. So what kind of first
aid treatment should be provided to the workers nearby or the person those who are living nearby
area?
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So, this particular section describes first aid procedures to be taken in the event of an exposure,
what kind of caution needs to be exercised so that those applying first aid do not become
exposed to the material for which they are attempting to treat. So, in the event of an exposure,
request medical assistance, so this type of information must be enlisted in this particular section.
In the next section, all kinds of toxicological and health hazard data must be there. Now, this
defines the medical signs and symptoms that may be encountered with the normal exposure or
over exposure to the material or its components. The information of the toxicity of the substance
may also be presented in that particular section.
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Now these toxicological data or (toxic) health hazard data must be represented in two facts, one
is the acute effect, that is an adverse effect on human or animal body resulting from a single
exposure with the symptoms developing almost immediately or shortly after exposure. The
chronic effect, an adverse effect on a human or animal body resulting from prolonged or repeated
exposure with symptoms that develop slowly over a long period of time. So both the things are
extremely dangerous.
Apart from this, the things like corrosiveness, irritation, allergic sensitization, etc. Now
corrosive, a liquid or solid that causes visible destruction or irreversible alteration in the human
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skin tissue. Sometimes you may experience that, if you are working in chlorine environment, the
skin may become dry, etc. The irritation, an inflammatory response or reaction of the eye, skin or
respiratory system. Allergic sensitization, a process whereby on first exposure, a substance cause
this little or no reaction, but upon repeated exposure may cause a marked adverse response. So
this type of information should be enlisted.
Carcinogenic, a substance or agent capable of causing or producing cancer in human or animals

like methyl isocyanide. This type of information should also be enlisted. Mutagen, a substance or
agent capable of allergic sorry, alerting genetic material in a living organism. Teratogen, a
substance or agent to which exposure to a pregnant female can result in malformation to the
skeleton or soft tissues of the fetus. So this information is again essential and sometimes if this
particular information is not applicable to the chemical in question, then it may be listed in terms
of non-applicable, not applicable etc.
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Results of animal studies, they are often given in terms of LD50, LC50. LD50, the lethal dose 50
is the dose of substance which will cause the death of 50 percent of the experimental animal and
LC50 is the concentration of the substance in air which cause the death of 50 percent of the
experimental animal. So, this is again gives the information that if the higher LD50 or LC50
number, that means you have to take care properly that particular component.
Sometimes it is represented in the form of LD low or LC low, the LD low is the lowest dose of a
substance introduced by any route other than inhalation, reported to have caused death in human
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or animal. And LC low is the lowest concentration of a substance in air that has been reported to
have caused death in human or animals. So this type of information is also there in MSDS.
The toxic dose low, this is the lowest dose of a substance to which human or animals have been
exposed and reported to produce a toxic effect other than cancer. So based on LD50, LC50, LD
low, LC low and TD low, an estimate of the potential effect on human health is obtained so that
you can adopt the control methodology accordingly, because unnecessary sometimes, if you are
taking due care and unnecessary care of workplace then definitely you are pumping more money
towards the safe expenditure and per unit cost of your product will be on the higher side and in
the competitive era you will be out of the business.
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Now, the next section deals with the transportation data, usually this contains the information
pertaining to Department of Transportation, regulations governing to the transport of hazardous
materials. Now, these regulations can be found in 49 CFR parts 100 to 177. Now, why this, we
must give importance to this one because sometimes you need to transport your prepared product
to some other place, then what kind of precautions you need to take? It is just like that, suppose
you are producing any petroleum product like petrol or a diesel and you are transporting from
refinery to some storage depot or sometimes from a storage depot to the vendor etc. Then what
kind of precautions you need to take because they are highly flammable and once they are highly
flammable, then you need to follow a certain protocol, whether it is a pipeline pumping, whether
it is a tankard or whether you are going to store it.
So you need to follow a proper protocol and that is why the different governmental agencies they
provided the proper protocol for each and every component for applicable for the transportation
of that material. Now, in case of any confusion, you may be advisable to contact EHS&RM or
the manufacturer or supplier.
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Sometimes during the use, the flammable or a toxic material may get leaked or spilled. So, in
that particular case, what kind of procedure, what kind of protocol you need to adopt? So, this
particular information usually enlisted in Section 9 of the MSDS. So this outlines the general
procedure, precautions and methods for cleanup of any spill because whenever there is any spill,
it not only creates a problem to the workplace, but sometimes it may go away through the
housekeeping process to the drainage and it may create the future problem in environment.
So, this particular section deals with that particular information for the cleanup of any spills,
cleanup procedures for a spill and leaks of hazardous materials usually governed by a number of
regulatory agencies and you need to follow the protocol, do not put yourself or others at risk if
you are not trained or equipped to clean up a spill. Sometimes mercury may get spillover or it
may be leaked to some place, it is highly carcinogenic in nature, so you need to adopt a proper
protocol and if you are not aware it then contact the consult, to consult the proper person who is
trained, who is acclimatized for that particular scenario.
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Apart from this other section deals they are, deals with the waste disposal data, this contains the
guidelines for the disposal of the product or product container. If it becomes a waste sometimes,
it is probably like in various tanning industries the chromium, the TDS etc, they become the part
and parcel of waste water stream. So, this gives the guidelines for the disposal of the product
which contains the waste material. The hazardous waste is regulated by different regulatory
agencies like in Indian context, CPCB, NGT they provides the guidelines. Provisions for civil
and criminal penalties for the improper storage and the disposal of hazardous waste are also
included in these regulations.
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Sometimes you may enlist the additional regulatory information and it is also essential that
suppose, if you are using that particular chemical for a particular space in a particular state which
is being regulated or which is being the protected state then you may provide some additional
information for the use of the person those who are using in that particular protected zone.
This contains the information related to the compliances with other state laws or the central laws
like TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act, FIFRA Federal Insecticides, Fungicides, Rodenticide
Act and others as per the requirement. Now sometimes some additional information not only not
related to the regulatory, but some other information which manufacturer would like to be give to
their user may be listed in the section.
So, this section, if present, will contain additional information regarding the product, which was
not indicated in the previous sections which are very exclusive. In the last section or last but one
section, manufacturer may enlist some major references. So, list some of the major references
that have been consulted in preparation for the MSDS. Because sometimes for the researcher or
for the product innovators, they may require some more information of that particular product.
So this particular section provides useful information for them.
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Now in this particular section, I am giving you the sample MSDS, the two sample MSDS are
listed in this particular section. One is related to the MSDS of a polymer, you can see in the
section one that is a chemical product and company identification, the name, the chemical name
of the polymer is given, then the chemical formula, this time the CAS number is not applicable.
The other see, one important point is that if anything is not related to that particular component,
you should not leave it as blank, it should be listed that it is not applicable. The other
designations, general uses etc, then the supplier name and the manufacturer and what all kinds of
information, the contact information is enlisted.
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The section two deals with the composition, information and ingredients. Now remember, this is
not the pure substance, so what are the ingredients enlisted in that particular component? They
are enlisted over here like polystyrene or polystyrene divinylbenzene. So, for each and every
component the CAS number is enlisted. So, in case if you wish to have other information for this
particular polystyrene or polystyrene divinylbenzene, then you can have it from these CAS
numbers. Then on what percentage they are present, water, the other preservatives etc. Some
additional informations like contents, the solid polymer, microsphere suspended in polymers etc.
Whatever manufacturer would like to provide, it can be enlisted over here. The trace impurities
again you cannot leave it blank, it is not applicable; then in this particular section that what are
the different limits? Like permissible exposure limit ACGIH TLV, NIOSH, REL etc. These are
immediate death data, short-term exposure limit. So, if it is not then it is not applicable.
Everywhere you can find that it is not applicable.
Then hazard identification, you can see which we have discussed in earlier section that hazard
data, fire data, reactivity data and any kind of personal protective equipment data. So, all these
things are enlisted, the potential health hazard number that means, it is having the no chance of
fire, it is highly non-reactive. Health hazards on the, as you can say the moderate level, then it is
enlisted that potential health effects, primary entry of route because it is the mandatory that out
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of four routes, which route is more prone towards the entry of that particular chemical to your
body system.
So, all four routes, it can enter (into) through all four routes. Target organs they are not
applicable, that means you can discharge it as quickly as possible. What are the acute effects,
caution, eye, skin carcinogency, then medical conditions etc? So, these are the important
information enlisted over here. Now, because based on this particular aspect, if anybody get
contaminated with this chemical, then first aid measures, what kind of first aid measures you
need to adopt? Inhalation remove to fresh air, then in case of eye contact because all four routes
are applicable here, then in case of skin contact, ingestion, so all kind of precautionary measures
are enlisted over here.
Then firefighting measures, if you go back to the previous one, the fire hazards, the minimum
one, so what is NFPA rating? Flashpoint not applicable, Flashpoint method once it is not
applicable, then there is no need to give the Flashpoint method, which method is being adopted,
then burning rate etc. So, all these things, majority of things are not applicable to this particular
segment.
Then the next section deals with the accidental release measures. So in case of any accident like
a spill, leak, etc if it is there, then what kind of measures you need to adopt? Like area is covered
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with a spill microspheres, may be slippery if material is spilled or released. Why this caution is
given? Because sometimes if it is spilled over, then if it is slippery then it may create other
problems, occupational illness, occupational injury etc. So, sometimes the fracture, sometimes
pain may occur. So, this type of advisory is there.
Then next section deals with the handling and storage, you must ensure that all kind of handling
advisory storage requirement should be there, like handling precautions when creating aerosols
or fine particles use minimal and directional away from airflow. Storage requirement keep tightly
sealed to prevent contamination etc. Now, this is advisory for the use, not for the storage. So,
whenever you are using it then and if for a very specific purpose, then you adopt this
methodology.
Then the next section deals with the exposure control and personal protection, there are certain
engineering controls use minimal and directional airflow, administrative control usually it is not
applicable because relatively this particular chemical is safe. Respiratory protection for dust and
aerosol generation because it is a very case sensitive, then protective clothing etc.
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Then this is again a very important section that is a physical and the chemical properties, the
physical state usually it is not applicable because it is a polymer. Then appearance, odor
threshold, vapor pressure, vapor density, then density is there, then water solubility, other
solubility etc. So, all kind of the maximum number of information, whatever you can provide or
you can have. So all kind of things should be enlisted. Then you can see this section deals with
the stability and reactivity data, usually it is a stable polymerization, it is not occur, chemical
incompatibilities not known.
Sometimes if anybody encountered this type of problem, it may inform the manufacturer that this
particular chemical is having incompatible with this type of scenario. So, in future they may
enlist all those things, so condition to avoid it is not applicable because relatively it is a stable
one. Then hazardous decomposition product, it is usually unknown.
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Then toxicological information, you can see that no, nothing is applicable because this particular
chemical is relatively safe.
Then sometimes the MSDS manufacturer, they may provide the ecological information, this is
usually related to the environment that what is eco-toxicity, environmental fate, etc. So, this type
of information, essential information is provided. Then some this, this particular section is again
important, you need to follow certain protocol for the safe disposal. Suppose unused or
unreactive, then you need to enlist all kinds of procedure and protocol for the safe disposal.
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When all kind of transportation information is enlisted, now you can see the transportation
protocol is mentioned over here. So, you need to follow that particular protocol for transportation
of this particular chemical, like shipping name, shipping symbol, hazardous class, UN number,
ID number etc. So all this information should be enlisted over here. Then regulatory information,
which I discussed earlier that this not only deals with the for the producer, but also deals with the
user. So you must know because ultimately whenever you are using that particular chemical,
then if it is unreacted or unused, then you will dispose it to somewhere else.
So you must know that what kind of regulatory information and guidelines are available based
on the central government law, based on the state government law. So all kind of things must be
enlisted in this particular section.
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Now, you may enlist that other relevant information, one important information is that who
prepared this MSDS? It is again essential because that person has to take the onus of that
particular MSDS. Then whenever this MSDS being revised based on the product modification,
based on the other regulatory compulsion, so it, this, this should also be listed. And this section
deals with what kind of different abbreviation being used in preparation of this MSDS, so this
type of abbreviations must be enlisted so that there should not be any confusion etc. And the last
section is a very common one, the disclaimer. So everywhere you will find that this kind of
disclaimer.
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Now we have taken the example of one of the safest material that is MSDS of Polymer. Now, let
us have a look of MSDS of sulfuric acid, now you can see that it is extremely hazardous though
it is not having very higher tendency of fire, it is highly reactive, and you need to adopt the
personal protective gears. So, now again, the first section deals with the product name, different
type of catalog codes.
We can see that the CAS number is there and who has produced it or who has who has procured
or prepared this MSDS and a component is there in case of emergency etc. So all kind of
relevant information is there, the important thing is that different chemical name, that it is
available in the name of hydrogen sulfate, the chemical formula is H2SO4 etc. This is there.
Now this section deals with the composition and other information, we are dealing with the pure
sulfuric acid. So CAS number is there and 95 to 98 percent by weight minimum SA is there,
other toxicological data related to the ingredient is also enlisted like LD50, LC50 et cetera. Then
all other you can see that it is a very because it is extremely health hazardous. So all kind of
essential data, essential information is available here. So in case of acute health effect, and in
case of chronic health effects, so all kinds of information is there.
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Since it is extremely dangerous or extremely hazardous, so first is measures, they all enlisted the
different effects like eye contact, skin contact, serious skin contact, inhalation in case of
inhalation, serious inhalation. So, they have listed all kind of information which they can
provide.
Since, it is usually non-flammable, then this particular section is not having much importance. So
flammability of the product, non-flammable, auto-ignition temperature, because it is non-
flammable, it is not applicable, Flashpoint flammable limits etc. These are not applicable. But
related information related to the products of combustion is there.
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So you cannot overlook this particular information, it may create fire hazard in the presence of
various substances like combustible materials, explosion hazard in the presence of various
substances.
It is the information related to this particular aspect is given in the slide, then what kind of
measures need to adopt in case of any accident? If there is any small spill, then large spill, so you
can compare and you can see that this particular compound since the gravity of hazard is on the
higher side, so you have to take certain measures to control the release of this sulfuric acid. So
this particular MSDS gives a prima facie information that how hazardous this particular
component is it.
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Like handling and storage, what kind of precautions you need to take during the handling and
storage, what are the exposure controls and a personal protection you need to adopt like personal
protection, face shield, full suits etc.
The personal protection in case of a large spill, what kind of things you need to adopt and
various exposure limits, it is mentioned over here. Different chemical and physical properties
like physical state, odorless taste, molecular weight, etc. So all kind of relevant information is
enlisted over here.
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Now in this section, the stability because it is highly reactive in nature as listed in the pictorial
diagram, then this type of information is extremely useful and then they, they gave the special
remark on reactivity, that you need to be aware of this kind of situation and this particular thing
because this is hygroscopic in natures, so a strong oxidizer. So this react violently with water,
alcohol especially when water is added. So you need to take a due care. So, and sometimes the
special remarks they have given for the corrosivity.
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Then the toxicological information, usually they have given the information related to the
toxicity to animal, then chronic effect on human, other toxic effects enlisted. So you can see that
they have given a large number of information related to the toxicity of this H2SO4.
Then ecological information, so eco-toxicity, if you recall the previous one was not applicable,
but here it is extremely toxic for ecological system. So eco-toxicity is mentioned, then product of
biodegradation it is also mentioned.
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Then you, what kind of special consideration you need for ways to disposal, it is enlisted here.
Because it is a very corrosive material, so they have given the transportation information,
Department of Transportation, they gave the proper protocol for this one. The other relative
regulatory information is enlisted in this section.
So in case of any problem, in case of anything, you may refer to those regulatory informations,
health hazard data, fire hazard data, reactive data etc. So you may refer because if these number
on the higher then you need to take the proper care and you need to adopt the proper controlled
methodology for protection of your workers and environment outside.
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The other relevant information is also enlisted in the last section of this sulfuric acid MSDS, now
and we have given a proper comparison with safest material to the extremely dangerous material
so that you can see that what is the gravity of the information and how essential this information
especially for designing the control measures.
Now usually MSDS they are available from where you can get, this question is always comes in
your mind that usually MSDS they are available from the chemical manufacturers, usually from
a commercial source. Like I have taken it from the commercial source, a private library
developed by a chemical plant etc., because if they are producing that chemical or they are using,
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so based on their safety review, based on their information available, they are, they created this
MSDS. So, Material Safety Data Sheet is designed to provide both worker and emergency
personnel with the proper procedure for handling or working with a particular substance.
So MSDS include information such as physical data, toxicity etc. We have already gone through
this one, now for whom we are using this MSDS? So MSDS are meant for employees those who
may be occupationally exposed to hazard at work, employer who need to know the proper
method of storage handling, etc. Emergency responders such as firefighters, hazardous material
crews, emergency medical and emergency room personnel etc.
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Now remember MSDS, they are not meant for the consumer, an MSDS reflects the hazard of
working with the material in occupational fashion. For example, an MSDS for a paint is not
highly pertinent to someone who uses a can of paint once in a year. But it is extremely important
to someone who does it this particular work in a confined space for 40 hours a week. The reason
is that he is in direct contact in an occupational manner. But if as a user I cannot adopt all kind of
safety measures, if I am using that particular can of paint for once in a year or so, because
ultimately it would be highly uneconomical for me.
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Now the safety professionals they must interpret the physical and toxicological properties to
determine the hazards associated with the chemicals and these properties are also used to develop
a strategy for the proper control and handling of these chemicals.
So in the future readings, you can use these references. So in this particular module, we have
discussed all parts of MSDS with the two example, one example was the safe chemical, another
example of the dangerous chemical and we discuss that for whom we should use the MSDS,
from where we can have this MSDS. So by this word I am finishing up thanking you.
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Lecture - 13
Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation
Welcome to this module of industrial hygiene in which we will discuss about the evaluation
technique, what kind of evaluation technique we have to encounter in industrial hygiene
projects.
Now, up till now, we have studied about what is industrial hygiene, what is the history of
industrial hygiene, there are some governmental regulatory abbreviations, what are the
integral steps in industrial hygiene and Material Safety Data Sheet. So in the previous
module we have discussed that what is MSDS and how do we identify the various toxicant
or any kind of flammable vapors present at working place.
Now, evaluation, evaluation of toxic release is extremely important in industrial hygiene.

The reason is that this tells you that up to how much level you can go for the safety devices
because unnecessary putting up off the safety devices at workplace putting more system
more and more complicated and creates another hazard. So, evaluation, this gives the
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quantitative mark of toxic substance present at your workplace, it tells you that beyond
which your workers are overexposed, and so you need to put some safety measures for
them.
Now, the basic evaluation is that, this is the phase determines the extent and degree of
employee exposure to toxicant and physical hazard in the workplace environment. Now,
special attention must be directed towards preventing and controlling low concentration of
toxic gases, we will discuss that how we can analyze those low concentration in due course
of time. Some provision for continuous evaluation is necessary like continuous or frequent
and periodic sampling and analysis.
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Now, to establish the effectiveness of existing control, samples are taking to determine the
workers exposure to condition that may be harmful. So, in case the workers are under
exposed, then there is no need to worry, but if they are overexposed, then you need to put
some controlled measures, so that they are exposure towards the toxic substance may be
eliminated.
Now if problems are evident, then control measures must be implemented immediately,
temporary control such as the personal protective gear, it can be used as a first aid measures,
longer term and permanent controls are subsequently developed.
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Now, based on the various samples, based on the identification tools, various governmental
agencies they have set up the threshold limit values. The first hand threshold value was
given by American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygiene. They have
established the threshold doses called a threshold limit value for a large number of chemical
agents, this DLV refers to airborne concentration that correspond to condition where no
adverse effects are normally expected during the workers lifetime.
Remember, the workers lifetime is almost 50 years as per the American Standard. The
exposure occurs only during the normal working hours, usually 8 hours per day and 5 days
per week.
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Now, this TLV Threshold Limit Value for was formerly called the Maximum Allowable
Concentration, that was below which the worker can easily work or worker can easily
perform his or her normal duties. There are three different type of TLV’s TLV-TWA, TLV-
STEL, STEL stands for short term exposure limit, TWA stands for time weighted average
and TLV-C, C stands for ceiling.
Now Occupational Safety and Health Administration US based agency they has defined
their own threshold doses called the permissible exposure level, these PEL values follow
very closely to the TLV-TWA of ACGIH.
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Now TLV-TWA, this is a time weighted average for normal 8 hour work day or 40 hours
work week to which nearly all workers can be exposed day after day without adverse effect,
that means below which you are safe, the TLV-STEL short term exposure limit which is
the maximum concentration to the which worker can be exposed for a period up to 15
minutes, this is the limit beyond which the workers are overexposed.
Now, this continuously without suffering narcosis of sufficient degree to increase accident
proneness, impair self-rescue or materially reduced to worker efficiency. Because
ultimately when workers are over exposed either occupational illness or occupational
injury, sometimes it may get fainted and they may, they may get over the police etc. So,
they may get the occupational injury or sometimes fatality. So, ultimately, there is a
challenge to the workers efficiency. The second aspect is the chronic or irreversible tissue
changes, this is more drastic, then intolerable irritation.
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Now third one is that TLV-C or ceiling limit, the concentration which should not be
exceeded even instantaneously beyond which some on toward accident may take place.
Now, remember one thing should be noted that TLV should not be used for a relative index
of toxicity. So, sometimes if you are having say fatality rate of say X based on the TLV
then you cannot assume that every time when you work for a say Y stipulated hours, you
cannot expect the fatality of X person.
So, it should not be used as a relative index of toxicity, it should not be used for air pollution
work for that there are different standards, it should not be used for assessment of toxic
hazard from continuous uninterrupted exposure because some other methodology can be
used for their particular aspect.
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Now, here just for example, we have enlisted various substances and their threshold limit
value and OSHA permissible exposure limit. Now two things must be remember, one is
that what is the unit of these TWA and at what temperature they are reported and what is
the unit like maybe sometimes in some other units etc ppm etc and if it is sometimes it is
reported at say 30 degree Celsius, 35 degrees Celsius.
So, the standard is to report at 25 degrees Celsius, the standard is to report at milligram per
meter cube and you can clearly observe that the threshold limit value they are in the closed
proximation of OSHA permissible exposure limit. So, these values, the standard values are
available in various handbooks.
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Now, question arises that how we can evaluate the workers exposure to the volatile
toxicant? Now, there are so many parameters and all parameters we need to discuss and we
need to describe in this particular aspect. The one parameter is that up to how long it is
exposed to the atmosphere, maybe no doubt the shift is of 8 hours, but sometimes the
workers are working say 10 hours, 12 hours etc.
So, there are various tools available through which suppose I am working in this particular
pool of any toxic substance. So, what is the concentration of that particular evaluation? Is
the rate of evaluation is constant throughout? Sometimes I may go out and come back and
sometimes I am working from this place and sometimes I am working from 5 to 6 meters
apart.
So, every time you have to look into that what kind of concentration profile is, so first case
is that this is a evaluating worker exposure to volatile toxicant by monitoring, this is a direct
method is by continuously monitoring the air concentration of toxicant online in a work
environment.
Now, for continuous concentration data the CT that is the concentration at particular time
of the time weighted average concentration is computed using this particular equation,
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1 𝑡𝑤
𝑇𝑊𝐴 = ∫0 𝐶(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
8
tw is the worker shift time in hours and,
C(t) is the concentration of chemical in air, ppm or milligram per meter cube. Now, see
this is utilizing the concept of 8 hour work shift irrespective that how many times, how
much time worker has devoted to the working place.
Now, this integral is always divided by this 8 hours independent of the length of the time
actually worked. So thus, if worker is exposed to for 12 hours to a concentration of
chemical equal to TLV-TWA than the TLV-TWA has been exceeded since the
computation is normalized to 8 hours and necessary steps toward the safety of worker must
be taken.
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Another aspect is that sometimes you are having a scenario where at the workplace that
you may observe the different concentration of a particular component, sometimes the
concentration is say C1 at this place and sometimes you move to that particular place where
the concentration is C2 and sometimes you move to that particular place where the
concentration is C3 up to there are N spots and apart from this you devote say you work
for say a couple of hours over here where the concentration is C1, couple of hours at where
the concentration is C2 and sometimes a couple of minutes you are working where the
concentration is C3, so how we can analyze this particular scenario?
Remember we are using only one component, so if you assume that the concentration CI
is fixed or average to over the period of time TI then usually TWA is computed with this
formula:
𝐶1 𝑇1 + 𝐶2 𝑇2 + . … … . . + 𝐶𝑛 𝑇𝑛
𝑇𝑊𝐴 =
8 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
So, this is again useful when workers move in and out of the exposed work place, suppose
I am working here for 4 hours then I moved out for a lunch where the concentration is
negligible, so we can eliminate that particular aspect, C2 equal to 0. The concentration of
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toxicant may vary at a different location in the work area. So, remember all the monitoring
systems that have drawbacks because of this particular factor.
Now safety person, they play an important role in the selection of placement of workplace
monitoring equipment and the interpretation of data. If more than one chemical is present
in the workplace, one procedure is assumed that the effects of the toxicant are additive,
unless other information of the contrary is available.
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But sometimes we may deal with the N number of components out of which n minus X
components may be toxicant and there may be a chance that their, their evaluation is
constant. So, how we can evaluate the TWA or how we can analyze that my workers are
overexposed or underexposed?
So, if they are exposed and we need to take the precautions, so this formula gives the liberty
to calculate the total evaluation or total time weighted average of the workplace where the
number of components are more than one, this is the combined exposure of multiple
toxicants with a different TLV-TWA.
𝑛
𝐶𝑖
∑
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑖
𝑖=1
Now here, n number of toxicants Ci is the concentration of the chemical with respect to
other toxicant TLV-TWA, i is the TLV-TWA for the chemical species i.
Now if this sum exceeds unity, then the workers are overexposed and you need to take
certain precautionary measures to overcome this problem. Sometimes, another scenario is
that here we have taken an assumption that the concentration of ith component is constant
throughout.
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But sometimes you may, you may have a scenario where the concentration is also
changing, concentration of different component is also changing, suppose I am working
with say two component and both the components are having that different concentration
that means their evaluation rate is on the different part. So, how we can calculate the TLV
and TWA of the mixture? Because this gives you an idea that whether my workers are over
expose or under exposed.
So, from handbooks you are having the standard TLV-TWA, you can easily monitor the
concentration of individual component, so you utilize this particular formula:
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝐶𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1
(𝑇𝐿𝑉−𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑖
Now, if the sum of the concentration of the toxicant in the mixture exceeds to this amount,
then the workers are overexposed so need to take the precautionary measures, for mixture
of toxicant with the different effects such as acid vapor mixed with the lead fumes, etc TLV
cannot be assumed to be additive because you need to follow the separate protocol for
them.
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Now, sometimes we may encounter the workers exposure to dust and dust is again very
dangerous because asbestos dust or lead dust etc they may create the future health problem.
So, safety studies this includes any contaminants which may cause health injuries, dust of
course fit this category. Toxicological studies teaches that the dust particle which present
in the greatest hazard to the lungs are normally in the respirable particle size range of 0.2
to 0.3 microns, remember nature has given us a natural filtering power like nose hair, mucus
etc mucosal.
So, sometimes these small particles may get penetrated and they become the part and parcel
of our respiratory system and it may accumulate to the lungs and they may create the future
problem. So, we need to be aware about this dust problem. So, particles larger than 0.5
microns are usually unable to penetrate the lungs while those smaller than 0.2 microns
settle out too slowly.
Now again come back to estimation of worker exposure by the toxic vapor, the best
procedure to determine the exposure of toxic vapor because sometimes the mist may create
a problem. So, the best procedure to determine the exposures to toxic vapor is to measure
the vapor concentration directly. For design purpose, estimate the vapor concentration, they
are frequently required in enclosed space above the open container, where drums are filled
in the area of spill.
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Now, this is the best example suppose I am working in this pool of toxic substance. Now,
there are 2, 3 things which one should know that how the our system works. One is that
what is the rate of evaluation of that particular toxic substance? Again, it depends on
various parameters like molecular weight of that substance, what is the working
temperature, what is the pressure, how much area is exposed to the atmosphere?
The second thing is that what is the rate of ventilation? Because ultimately suppose this is
the working place and certain quantities evaluated and from my right, the certain
ventilating air is passing through, now this ventilating air is mixing with that toxic
substance. So, you must know as per the mass transfer theory, you must know that what is
the mass transfer coefficient? What is the mixing constant? So you must know all these
things and then through this ventilating duct it passes through the atmosphere or scrubbing
column etc.
So, you need to find out the combined effect both in terms of evaluation, because again, do
not forget that evaluation is dependent on various parameters and what is the rate of
ventilation and what is the combined effect. So, how we can solve this particular aspect?
So, for this the best thing is that take a cube, imaginary cube and this you assume that this
enclosure or a cube is ventilated by constant volume of airflow.
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Now here, there is a continuous evaluation of a toxic substance from this pool. Now, this
is this, this is mixed at this enclosure and goes to the some either treatment device or
scrubbing device or it is exhausted to the atmosphere. So, this enclosure is ventilated by
the constant volume airflow, remember this is purely an assumption and volatile vapors are
evolved within the enclosure. So, an estimate of the concentration of volatile in the air is
required.
Now, let us see, let C is the concentration of volatile vapors in the enclosure unit is m by
v, v is the volume of this particular enclosure and sometimes if you have other thing
constant then you can integrate throughout,
QV is the ventilation rate in volume per time,
k is the non-ideal mixing factor that is usually unit less based on the master transfer theory,
Qm is the evaluation rate of volatile material in mass per time.
Usually the non-ideal mixing factor k accounts for the condition in the enclosure less than
well mixed.
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Now, it follows that the total mass of volatile in volume is VC, because C is the
concentration and V is the volume, the accumulation of mass of volatile is this one, mass
weight of volatile due to evaluation is Qm,
accumulation = (mass in - mass out)
The dynamic mass balance on the volatile species is given by this particular expression.
So, at a steady state the accumulation is assumed to be 0, then,
C=Qm / k Qv
I mean sometimes you may take an assumption of direct, direct assumption of ideal gas
law so, if you say this.
Then you can get this particular mathematical expression to estimate that what is the
concentration in parts per million.
Cppm = (Vv/VB ) X 106 = [(mv/ρv)/Vb ] X 106 = [ mv/Vb ] [ RgT / PM ] X 106
Remember, there are so many factors like ρ, ρ represent the density and subscripts v and b
they are denotes the volatile and bulk gas species and Rg is the gas constant, T is a
temperature and P is the pressure, M is the molecular weight.
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So, by application of your regular mass transfer theory, you can find out that what is the
concentration in parts per million, so that you can analyze that based on the TLV-TWA
information you can analyze that workers are exposed or over exposed or under exposed.
Sometimes you may take certain assumption. So, you can reduce that to a particular
formula up to
Cppm = ( QmRgT / k Qv P M ) X 106
This equation used to determine the average concentration in parts per million of any
volatile species in an enclosure given a source term Qm, that is the rate of evaluation and
ventilation rate QV.
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Now, this particular thing and some now, if you find this then you can integrate the things
accordingly you can get the exposure over and above that particular working pool. Now,
this particular aspect can be applied to the different type of exposures like workers standing
near a pool of a volatile liquid like I am standing over here, near an opening to a storage
tank, near an open container of volatile liquid.
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We have taken certain important assumptions while deriving this particular formula. The
concentration calculated is an average concentration in the enclosure that means we have
assumed the temperature, pressure throughout is constant and even area sometimes area is
also variable, so it is constant. Localized condition could result in significant higher
concentration and worker directly above an open container might be exposed to higher
concentration like this, I am directly exposed to the concentration and if I am a bit away,
then definitely the concentration profile would be change.
A study state condition is assumed that is the accumulation term in mass balance is 0, the
non-ideal mixing factor k varies from 0.1 to 0.5 for most practical situation and perfect
mixing it is k is equal to 1.
Now, another thing is that to how we can estimate the vaporization rate of a liquid, liquid
with higher saturation vapor pressure usually evaporate fast as a result the evaporation rate
mass per time it is expected to be the function of saturation vapor pressure. In reality, for
vaporization into stagnant air, the vaporization rate is proportional to the difference
between the saturation vapor pressure and a partial pressure of the vapor in the stagnant air
and it is usually expressed by this particular formula:
𝑄𝑚 ∝ (𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃)
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Now, P saturation usually the saturation pressure, the saturation vapor pressure of the pure
liquid at the temperature of the liquid and P is the partial pressure of the vapor in the bulk
stagnant gas just above the liquid.
Now we can have this more generalized expression and for the vaporization rate:
𝑀𝐾𝐴 (𝑝 𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑝)
𝑄𝑚 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
this Qm is the obviously the evaporation rate, M is the molecular weight of the volatile
substance, k is the mass transfer coefficient having the unit of length per time, A is the area
in question, Rg is the gas (constant) ideal gas constant and TL is the absolute temperature
of the liquid.
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Now, for many situations:
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 ≫ 𝑃;
then this formula reduces to:
𝑀𝐾𝐴𝑝 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑄𝑚 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
Now, this equation is used to determine the vaporization rate of volatile from an open vessel
or from a spill of liquid. So, if you recall the previous formula to calculate the concentration
in parts per million, if you substitute the Qm to that particular formula, we get this
expression through which we can analyze the worker exposure to the vaporization of a
liquid.
𝐾𝑇𝐴𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
𝑘𝑄𝑣 𝑃𝑇𝐿
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In most of the situation, this T = TL
So, we can reduce this formula to
𝐾𝐴𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
𝑘𝑄𝑣 𝑃
k is the mixing factor, QV is the rate of ventilation. The gas mass transfer coefficient is
usually estimated by this particular formula,
K = aD2/3
where a is a constant and D is the gas phase diffusion coefficient. So, by this way, if we
have Ko as the reference species, we can have this formula:
K/Ko = (D/Do)2/3
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And if we apply this formula and reduces it become out to
𝐷 𝑀𝑜
= √
𝐷𝑜 𝑀
𝑀𝑜
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 ( )1/3
𝑀
Now, water is usually or sometimes or most frequently used as a reference substance with
the mass transfer coefficient of 0.83 centimeters per second, be particular about the unit
and be particular about the value.
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Sometimes another, in another scenario where any worker is filling a vessel with a toxic
liquid or a flammable liquid. Now, there are two type of scenario based on the area
available for evaluation of toxic or flammable vapor. Now in this figure, you can see, this
is the area which is available for escaping the vapors. Second thing is that based on that
molecular weight, based on the temperature, (the work) the vapor which is being generated
throughout is displaced throughout.
So, based on the vessel filling rate, that at what is the filling rate or what is at what rate the
liquid is pumping inside the vessel? Based on this particular aspect, the concentration of
the vapor may vary from this level to this level, here you will find more enriched vapor
and as long as it goes up the concentration may change. So, based on this particular aspect,
because initially you just assume a scenario when this vessel is empty and just a worker
started the vessel filling operation at start up there is low bulk volume and it is this chamber
is, this vessel is filled with air. So, the concentration of the toxic substance may be on the
lower side.
But as long as the, the vessel is continuously being filled, then there is a continuous
displacement of vapor and all these vapors or toxic vapors, they are coming out from this
opening. So, there may be a chance that concentration may vary accordingly, there may be
chance that how the worker is being exposed, what is the, it is just like that you are filling
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your petrol tank in a petrol station or a petrol pump, where when the nozzle is being inserted
a small opening is there and you may experience that there is a smell of petrol and
continuously it is being changing, this is the same phenomena.
Now, this is a very important phenomena and you cannot apply our previous steps to
calculate the concentration in parts per million, because here the rate of vessel filling is
also playing a vital role. So, the vessel if being filled with the liquid the volatile emissions,
they are generated from two sources, evaporation of the liquid usually represented by this
formula earlier we have discussed this formula and the displacement of a vapor in the vapor
space by the liquid filling the vessel.
So, the net generation at this point, the net generation of the volatile is the sum of two
sources. One is the source due to evaporation and second one is the source due to the
displacement. So, Qm you can calculate easily through this formula:
Qm = (Qm)1 + (Qm)2
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For (Qm)2 is determined by assuming that the vapor is completely saturated with volatile.
So, you can introduce an adjustment which we will discuss that whether it is a splash filling
or whether it is a continuous filling. Now, let us say that VC is the volume of the container,
this container is having the volume VC, rf is the constant filling rate of the vessel because
we have assumed, but sometimes it is not being followed, then rf we see that it is the
constant filling rate of the vessel and p saturation is the saturation vapor pressure of the
volatile liquid and TL is the absolute temperature of the container and liquid.
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So, it follows that rf VC is the volumetric rate of bulk vapor being displaced from the drum
in terms of volume per time, volume unit time. Now, if ρv is the density of the volatile
vapor, so rf VC and ρv is the mass rate of volatile displaced from the container that is mass
per time. So, if you assume the ideal gas law, then
𝑀𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝜌𝑣 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
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So, it follows that:
(𝑄𝑚 )2 = 𝑟𝑉
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿 𝑓 𝑐
Now, this can be modified for the container vapors that are not saturated with the volatile.
Now, this ϕ is the adjustment factor.
So if you introduce this ϕ, because we have previously discussed that why we are
introducing this adjustment factor,
So,
(𝑄𝑚 )2 = 𝑟 𝑉𝜑
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿 𝑓 𝑐
because the filling operation carries a different type of domain. So that is why we have
introduced this adjustment factor.
So far splash filling, filling from the top of the container like this, you are filling it from
the top of the container, so this may, this may create a problem formation of small droplets,
so area may increase so that is why this adjustment factors being introduced. So for splash
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filling, filling from the top of the container with the liquid splashing to the bottom ϕ is
equal to 1.
For subsurface filling, that is the dip leg to the bottom, the dip leg is like this, you are filling
like this. So for subsurface filling, a dip leg of the bottom, usually ϕ is equal 0.05.
So the net equation becomes this one:
𝑄𝑚 = (𝑄𝑚 )1 + (𝑄𝑚 )2 = ( 𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 𝜑 + 𝐾𝐴)
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
A is the area of exposure through which the vapors are escaping.
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Now, if we wish to calculate the vapor concentration in parts per million, (during) due to
this filling operation, we can put in the entire value of Qm to the original equation and we
found out that:
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = ( 𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 + 𝐾𝐴) × 106
𝑘𝑄𝑣 𝑃
For many practical situations the evaporation term this KA is much smaller than the
displacement term and it can be neglected. So, we can eliminate this, this one and we can
get:
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = ( 𝑟𝑓 𝑉𝑐 ∅) × 106
𝑘𝑄𝑣 𝑃
So, this is the original formula.
So, this in this particular aspect, we have discussed majority of aspect of vessel filling,
workers exposure, continuous rate of exposure, so that we can analyze that how much my
worker is being exposed to the toxic vapor and at what rate because this quantification is
extremely essential. So, we have calculated this concentration and based on this
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concentration, we can analyze with the theoretical value, with the help of theoretical value
that my workers are exposed or they are working in a safer zone.
In this module, we have discussed the various aspect of toxic vapor release, how it can be,
how your worker can be exposed to the those toxic vapors. What are the different modules
through which we can analyze? I am working in open pan or sometimes the area in
question. Sometimes there is a continuous rate of evolution, sometimes the concentration
may vary like this. In the next module, we will discuss some other aspect of like noise,
radiation, some other aspect of the toxicity in the work place exposure, Thank you.
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Lecture - 14
Noise, Vibration and Radiation
Welcome to the Noise and Radiation module of the Industrial Hygiene, in the previous
module we studied the different methods of evaluation of toxic vapors from different type
of scenarios.
In this particular module we will discuss about the gravity of noise pollution as well as the
radiative pollution. Now, noise is very dangerous thing because in workplace you may
experience different type of noises, sometimes it is irritating, sometimes it is pleasing etc.
So, one must be aware about that what kind of precautionary measure he or she needs to
take when it exceeds a particular limit.
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So, what is noise? Noise is defined as unwanted sound or noise pollution, this is usually
measured in decibel. Now, an ‘A–weighting’ sometime written as dB inside the bracket A’
and used to measure the average noise level and ‘C–weighting’ is ‘dB C’ to measure the
peak impact or explosive noise.
In this particular figure you can see the various noise level of different activities like soft
sound you can hear that is having a maybe a 0 decibel, upto 5 etc. Then whispering, rainfall,
busy city traffic it is up to 85 sometimes you may experience that horn etc they are quite
irritating, then gas manure, walkman tractor, etc jet plane, firework, gunshot, 20 gauge
gunshots, etc. So these are some of the sounds these sounds are sometimes it is a present
and these are quite irritating.
So, remember, every three decibels doubles the noise. So, what might seem like smaller
difference in the number can be quite significant. So you must know that at workplace what
are the permissible limit, how we can calculate and how we can protect our workers and
what is the gravity of those over noising?
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Now, to evaluate the noise hazard the physical parameter used as a risk predictors; they are
defined as follows, the daily noise exposure level, let us say for 8 hour the dBA is 20 being
the time weighted average of the noise exposure level for a normal 8 hour working day.
So, you can see this particular chart from say 12 decibels, 9 decibels, 6 decibel, 3 decibels,
0, etc and simultaneously, this is the time indicator which indicates that up to what is the
duration of that particular exposure to the human being or that particular exposure to the
worker which is who is working in that particular area.
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Now, there are certain adverse effect of the noise, sometimes hearing impairment and
hearing disorders if you are continuously being exposed to the heavy noise or high noise
or beyond 85 decibels noise, there are certain effect on the noise and the pregnant workers
there may be a certain work related stress, there are certain influence on work task,
sometimes disturbance on speech communication, noise is a cause of certain accidents, and
sometimes it's quite irritating, it may impart other health effects.
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Now hearing impairment and hearing disorders usually they are excessive exposure to
noise are probably the most common cause of hearing loss due to damage of inner ear. In
general, the prolong exposure of sound that is greater than 85 decibel is potentially
hazardous, although the important factor is the total amount of exposure given by the level
and length of exposure time.
So, risk of instant, irreversible damage begins at ± 130 to 140 decibel in a peak level may
be due to attributed due to the explosion, firearm reports or electric arcs etc. Because these
are, sometimes these like electrical arcs and explosion, they are common in various
chemical industries.
How we can calculate the noise intensity? Because noise problems are common in chemical
plant and this type of problem is also evaluated by industrial hygienist. Now, if noise
problem is suspected, the industrial hygienist or the chemical engineers should
immediately make the appropriate noise measurement and develop the recommendation.
Now question arises how we can measure the noise? Now, this is a standard formula for
the calculation of, or measuring of noise intensity in decibel that is equal to
Noise Intensity (dB) = -10 log(I/Io)
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where one sound is having the intensity I and another sound is having the intensity I naught,
I naught you may referred as the standard noise intensity through which you can calculate
the noise intensity and find out that whether it is beyond the limit or if it is within the limit,
if it is the beyond the limit then definitely you need to take some appropriate measures.
So, as far as the noise risk is concerned, what kind of action needs to be taken? First you
assess the risk that how much is the risk based on your theoretical calculation, based on the
human perception with those who are working within the arena. Prevention of exposure
including use of personal hearing protections, limitation of exposure in accordance with
the exposure and action level, sometimes some pulley, sometimes some moving part
because of lack of lubrication, sometimes they are creating some irritating sound.
So, by application of usual techniques, you can reduce the noise intensity and if it is not
workable then information, consultation and training to do with and off workers and above
all, you must go forth health surveillance, so, that you can aware and future no problem
can be created.
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Assessment of risk arising from exposure to noise should consider the level what is the
level of noise intensity, which type of noise intensity or which type of noise pollution is
there and what is the duration of exposure of that particular irritating noise. This includes
any exposure to the impulse noise, sometimes the fraction of second of noise may create a
problem.
You must know the exposure limit values and action values because you cannot reduce the
noise intensity of a gunshot, you cannot reduce because these are inherent property, so you
need to adopt the appropriate measure, you must know the effect of noise on health and
safety of the worker in the risk group, effects on worker health and safety resulting from
interaction between the noise and work related ototoxic substance between the noise and
vibration and sometimes vibration may create a problem in the subsequent in this particular
module we will discuss this vibration aspect also.
Any indirect effect on worker’s health and safety resulting from interaction between noise
and warning signal or other sounds this is very important.
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Information on noise emission provided by the manufacturer of work equipment in line

with the relevant directives. Now, this is again very important because if prima facie you
know that what is the noise intensity and suppose it is beyond the workable limit say 90
decibel, 95 decibel then you are mentally prepared to adopt different type of control
measures to reduce that intensity to the human being.
The existence of alternative work equipment designed to reduce the noise emission, the
extension of exposure to noise beyond normal working hour under the employers
responsibility, you must aware because they are, if they are over exposed then you need to
take the precautionary measures.
Information obtained from health surveillance, sometimes you are acclimatized to the noise
radiation. So, you have to go for the medical checkup of your workers, so that (they) you
can analyze that something, something wrong is going on within the system and you can
be aware of this particular aspect. The availability of hearing protectors with adequate
attenuation characteristics.
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Risk reduction in practice, that is you may use of other working methods that need less
exposure to the noise, sometimes good housekeeping like application of proper lubricant
(may create) may reduce this problem. The choice of suitable work equipment, taking
account of work to be done emitting the least possible noise. The design and layout of
workplaces and workstations, sometimes it is very fruitful, because if the intensity of noise
is we can say the distributed then definitely the problem to the worker may be reduced. The
adequate information and training to instruct the workers to use work equipment correctly
in order to reduce their exposure to noise to a minimum one.
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Now, noise reduction by a technical means, that is a reducing the airborne noise that is the
noise at the workplace means such as shields, enclosures, there may be there are use of
certain sound absorber or sound absorbent covering, etc. Sometimes to reducing structure-
borne noise by means of such as damping or isolation. So you may adopt any kind of
technique.
Maintenance program for the work equipment workplace and systems. One best example
is go for good maintenance, like lubricating of any moving part. Organization of work to
reduce noise by limitation of duration and intensity of exposure. Sometimes you are bound
by the inherent property of any equipment which is producing noise, then you may limit
the duration intensity of the exposure, of your workers. Appropriate work schedule with
adequate rest period, so that they may acclimatize to that scenario.
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In this particular slide we will discuss about the organizational and administrative noise
control. So, engineer or hygienist should consider organizational control measures as noise
emission as an evaluation factor in procurement policy. So, once you are procuring any
equipment, you must aware that what is the noise level, etc. Working method which
generates less noise that is a good housekeeping or a working practice, etc. Organization
of work to reduce the noise, etc again it is attributed to the good housekeeping and adopting
a better policy for low noise.
By limiting the duration and intensity of exposure keeping the number of exposed workers
to a minimum. You may adopt the policy of task rotation, so, that one person cannot be
attributed to the high noise level. Scheduling noisy activities when fewer workers are
exposed so that the impact to the mass population may be eliminated. Appropriate work
schedule with adequate rest period. So, that the body can go up to the normal level.
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You may adopt certain hearing protection, if risk arising from exposure to noise cannot be
prevented by other means, then definitely you must have a hearing protection. When
technical noise control is ineffective because remember everywhere there is some inherent
noise level. So, when technical noise control is ineffective, infeasible or prohibitively
expensive. So, sometimes you need to optimize among all three parameters.
Individual hearing protectors should be selected to eliminate the risk to hearing or to reduce
the risk to a minimum or at least to make sure the exposure limit values are not exceeded.
Ensure the wearing of hearing protectors based on the requirement. Check the effectiveness
of the measures taken and you need to perform the reviews and based on those reviews
submit the report to the organizational head.
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There are some types of hearing protection devices like earplugs usually they are vinly,
silicone, spun fiberglass, etc and cotton wax combination, maybe the closed-cell foam
product that are inserted or semi inserted in the ear canal to form a noise blocking seal, etc.
There are certain earmuffs, there are ear cups usually the rigid plastic material with an
absorptive liner that completely enclosed the outer ear and seal around with the foam or
fluid filled cushions. Comparatively, the attenuation is better at intermediate frequency.
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Some earmuffs with incorporated active noise cancellation, these are new technology that
are especially for the lower frequency range; offers an active noise level dependent
attenuation as well as passive protection.
In this particular aspect, we will discuss the gravity of vibration, because not only noise
the vibration may create a problem and some equipments and some devices they are highly
vibration prone. So, we must know that what is the importance of (this) these vibration to
the human body and how we can eliminate these vibrations.
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So, what is vibration? Vibration is a mechanical oscillation about a reference position. This
is an everyday phenomenon and (we meet) sometimes we meet in our home during the
transport or a work, etc. Even your mobile, your mobile phone; they call at the massive
vibration frequency. So, vibration is often a destructive and annoying side effect of a useful
process. But it sometimes generates intentionally to perform a task. It is the best example
is your mobile. For occupational health, the exposure to hand-arm vibration and the whole
body vibrations are concern.
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Now, first let us take the hand-arm vibration. So the hand-arm vibration, the mechanical
vibration that when transmitted to human hand-arm system, entails risk to the health and
safety of have workers, in particular vascular bone or a joint or neurological or (muscle)
muscular disorder. So, we must know these hand-arm vibration.
There are certain whole body vibrations, the mechanical vibrations that when transmitted
to whole body, entails risk to the health and safety of the workers and particular lower back
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morbidity and trauma of spine, etc. So these are the extremely dangerous and may create a
future health problem.
Then reduction aspect of exposure to vibration. Other working methods that require less
exposure. Choice of appropriate work equipment or appropriate ergonomic design
producing the least possible vibrations. The provision of auxiliary equipment that reduces
the risk of injuries caused by vibration. The appropriate maintenance program of work
equipment, the workplace and the workplace system.
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The design and layout of workplace and work station in such an efficient manner, so that
it may, may reduce the adverse effect of vibration, there are certain vibration absorbers,
etc. Adequate information and training to instruct the worker, this is extremely essential,
because it is the right of worker to know that what are the hazards present at my workplace.
Limitation of the duration and intensity of the exposure, this is again a very crucial aspect.
Appropriate work schedules with adequate rest period because this is again essential, so
that your body attains a natural state before ready for another job. So provision of clothing
to protect from cold and damp because again may create a health problem.
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The last segment of this particular module is the radiation, there are so many equipments,
there are so many things that workplace in the especially chemical industries, those involve
the radiation and radiation is extremely dangerous, sometimes the effects are spontaneous,
and sometimes it may create a future health problem. So, everybody should know that
(what is the) what kind of radiation present at the workplace, whether they are properly
notified, and how to protect yourself and your worker from the imminent danger of
radiation.
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Now usually radiation, there are two types of radiation. I am not going to detail because it
is beyond the domain, ionizing radiation, they are having very high energy like alpha, beta,
gamma type of radiation. Non-ionizing radiation, they possess very low energy like UV-
lights, visible light, infrared, radio wave, microwave these are the most common thing.
So, you can see in this particular figure that what is the intensity of ionizing radiation depth,
gamma ray they can be penetrated more even up to the organ, this is the skin, tissues, bone,
organs, beta radiation, it can go up to the tissue level and alpha it is up to the skin level.
So, you must be aware that what kind of radiation is present at your workplace.
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The ionizing radiation is transmitted by radioactive materials and certain equipments. So,
it can permeate through many materials. So, there are three types of ionizing radiation,
alpha, beta and gamma we have discussed in the previous slides and their intensity to the
human being because we are more concerned towards the human being.
These radiations can have various effect on health, the radiation sickness occurs after
exposure to a very high dose of radiation, it normally lead to death. Exposure to a moderate
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dose can lead to a radiation tumor and again the future effect of those tumor are extremely
dangerous. The other effects are change in the hereditary material like DNA, infertility,
malformation of the unborn child or a fetus and a cancer this one is again a more common,
Non ionizing radiation they possess a very low energy, now is electromagnetic radiation
with a lower frequency, there are different type like UV, like welding arc, laser, etc. Visible
lights they are certain lamps, tube lights, welding arc, laser, infrared, heat lamps, electrical
heaters, welding processes, etc. Radio waves, heating, signal transfer, plastic sealing, etc.
Microwaves more common in our household affairs, electromagnetic waves, etc. So, must
know that what, what are the non-ionizing radiations at your workplace.
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Their high exposure level can heat up the body tissues. Prolonged exposure to low level
could cause the health damage and a future health problem, depending upon the
wavelength, the energy content and the depth of penetration like inflammation of the eyes,
skin burns, tumors, reduced fertility, etc. So, these are the some problems may created by
non-ionizing radiations.
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Now, what are the different control measures available for the radiations? No eating,
drinking or smoking at the workplace, first thing because the if they changes, if they change
your body energy level, then simultaneously they may change the food items or whatever
you are taking in terms of drink, etc they may change the energy level. Implement
consequent personal hygiene. Leave the packaging of radioactive material intact. Do not
dismantle radioactive sources otherwise, it may create a problem. Use specific personal
protective equipment, lead apron, etc and whatever being suggested by the supplier or
whatever being, whatever being advised at the workplace.
The proper signage should be placed at the workplace. Cordon off the areas around the
radioactive source by putting the work permit system and if work permit system, you adopt
the permit system then you ensure that all, all the visitors plus the workers they are well
protected.
After potential health hazards are identified and evaluated the appropriate control technique
must be developed and installed. This requires the application of appropriate technology
for reducing workplace exposure. The designing control method is very important and it is
very creative task.
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During the design process, the engineer must pay particular attention to ensure the newly
designed control technique provides, that is why the safety reviews are essential. The new
control technique itself does not create another hazard you must ensure sometimes even
more hazardous than the original problem.
So, you must ensure that whatever control technique or newly controlled technique you are
adopting, it should not create any future problems, sometimes you are eliminating the
radiation problem by this way you are creating the vibrational or a noise problem. So, it
should not be there.
Now, in other slides or in the subsequent module, we will discuss the various chemical
plant control techniques. So, in this aspect the four basic parameters are there, one is the
substitution; you must use the chemical and equipment which are less hazardous.
Attenuation; use chemicals under condition which make them less hazardous maybe by
reducing the vibration, maybe by reducing the temperature, maybe by reducing the
pressure, etc.
Isolation; the isolate the equipment and the source of hazard, sometimes like it is equally
applicable for the radioactive hazards, it is equally applicable for the vibrational hazards,
it is equally applicable for the noise hazard, equally applicable for flammable hazards, etc.
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Intensification; you must reduce the quantity of a chemical or you must reduce the quantity
of those the equipment, those who are producing vibration, noise, radiation etc. So, these
are the four basic parameters for any chemical plant control technique.
Now, in this particular table you can see that what kind of different types of chemical plant
control techniques and what are the typical techniques being adopted to control the hazard,
substitution, use chemical equipment which are less hazardous you may use the mechanical
pump seal, you may use the welded pipe versus flanged sections, use solvents those who
are less toxic, you may use the mechanical gauges versus mercury one (use chemical)
because mercury is again carcinogenic, use chemicals with the higher flashpoints, boiling
points, and other less hazardous properties, you may use water as a heat transfer fluid
instead of hot oil because the it is having the high enthalpy.
Attenuation, you may use the chemical under condition which make them less hazardous,
you may use vacuum to reduce the boiling point, reduce pressure, temperature and
pressure, you may refrigerate the storage vessel, dissolved hazardous material in a safe
solvent, you may operate at conditions where the reactor run away is not possible.
These are some typical tasks. isolation; isolate the equipment and a source of hazard that
is the place control room away from all kind of operation, separate pump rooms from other
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rooms, acoustically insulate the noisy lines and equipment so that you can minimize the
noise, noise intensity, barricade control rooms and tanks so that the vibration, radioactive
hazards may not take place.
Intensification; you reduce the quantity of chemical that has changed from large batch
reactor to smaller continuous reactor, reduce storage inventory of raw material, improve
control to reduce the inventory of hazardous intermediate chemicals and you may reduce
the process hold up.
Now, when we talk about the control techniques, there are two major control techniques,
one is the environmental control and the second one is the personal protection. Because as
far as whenever you are dealing with all kinds of such toxic substance, noise level vibration,
radiation, etc these two are extremely important. So, environmental control, this reduces
the exposure by reducing the concentration of toxic in the workplace environment. This
includes the substitution, isolation, enclosures, local ventilation, dilution ventilation, wet
methods and good housekeeping.
The personal protection, this prevents or reduces the exposure by providing the barrier
between the worker and workplace environment so that the worker cannot get exposed to
the toxic environment, maybe in terms of noise, maybe in terms of chemicals, maybe in
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terms of radiation etc. This barrier is usually worn by worker, hence designated as the
personal one.
We will discuss these control methods in subsequent module and by the time in this
particular lecture, whatever we have discussed. You can have the reference from the, these
three reference sources or resource materials. Thank you.
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Lecture 15
Industrial Hygiene: Control
Welcome to this module of industrial hygiene. So, up till now we have studied about the
identification and evaluation tools. In this particular module, we will discuss the various
methodologies applicable for different type of toxic hazard, evaluation of toxic hazards etc.
So, just have a look that what we have studied in the last modules. We have gone through,
that what is industrial hygiene? What was the history? There are some governmental
regulations and abbreviations, what are the steps involved in industrial hygiene? We have
gone through the material safety data sheet, perform the evaluation study so that we can
analyse that what is the gravity of toxic substance those who are released at the workplace.
We have discussed about the various threshold limit values and other parameters through
with which you can assess the gravity of those toxic release at work place. In this particular
module, we will discuss and a briefly we have gone through these control methodologies in
the last module.
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Again I am coming back to the control modules, these control modules are divided into two
different aspects. One is the environmental control and second one, is the personal protection.
So, environmental control they reduces the exposure by reducing the concentration of toxic in
the workplace environment, they include the substitution, isolation which we have gone
through in the last module, enclosure, different type of ventilation tools etc.
The personal protective production involves the prevention or reduction of exposure by

providing the barrier between the worker and a workplace exposure. This barrier is usually
worn by the worker. So, it is designated as a personal word.
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Now, in this particular table we are having the different type of control tools or (controls)
control methodology available and what are the typical techniques available for those control
methodologies? These are the general examples like we may have a enclosure, that is a
enclosed room or equipment and a place under the negative pressure. So, typical techniques
they are enclosed hazardous operation such as sample point sometimes sealed rooms, sewer,
ventilation, you may use the analyzer and instruments to observe inside equipments, shield
high temperature surface, pneumatically convey dusty materials etc.
There are certain wet methods, used wet methods to minimize the contamination with dust.
The typical technique involved are clean vessel chemically versus sandblasting, use water
sprays for cleaning so that the dust may get deposited, clean area frequently good
housekeeping, use water spray to shield the trenches or pump seals.
Another is the local ventilation, this contains the exhaust of hazardous substance we will
discuss these local and a dilution ventilation in due course of time in this particular module.
The typical techniques are used properly designed hoods, use hoods for charging and
discharging, you may use the ventilation at drumming section, use local exhaust at sample
points, you may keep exhaust system under negative pressure etc.
The dilution ventilation, the design ventilation system to control the low toxic level so that I
mean this is with the help of certain diluents may be inert or may be air. So, design locker
rooms with the good ventilation and a special area or enclosure for contaminated clothing,
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design ventilation to isolate operation from rooms and offices, design filter press rooms with
directional ventilation.
You may go for a good housekeeping, so keep toxicant and dust contaminated away from
your workplace, you may use dikes around the tanks and pumps, provide water and steam
connection for area washing, provide lines for flushing and cleaning, you may provide well-
designed sewer system with emergency.
You may use the personal protection, this is the last line of defence. Use safety glasses and
free shields, use aprons, arm shields, and space suits, wear appropriate respirators, airline
respirators they are required, so when oxygen concentration is less than 19.5 percent, 19.5
percent is called IDLH immediate death when the oxygen concentration is below this
particular concentration, this is the last not time this is the last line of defence.
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Based on the gravity of the toxic substance various protective gears are available like hard
hats, usually protect head from falling equipments and bumps. Safety glasses, usually the
impact resistant lenses, chemical splash goggle, gas-tights etc suitable for liquid and fumes,
steel toed safety shoes protect against dropped equipment, wraparound face shields like this
this protect usually made of fiberglass and resistant to most of the chemicals.
Splash suits, Viton or butyl rubber for non-flammable exposures, Vinyl apron resist most
chemicals, umbilical cord suits used with the external air supply, rubber over sleeves these
usually protects forearms, PVC coated gloves resist acid and bases, PVC and nitrile knee
boots they resist acid, oil and greases, ear plugs protect against the high noise level. So,
basically these are the barrier from toxic substances to yourself.
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Now, we will discuss something about the respirator because this is you can say the last line
of defence or it provides the barrier, remember these respirators to be used very carefully.
And you can see in this particular figure that this prevents the contamination of toxic vapours
through inhalation to the body system and these respirators are of so many (times) types you
can see there are a couple of in this particular figure.
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Now, there are certain advantages and certain disadvantages associated with the Respirators
because and we are going to discuss all those things in the subsequent slides. And respirators
should only be used on temporary basis until regular control methods can be implemented.
So, whenever you are using the respirators then definitely the level of contamination or level
of exposure is on the higher side and it crosses all the workers or the person those who are in
and around, they are overexposed
So, it should be used as a temporary basis because ultimate attempts should be there to
control the emission of that particular toxic substance, used as emergency equipment to
ensure worker safety in the event of accident. This is the last resort in the event of the
environmental control techniques are unable to provide a satisfactory protection because the
human life is first.
So, one major disadvantage associated with the use of the respirator is that a worker with a
respirator is unable to perform or respond as well as a worker without one. So, respirator
always compromise workers ability, so that is why we must emphasize that you must
implement the regular control methods, so that the normal condition or the toxic substance
released can be lower compared to the acceptable limit.
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There are various types of respirators or a covering available as on date. Now, this one is like
quarter mask, this is filled this one, this is the half mask filled at the nose etc, this is the full
face piece sometimes the toxic substance they are irritating to the skin also, so are itching
they were they may impart itching to eyes, so you can use the full face piece. There are
mouthpiece and nose clamps not very common, but mostly people are using.
Sometimes the toxic substance is extremely reactive. So, there are different types of loose-
fitting coverings, these are the part in part this may be the part and parcel of full suit, full
bodysuit or full face suit. So, this one is the hood, sometimes the helmet being used for the
protection, these are the loose-fitting face pieces and this is the full body suit. So, based on
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your requirement you can use because ultimately the efficiency of worker is always
challenged whenever you are using this type of respirators.
Sometimes, these respirators they are filled with certain type of attachments like filter,
chemical canisters, chemical cartridge etc. So, this is purely based on the toxic substance
released at the workplace. Now, usual way is to use the filter because whenever the
suspended particles on the higher side, so it is advisable to use filter along with the respirator.
So, a component what is the (respirator) filter? A component used in the respirator to remove
solid or liquid aerosols from the inspired air this is called also called the purifying element.
So, you can see this one, the white or light coloured thing is filter, these are very common so
whenever you are crossing the traffic or if the particulate matter is on the higher side then you
may find the people are using this type of filter along with the respirators.
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There are certain canisters or cartridges, they are situated in between like this or the canister
is attached to this one. So, basic purpose of this chemical based canister or cartridge is to
have (an adsorbing) or absorbing ability of toxic substance and sometimes a filter fails to
provide the adequate safety or adequate protection then these canisters being used or the
cartridges being used to neutralize the effect of that toxic substance.
So, usually a canister or cartridge a container with a filter, sorbent or catalyst or combination
of these items, which remove the specific contamination and from the air passed through the
container.
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There are certain air purifying respirators like this you can see that these are the air purifying
devices. So, a respirator with an air purifying filter, cartridge or canister that removes the
specific air contaminants by passing ambient air through the air purifying element it may be a
chemical it may not be it may be some physical device.
When you are in such a scenario then the toxic the toxicity of any particular chemical is on
the higher side then there are certain self-contained breathing apparatus SCBA. Usually this
an atmosphere supplying respirator for which the breathing air source is designed to be
carried by the user. So you can see that this is the oxygen canister, it is at the real part of the
body and this is applicable when the environment is a smoky, when the environment is
extremely filled with the toxic substance. So that even there is no and no opportunity to have
a purified air with the or your regular respirators they do fail.
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There are certain oxygen deficient environment, so usually in engineering term and
atmosphere with the oxygen content below 19.5 percent by volume is termed as oxygen
deficient atmosphere. So, all oxygen deficient and atmosphere are considered as (LD) sorry
IDLH immediately dangerous to life or health. So it should be well publicized and it is
always advisable to use SCBA or SCBA under these circumstances.
So these are the respirators for IDLH atmosphere, you may use the full face peace pressure,
demand SCBA certified by an NIOSH for minimum service life of 30 minutes that is based
on the capacity of these cylinders. You may use, you may use a combination of full face
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piece pressure demand SAR with auxiliary self-contained air supply apparatus. So, based on
your requirement and based on the concentration you may use any one of them.
Now, next aspect is the ventilation, usually ventilation is one of the most powerful and most
popular tool for decontaminating any workplace, if the workplace is contaminated by the
toxic substance. So for environmental control of air bound toxic material, the most common
method is the choice is ventilation. Now, ventilation is of so many type, now the ventilation
is added benefit, these benefits are can quickly remove the dangerous concentration of
flammable and toxic material from workplace. It can be highly localized, reducing the
quantity of air moved and equipment size suppose I am working over here, so you can
localized, you can direct you can have the directional ventilation tool, so that it can snatch
away the toxic substance from the workplace.
So, there is no need to install the costly ventilation equipment throughout your workplace.
These equipments, these ventilating equipments they are readily available, it can be even you
can find it at your kitchen when the ventilation fan is there or sometimes the (chimney)
electrical chimney is there. It is very easy to install any kind of ventilation equipment and
equipment these ventilation equipment can be added to the existing facility as smartly as
possible.
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But the one major disadvantage associated with the ventilation and that is the operating cost
because they are highly energy consumable, so substantial electrical energy may be required
to drive the potentially large fans and the cost to heat or cool the large quantity of fresh air.
So, because of these factors they do possess a heavy cost, even if you consider an example of
your kitchen whenever you are using ventilation fan or whenever you are using the kitchen
chimney then definitely the cost is on the higher side, one is the installation cost and second
one is the operating electrical cost. So you cannot overlook (the) these particular factor, but
sometimes these the investment to these expenditure is fruitful because your entire working
environment is safe.
So, these operating cost need to be considered when you are having when you are evaluating
certain alternatives. The best thing is that to minimize the evolution, but if you are not able to
find out like if you are cooking something in your kitchen then you cannot avoid the
formation of off orders then definitely you are compelled to use these kind of ventilating
tools.
Now, ventilation is based on two principles, dilute the contaminants below the target
concentration, so (you have) you are having the TLVS with you, so you dilute the
contaminants below the target concentration and remove the contaminants before workers are
exposed. So, these two are the basic principle on which the ventilation theory runs.
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Usually ventilation systems they are composed of fans and ducts. The best system is the
negative pressure system with the fans located at the exhaust and of the system pulling air
out. Now, based on all the theories applicable technically we can divide the ventilation
techniques in two aspects, local and dilution ventilation. The most common example of local
ventilation is the hood, we will discuss the hood in subsequent slides.
Now, usually a hood is a device that either completely encloses the source of contaminant
and or moves the air in such a fashion to carry the contaminants to an exhaust device.
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Now based on the requirement there are four different types of hoods. The enclosed hood that
completely contains the source of contaminants, now suppose this particular segment is
covered with this one, so anything which is running inside is being sucked out by the
ventilation tool nothing is coming out, so that is called the enclosed hood I will show the
figure.
The exterior hood, the continuously draws the contaminants into an exhaust from some
distance away. The receiving hood, this is an exterior type of hood that uses a discharge
motion of the contaminant for collection usually utilizes the natural draft of a toxic substance
or fumes or a dust etc. The push and pull type of hood, they uses a stream of air from a
supply to push contaminants towards the exhaust system.
The most common example of an enclosed hood is the laboratory hood. Another type of hood
is the bypass hood. Now, for these design, bypass air is supplied through the grill at the tile
top of the hood. This ensures the availability of fresh air to sweep out the contaminants in the
hood. So, not only it provides a dilution, but also it is performing the push and pull type of
activity.
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Now, this is the typical industrial local exhaust ventilation system, local exhaust ventilation
system you can see, these are the ventilation devices and you may require here the ventilation
tool and (some) somewhere here.
Now, this is the general feature of local ventilation system, this is the hood and some of the
contaminants or the fumes may be discharged from this port being collected by the negative
pressure through this hood, you may install an air cleaner over here. So, that any kind of
suspended particles, any kind of particles can be entrapped and it is composed of fan, so that
it can be discharged through duct to the either atmosphere or sometimes if the toxic
substances are there then it may be scrubber may be installed at this port. So that the all toxic
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vapours or fumes may look and may not go to the atmosphere, otherwise it will create the
problem for the nearby people.
The general consideration of this ventilation is that, you are having a contaminant cloud, you
must identify the source where is speed and a direction both the things are important because
you must know that what is the evolution rate and in which direction it is going down. See,
the Bhopal gas tragedy took place just because of this directional effect. The MIC releases the
wind inversion at the time of MIC release is populated towards the population zone. So the
direction of the toxic substance release is important.
Then you must analyze that what is your work process requirement, that is how much amount
of enclosure you require, sometimes if your working places is small then there is no need to
design that things for larger size. The reason is that whenever you are designing for a larger
area then definitely the energy consideration would be on the higher side.
So in case if this particular thing fails then again you redesign the process for the best use of
local exhaust ventilation. Then you must see that, what is the operator requirement you match
the hood to the way the work is carried out there are n number of hoods are available, there
are n number of ventilation devices available based on these two principles. So, you must
know that what kind of operator is required for your specific local exhaust ventilation system.
Then based on these factor, you may have your local exhaust ventilation hood maybe
different type, size and so based on your requirement. So this is the general consideration
while selecting for exhaust ventilation system.
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Now these are the various type of local exhaust ventilation hood. Now this is the local hood,
here you are performing something maybe dust particles if they are being generated at this
source, it is being sucked away by this local ventilation tool. This is the downdraft of
downdraft type of hood, you are performing something at this particular point and the dust
particles or a toxic substance they are being generated and sometimes it is not possible to
snatch away these dust particles from the top of the reactor or top of the process then you
may utilize the downdraft aspect.
This is the side hood, so you are having some processes going on here and if something
hazardous is coming out then you may install the hood and this can be discharged the
contaminants to the atmosphere or to the some other safe places. This is the typical design of
enclosed hood, I will discuss in the next slide because this is the most common a type of
hood. This is the booth hood, hood here the something is going on like this as, this is my
working place and somehow because of the space consideration because of the process
requirement I cannot install the hood just about this particular workplace.
So, it may have some side type of snatching device, so this is the booth type of hood. This is
the regular or you can say the conventional type of a canopy hood, this is work place is just
above you may have a canopy type of hood which may utilize the either the force convection
or a natural convection through which the contaminants may get snatched away at this port.
This is the capture mobile type of hood and it is again very popular in some of the industry
and you can use this particular type of hood or local exhaust ventilation system anywhere
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because suppose I am working over here and sometimes because of some batch preparation I
may need to go to some other place, so I can snatch the dusty particles or a toxic substance
through the flexible hose from anywhere else, so this is the flexible hose through which you
can snatch away can completely remove the toxic substance from the mobile workplace.
Now, these are the three basic LEVs which we have discussed and moreover the design
consideration how the design consideration plays a vital role, we will discuss in this
particular slide. Now, this is the enclosed type of hood which we discussed in the previous
slide. Now, you can see that this particular hood completely enclosed the work place, so any
kind of contaminants which is being released from this place they are housed within this
enclosed chamber and it can be go away from this place.
Now, this particular capturing type of hood or sometimes you may referred as a mobile hood
or captured hood etc. Now, one important feature at this particular to this particular type of
hood is that you must know the fluid behaviour or you must know the flow profile of that
toxic substance or fumes from at your workplace, so that you can design these capturing type
of hood in such a way, so that it can snatch away all the fumes, all the dust to this level.
So, it all depends then whenever you know the flow pattern of these fumes only then you can
set the power of section of this particular in capturing hood and opening of this particular
hood, so that it can snatch away all the the undesired contaminants from the workplace.
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These are the again the typical example of LEV or local exhaust ventilation hoods these one
is the enclosed hood, sometimes you may find the gloves inside so that any part of the body
will not be get contaminated to the toxic environment. These are the some partially large
hoods, partially small hoods like this you can see they are enclosed ventilated rooms or hood
type of things. So that they can snatch away all the contaminants from anything, this is the
natural receiving hood etc.
Now, main reason we must understand sometimes these ventilation tools do fail. Now, why
do they do fail? There are certain reasons associated with it, like incorrect type of hood is
chosen and could never provide the sufficient protection. Now, sometimes because of
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because you do not have any idea about the flow pattern of fumes or toxic substance you
have chosen the incorrect type of hood then definitely it will fail, sometimes when the
enclosed hood is required and you have chosen the mobile type of hood then again it will fail.
The airborne contaminants is not contained or captured, again if you have not much
knowledge about those airborne contaminants then definitely your ventilation tool will be
failed. LEV hood design does not match the process and source, so definitely because in the
previous slides we have discussed so many types of LEVs, so if you are not able to install the
proper designed LEV hood then definitely it will fail.
Now, see I am giving you a couple of example here you may see that these fumes or dust are
being generated. So, you may utilize that the local exhaust ventilation or a mobile capturing
unit you can see that this is being snatched away by this local exhaust tool. Similarly, here the
person is generating a lot of dust, so it may require the local exhaust ventilation tool
sometimes if it is being toxic then definitely you may utilize the dilution ventilation also.
Sometimes you may experience, the insufficient air flow because you may need to
decontaminate the workplace as well as you may need to dilute the workplace exposure and
for this you may not have a sufficient air supply, in that particular case, your ventilation
system will fail.
Now, as I discussed because whenever you are having this type of a different type of
ventilation tool then you must know the pattern. Remember these pattern governs with two
factor, one is the rate of generation and second is that what is the power being employed to
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suck it out? Now, if this power is insufficient then definitely the dust particles or the fumes
may go out and it may contaminate the workplace, so being sure that you are using the
sufficient power ventilation as well as you are practically aware of that what kind of material
it is and what is a flow pattern and if it requires then definitely you may use the natural draft
ventilation tool.
These are the other examples of capturing hoods, the process, source and contaminant clouds
are outside the hood, then hood has to generate sufficient airflow at and around the source to
capture and draw the contaminant-laden air.
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Now, while capturing hood, they are there certain interrelated properties they must have
adequate capturing velocity, they must be properly placed at a sufficient distance and a zone.
The process induced air movement and draughts must be well-defined. Air flow, velocity
contours and flanges these are the various contours if you see, these are the various air flow
contours it may it has it must be well defined.
You must know that, where you can have the different type of bubbles and you need to
capture those bubbles adequately. You must form the capture curves by a priory before using
any kind of ventilation technique.
Now, this is again the typical problem. This is the problem of evaporation and you can see
the different type of evaporating vapours, vapours these are the profiles of those evaporating
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vapours. So, here because of the variety of reasons you cannot use the over enclosed hood
then you may use the mobile or a zonal hood for to capture the vapours being generated
sometimes these vapours are flammable in nature, they may form the flammable mixture. So
in the previous modules we have discussed that the lower flammability and upper
flammability limit. So, they may capture this thing and it may create a fire hazard to
anywhere. So, be aware about this type of scenario.
Now, whenever again one more thing is that which we have discussed in the evaluation
module, sorry. In this evaluation module, we have discussed the vessel filling operation, now
whenever this vessel is being filled you may see the two type of effect, one is the rate of
evaporation of that particular substance, another one is the rate of movement of those vapours
to the upper part.
So in the last module we have discussed that it is dominated by the area in question, vessel
filling operation etc. So based on the concentration at this juncture, the air velocity must be
properly calculated and air velocity you may require to put some additional air velocity at this
level to capture the vapour-laden air. So, remember again if you are handling with the
flammable vapour then it may create a future problem like fire, etc.
The last segment of this particular module is dilution ventilation. So, if the contaminant
cannot be placed in a hood and must be used in an open area or a room, so you have to use
the dilution ventilation. Now, unlike hood ventilation where the air flow prevents worker
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exposure, dilution ventilation always exposes the worker, but an amount diluted by the fresh
air.
So it is just like that I am working at this bench and some toxic vapours or a flammable
vapour they are coming out from my pool then continuously some by a through external air
supply I am diluting those generated vapours below the TLV or below the LFL, etc. So,
dilution ventilation this always requires more air flow than the local ventilation, so you may
experience that operating expenses this is can be substantial.
Now, for exposure to multiple sources the dilution air requirement is computed for each
individual source because the rate of evaluation, rate of displacement may be different. The
total dilution requirement usually is the sum of individual dilution requirement. Now,
restriction should be considered before implementing the dilution ventilation that
contaminant must not be very highly toxic because it is not removing remember it is not
removing the toxic substance from your workplace, only thing is that it is keeping the
concentration of those toxicant low. So, your workers are definitely those are in continuously
exposed to those toxic vapours. So, that is why the contaminate must not be highly toxic.
Contaminant must be evolved at a uniform rate, the reason is that if there is any variation in
the evolution rate then definitely the air supply or inert supply is change frequently. So, if the
rate is on the higher side then definitely we need to put more air supply and if the evaluation
rate is sometimes decreased then you need to put off the air because ultimately whenever you
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are supplying excess air then definitely stuff no use and unnecessary you are putting more
energy towards the generate the flow of that air supply.
Worker must remain at a suitable distance from the source to ensure proper dilution of the
contaminants, so that has to be ensured because the concentration may vary accordingly
suppose I am just putting my head over there then definitely the concentration would be on
the higher side compared to if I am away from that workplace.
So, in this particular module we have discussed the various ventilation tools, various control
measures applied at workplace. And in this particular segment we have discussed the
industrial all aspect of industrial hygiene, right from identification to the quantification in
terms of evaluation and then how do we control it, thank you very much.
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Lecture - 16
Problems related to Industrial Hygiene
Welcome to this module, which is related to the different problems of industrial hygiene. So,
we had discussed so many concepts of industrial hygiene in different modules, now it is time
have look about the different numerical problems, those who are closely associated with this
particular a chapter. So, we have in this particular module we have listed 5, 6 problems related
to the industrial hygiene, different type of TLVs, etc. So, we are going to take them one by one.
So, let us have a look about the first problem, this problem says that air contains 5 ppm of di-
ethyl-amine TLV-TWA of 10 ppm, 20 ppm of cyclo-hexanol which is having the TLV-TWA
50 ppm, and 10 ppm of propylene oxide which is having the TLV- Time Waited Average of
20 ppm. So, you need to calculate the mixture TLV and TWA and you need to also suggest
that whether this level has been exceeded for the prescribe one or not.
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So, let us have a look about this particular problem. So, from the equation which we have
discussed in previous model that:
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝑖
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝐶𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑖
Now, if we substitute the values which is given in the problem statement, so the
5 + 20 + 10
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑚𝑖𝑥 = = 25 𝑝𝑝𝑚.
5 20 10
+ +
10 50 20
The total mixture concentration is 5 + 20 + 10 = 35 ppm. The workers are overexposed under
these circumstances.
So, the now this one is higher compare to this value, so the workers are over exposed in this
circumstances, so you need to take certain (approp) certain corrective measures to overcome
this particular aspect.
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Now, we may adopt another approach to solve this particular problem and this approach
suggests that we are having three components.
𝑛
𝐶𝑖 5 20 10
∑ = + + = 1.40
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑖 10 50 20
𝑖=1
Now, this quantity 1.40 is greater than 1, so once it is greater than 1 then the (TLV-TWA) has
been exceeded, so workers are over exposed and you need to adapt the corrective measures to
overcome this particular problem.
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Now, let us have another problem than in this particular problem you need to determine the 8
hour TWA worker exposer, if the worker is exposed to toluene vapors as per the following
scheme. Now, the duration of exposer 1 hour, the measured concentration at the work place
110, then again the (worker is over exposed for) worker is exposed for 2 hours with the
concentration of 290 ppm and then he in this exposed for 5 hours with measured concentration
of 90 ppm.
Now, here in this particular aspect, we can use this particular formula:
𝐶1 𝑇1 + 𝐶2 𝑇2 + . … … . . + 𝐶𝑛 𝑇𝑛
𝑇𝑊𝐴 =
Now, here because we are having two parameters, one is the concentration, and another one is
a time. So, this is the concentration and of the component at the work place and this is the time
duration. Now, let us substitute the value of the concentration along with the time to this
particular formula. So,
120𝑋1 + 290𝑋2 + 80𝑋5

𝑇𝑊𝐴 = = 137.5
Now, TLV for toluene is 100 ppm, now this 137.5 is greater than 100, so it is exceeded and
workers are over exposed and you need to take precautionary measures some sort of you can
say that temporary respirators or sometimes you may take the corrective measures, so that the
(TLV can be) TWA for this particular aspect can be lower down.
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Now, let us have another problem, this is the problem number 3. Now, you here you need to
determine the mixture TLV at 25 degree Celsius and 1 atmosphere pressure of a mixture
derived from this particular liquid that is given that P saturation of Toluene 28.2 millimeter of
mercury and saturation pressure of Heptane is given as 46.4 millimeter of mercury. Now, the
mole percent of Heptane is given 50 percent and the Heptane TLV is 400 ppm and Toluene is
presented the mole percent of 50 percent and TLV for Toluene is 50 ppm.
Now, here once we have this particular aspect, the solution requires the concentration of
Heptane and Toluene in the vapor face. So, assuming that the composition of the liquid does
not change as it evaporates the quantity is large, the vapor composition is computed using
standard vapor liquid equilibrium calculation.
So, let us assume that the Raoult's and Dalton's law apply to this particular system under the
given condition. The vapor composition is determined directly from the saturation vapor
pressure of the pure component. So, using Raoult's law, the partial pressures in the vapors we
can determine easily with Raoult's law equation.
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Now, let us have the Raoult's law equation,
Pi = xi . Pisat
Now, here we are having,
Pheptane = 0.5 X (46.4 mm Hg) = 23.2 mm Hg
Ptoluene = 0.5 X (28.2 mm Hg) = 14.1 mm Hg
So the total pressure of the toxicants = 23.2 + 14.1 = 37.3 mm Hg.
So, if you used the Dalton's law and the mole fraction on toxicant basis i.e.
Yheptane = 23.2 mm Hg / 37.3 mm Hg = 0.622
and for if you calculated for the Toluene,
Ytoluene = 1 – 0.622 = 0.378
So, the TLV of the mixture can be calculated by this formula:
1
𝑇𝐿𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = = 109.7 𝑝𝑝𝑚
0.622 0.378
400 +
50
Now, because the vapor will always be the same concentration, so the TLV for the individual
species in the mixture are,
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𝑇𝐿𝑉ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 0.622 𝑋 109.7 = 68.2 𝑝𝑝𝑚
𝑇𝐿𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 0.378 𝑋 109.7 = 41.5 𝑝𝑝𝑚
So, if the actual concentration exceeds this level, the more control measures be needed. So, for
mixture of the vapor individual species, the TLV in the mixture are significantly reduce from
the TLVs of the pure substances.
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Now, let us have a look about next problem that is a problem number 4. Now, here you need
to determine the TLV for uniform mixture of dust containing the following particles like
Nonasbestiform talc that is a concentration on the weight percent basis is a 70 percent and
TLVs given 20 mppcf and the Quartz it is having the concentration of 38 percent and TLVs
2.7.
So, the dust evaluation calculation usually are performed in a manner identical to that use for
the volatile vapors which we have used in the last problem, but instead of using the ppm as a
concentration of the unit milligram per meter cube or millions of particle per cubic food is more
convenient.
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So, let us solve this particular problem,
1
𝑇𝐿𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 =
𝐶1 𝐶2
+
𝑇𝐿𝑉1 𝑇𝐿𝑉2
1
𝑇𝐿𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = = 6.8
0.70 0.30
+ 2.7
20
Now, special control measures they are required when the actual particle count of the size range
specified in the standard or by the industrial hygiene exceeds this particular limits, so 6.8 mppcf
is the controlling, so you need if it crosses with this particular value then you need to take the
appropriate measures to counter this aspect.
Now, let us have a look about the problem number 5, here you need to determine whether the
following noise level, this one is given that is permissible with no additional control features.
So, the noise level 85 decibel, the duration is given, the exposure duration is given 3.6 hours
and maximum allowable duration, there is no limit for this one that means it is a safer one, 95
decibels, the duration is of exposure is 3 hour and the maximum allowed hours they are given
4 and 110 decibel the duration is given 0.5 and the maximum allowed hours they are subject to
0.5. So, let us have the solution of this particular problem.
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Now, from this (eq) from the equation,
𝑛
𝐶𝑖 3.6 3 0.5
∑ = + + = 1.75
(𝑇𝐿𝑉 − 𝑇𝑊𝐴)𝑖 𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 4 0.5
𝑖=1
Now, since this 1.75 exceeds 1.0, so employees under this environment are immediately
required to take the necessary step and this may be by the use of wearing of ear protectors, etc.
So, on a longer term basis, the noise reduction control methods should be developed or
deployed within (the work) the work place for specific pieces of equipment with those who are
having the excessive noise levels. So, this helps us to give the proper guidelines or advisories.
384
Now, let us have a look about the problem number 6. Now, this problem suggests that an open
toluene container in an enclosure is weighed as a function of time and it is determined that the
average evaporation rate is 0.1 gram per minute. The ventilation rate is given as 100 cubic feet
per minute and the temperature is 80 degree Fahrenheit and the pressure 1 atmosphere. So, here
you need to estimate the concentration of toluene vapor in the enclosure and compare with the
TLV for the toluene of 50 ppm.
So, let us have a look about the solution of this particular problem, earlier in the theoretical
module we have devise this particular formula:
385
Cppm = ( QmRgT / k Qv P M ) X 106
Now, here the this is the mass flow rate, the concentration and parts per million, this is Q v is
the ventilation rate, P is the pressure, M is the molecular weight, R is the guess constant, T is
the temperature. Now, because the value of k is unknown, so and it must be used as a parameter.
So, we are having the data with us like Qm is equal to 0.1 gram per minute that is equal to
0.00167 gram per second, consistency of the unit is extremely important, so R is equal to 8.314
meter cube Pascal k mole, T is 80 degree Fahrenheit it is comes out to be 300 kelvin, Qv is
given that is 100 cubic feet per minute which is coming out to be 0.047 meter cube per second,
P is equal to 1 atmosphere which is 101 325 Pascal and M is 92 grams per mole that is the
molecular weight.
Now, if we substitute to the into the equation of to this equation, we have
k Cppm = ( 2.20 X 10-4 X 0.7302 X 540 / 100 X 1 X 92 ) X 106
k Cppm = 9.488 ppm
Now, because k varies from 0.1 to 0.5,
so the concentration is expected to vary from 18.97 ppm to 94.8 ppm. So, actual vapor
sampling is always recommended to ensure that the TLV is not exceeded. So, this is then
advisory for this particular problem because you are having the range of 18.97 ppm to
94.8 ppm.
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Now, let us have another problem that is problem number 7. Now, here a large open tank with
5 feet diameter, it contains toluene. Here, you need to estimate the evaporation rate from this
tank assuming a temperature of 77 degree Fahrenheit and a pressure of 1 atmosphere. Now, if
the ventilation rate is 3000 cubic feet per minute we need to estimate the concentration of
toluene in this workplace enclosure, you are given with the saturation pressure of toluene is
28.2 mm Hg.
So, the molecular weight of toluene is 92 and the mass transfer coefficient, you can estimate
from
1
𝑀𝑜 3
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 ( )
𝑀
Now, water we are using most frequently as a reference substance, so it has the mass transfer
coefficient of 0.83, so,
1
𝑐𝑚 18 3
𝐾 = 0.83 ( ) = 0.482 𝑐𝑚/𝑠
𝑠 92
or 0.949 feet per minute, consistency of unit is extremely important.
Now, the saturation vapor pressure which is given in the problem of toluene is 28.2 mm Hg
which is 0.0371 atm. So, the pool area, we can gave that pool area
A = πd2 /4 = 3.14 X 52 / 4 = 19.6 square feet.
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So, you can calculate the evaporation rate by
𝑀𝐾𝐴𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑄𝑚 =
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝐿
Now, if you substitute the values because k we have already determined, P saturation which
we have already determined, so if we substitute all the values,
92 𝑋 0.949 𝑋 19.6 𝑋 0.0371

𝑄𝑚 = = 0.162 𝑙𝑏/𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.7302 𝑋 537
So, you can calculate the concentration through this formula:
𝑄𝑚 𝑅𝑔 𝑇
𝑘 𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106
𝑄𝑣 𝑃𝑀
Now, if you substitute the things into the equation then we will have,
0.949 𝑋 19.6 𝑋 0.0371

𝑘 𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑚 = × 106 = 230 𝑝𝑝𝑚
3000 𝑋 1
Now, because k varies from 0.1 to 0.5, so concentration is C ppm is expected to vary from 460
ppm to 2300 ppm. Now, toluene is having TLV is 50 ppm, so additional because this always
vary with this 50 ppm, so additional ventilation is always recommended.
Now, the next aspect we need to find out, the amount of ventilation required to reduce the worst
case concentration, so worst case concentration suggests that we are having 2300 ppm, so,
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Qv = 3000 X (2300/50) = 138000 ft3/min = 65 m3/s
So, this always represents some impractical level of general ventilation.
So, you need to take the corrective measures to avoid the generation of (toluene particle)
toluene vapors at workplace. So, this is always I mean remember that this gives you an
opportunity because sometimes if it is impractical then you need to take the corrective measures
to overcome such scenario. So, in this particular module we have discussed several problems
related to industrial hygiene and we cover all the aspect in with respect to that numerical
approach of this particular chapter.
389
And further if you wish then we can have a refer to the references which are listed in this
particular slide, so thank you very much.
390
Lecture 17
Introduction to Source Models
Welcome to the next lecture and chapter and that is attributed to the introduction to source
models. So, in this particular chapter we will discuss different source models, they are
applicable for the process safety and how we can derive the various equations applicable to
these source models, we can perform the modelling.
Let us have an introduction of these source models, we all agree that the chemical process
industries are usually prone to accidents especially fire explosion, different type of toxic release
etcetera and these incidents or these accidents they are attributed to the variety of reasons may
be human, may be equipment failure may be some other things. So, usually a small incidence
progressively results to a big accident which cause towards the loss of man, material and
money.
And everywhere when we talk about in terms of economics everywhere there is a loss of money
or economics because if any incident takes place towards the man may be fatality or may be
injury or may be illness you need to pay the compensation, you have to take care of that
particular human being. If there is a loss of a material then again there is an economic loss.
391
So, sometimes we need to take care of those small incidents which may cause a severe problem.
Now, especially when we are considering the material because all these source models are
attributed to the material and a process, so these materials which may be released or which may
cause a severe problem they may be highly toxic they must have they may have a high calorific
value, these two things, these two possibilities are there.
There may be some common incidents that may include maybe sometimes a rupture or break
in pipeline, this may cause the exposure or evolution of any kind of toxic material to the
atmosphere or any kind of a flammable material may get discharge into that atmosphere from
the flammable vapour cloud etcetera. Sometimes, hole in a tank or a pipe may create a problem,
it is not only attributed to the flammability aspect or a fire and explosion aspect or a toxic
release sometimes as this leakage may create the economic losses because the material will get
destroy.
There may be a chances of runaway reaction or a fire external to the extended to the vessel and
these runaway reactions sometimes because of the failure of any kind of sensor because maybe
sometimes of a human involvement, there is some these thermal runaway reaction or chemical
runaway reaction may take place and it may create a problem to the plant. So, source models
they are used to describe the discharge of the material due to the incident from the process, this
is the basic methodology of all these source models.
The source model provides a description of mass or a volumetric flow of discharge. The total
quantity of discharge, because sometimes you need this information to assess the safety aspect
392
of your process or your equipment. Phases of discharge material may be solid, liquid vapour
or sometimes multi-phase, so this is again a very crucial issue. So, these type of description is
necessary for source model, the source model description.
The total time for the complete discharge, this is again a very crucial aspect how much time is
required to empty the vessel, or empty the pipeline etcetera. The fundamental or empirical
equations are used to define the source model and each incident is, has it is own or unique
model.
Now, let us have a look of these incidents, there are variety of incidents listed in this block that
is a selection of release incident. Sometimes rupture or breakage in pipeline, sometimes a hole
in a tank or a vessel or a pipeline, flashing may create a problem means from high pressure
zone to the low pressure zone it may create a problem, sometimes runaway reaction may cause
a problem, sometimes maybe the fire exposure creates a problem and others which may be
enlisted in several aspects.
So, while you have selection of a release incident then you select and the source model thes,e
the prima phase, the requirement is the model must fit the release incident. So, by this particular
aspect there are certain outcome, that total quantity released you can easily find out, the time
of complete discharge, the mass or volumetric release rate and the material phase. So, whenever
you have carried out this one then go for the selection of dispersion model.
Mostly you, this the selection of dispersion model is done for the toxic release and sometimes
influencing factors are what are the wind speed? So, while, if you go to the Bhopal gas tragedy,
393
the wind speed was a crucial aspect for all those infertility. What is a temperature inversion?
That has to be looked into by ANSI effect because sometimes the density difference may create
problems.
Now, the results may include the downwind concentration, you may have about you may have
a clue about the area affected and the duration.
Then while, we considering the flammable or a toxic substances we can enlist two different
type of scenario. So, let us have a look of the flammable aspect then the selection for the fire
and explosion model you may have a look of the TNT equivalency, Trinitrotoluene equivalency
model, TNO multi energy models, multi energy explosion there may be a chances of fireball
then Baker-Strehlow the tang model, then different other models.
Now, result may include the blast overpressure and the radiant heat flux. So, if we consider
there are flammable and a toxic both are toxic then effective model response versus dose, we
have already discussed this in the toxicological studies, the profit model, the log uniform model
and others. The result may include the toxic responses and number of individual what are the
(individ) the quantity of individual affected and the property damage usually the property
damage in case of toxic studies are bit minimum compared to the flammability aspect.
Now, there are certain mitigation factors like distance between the possible release points,
escape plan or shelter aspect, secondary containment for storage handling in a fire situation.
The remote shutoff, flow limitations, absorbent, foam, other covers, water spray or stream
curtains etcetera. So, these are the certain scenarios then we go for the consequence modelling.
394
The after when we carry out this thing then we can go at further consequence modelling.
So, while we consider the safe modelling, the result obtained from source model will not define
the whole event completely. Now, if the physical properties of the fluid discharge cannot be
characterized and the physical process involved cannot be understood. So, if any kind of
uncertainty exists, the parameter should be selected to maximize the release rate and quantity.
Now, this ensure the design is on the safe side. Now, safe design requires further certain things
like choose conditions for maximum release rate, the maximum quantity and if uncertainty
exists, choose the worst scenario it is just like that if you wish to design the things you may
take the LPG cylinder domestic LPG cylinder and you take the maximum quality that says
cylinder is completely filled 14.2 or 14.5 kilogram as applicable to the cylinder.
Now, worst scenario is that the cylinder will burst and all the entire LPG will escape from the
cylinder and it will catch the fire, so this is the worst scenario.
395
So, while you consider the release modes, so there are wide aperture release and you can have
a look of this particular figure explosion in a storage tank, this is your storage tank and this
explosion is mainly attributed to the overpressure. Now, there are certain limited aperture
release in a hole and that there may be a hole in the tank or there may be chance of a crack in
the tank or sometimes the crack may be in the pipeline, pipes sometimes leakage in the flanges,
there is a the hole and there may be a leak in the flanges, sometimes leak may be through the
pumps, sometimes there is a scenario of a broken pipeline.
So, there are different release modes in this particular pressure vessel or a storage tank.
396
Now, while considering the basic source model, there are seven things which we need to know
that is the flow of liquid through a hole because if you consider the previous one, what is the
flow of a liquid through hole? And consider this scenario is bit different from the scenario at
this point. Then flow of liquid through a hole in tank, flow of liquid through pipes, flow of
vapour through holes, flow of gases through pipes, flashing liquid and a liquid pool evaporation
or boiling.
Now, let us consider first thing that is the flow of liquid through a hole. So, basically this
particular thing is attributed to the mechanical energy balance equation which describes the
various energy forms associated with the flowing fluids. So, this is the basic mechanical
engineering equation, mechanical energy balance equation
397
2
dP u g Ws
∫ + ∆( ) + Δz + F = −
ρ 2αg c gc ṁ
Where P is pressure in the force/ area unit, rho is the fluid density, mass/ unit volume.
(So), and u bar is the average instantaneous velocity of the fluid, instantaneous velocity of the
fluid length per time, gc is the gravitational constant that is length mass per force times square,
alpha is the unitless velocity profile correction factor (unitless) velocity profile correction
factor .
Usually alpha is having the value of 0.5 for a laminar flow 0.5 for laminar flow and 1.0 for
plug flow it tends for to 1.0 for turbulent flow. Now, g is the acceleration due to gravity having
the units in terms of length times square, z is the height above datum and length unit, Ws is the
shaft work that is the force length, F is the net frictional loss term that is length force upon the
mass and m is the mass flow rate that is mass per unit time.
398
For incompressible liquid, the density is constant, so we may keep this formula like this
Δ𝑃 Δ𝑃
∫ =
𝜌 𝜌
and the frictional losses in the leak are approximated by a constant discharge coefficient Cd,
Cd is the constant discharge coefficient. So, the equation is coming out to be
Δ𝑃 Δ𝑃
− − 𝐹 = 𝐶𝑑 2 ( )
𝜌 𝜌
It is just like this after applying all these assumptions.
So, (the average leak), average discharge velocity from leak can be determined as
2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑢 = 𝐶𝑑 √𝛼√ 𝜌
Now, if we take
𝐶0 = 𝐶𝑑 √𝛼
then
2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑢 = 𝐶0 √ 𝜌
So this is after certain derivation after then the mass flow rate Qm will be.
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The mass flow rate Qm is equal to
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝑢𝐴 = 𝐴𝐶0 √2𝜌𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 .
So, the total mass of liquid is spilt depend on the total time that leaks is active,
So, C0= f ( Re, D);
Re stands for Reynolds number, D, now D is the diameter of the hole. Now, for sharp edges
and usually this happens for sharp edges and Reynolds number is greater than 30,000, so C
naught tends to 0.61 the exit velocity of fluid is independent of size of the hole.
So, now various values of discharge coefficient we may enlist these various different values of
discharge coefficient, so for well-rounded nozzle C naught tends to 1, for short sections of pipe
L by D is greater than 3, length upon diameter, attached to the vessel which is which we have
previously discussed and shown in the slide, to a vessel Cnaught is almost 0.81. So, you may
use C naught is equal to 1 for unknown or uncertain values, for a safer side.
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Now, let us take another aspect that is a flow of liquid through a hole in a tank, flow of liquid
through a hole in a tank. Now, this is the tank, like this, we are having certain liquid is filled
over here and you are having a hole at this juncture, so you may have a different profiles like
this and this is the height of liquid “hL”, the pressure exerted “Pg”, initial velocity is 0, “Ws” is
0 and “u2” at this juncture is let us say “u,” and “P” is equal to 1 atmosphere because it is
exposed to atmosphere.
𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
So, 𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶0 √2 [ + 𝑔ℎ𝐿 ],
𝜌
like this, “ρ” is the density of the liquid and “A” is the leak cross section area, so and usually
your usual physics phenomena applies over here. So, usually so whenever I mean if you have
a hole develop because it is a very common practice, so hole develop in a tank at a height h L
below the fluid level, this is your fluid initial fluid level because when this hole is developed
this fluid level will deplete.
So, a flow of liquid through this hole represented by a mechanical energy equation or a
mechanical energy balance equation and you may take one assumption that liquid is
incompressible in all aspect. So, the (mech) mechanical energy balance equation is
2
dP u g Ws
∫ + ∆ (2αg ) + g Δz + F = −
ρ c c ṁ
Δ𝑃 Δ𝑃
∫ = ,
𝜌 𝜌
we have taken this assumptions previously.
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So, the assumptions we what we have taken, that is Pg is the gauge pressure on the tank. I am
again redrawing the tank figure over here, here is the hole, hole, this is the liquid level this is
hL. Now, external gauge pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, the shaft work Ws is equal
to 0 and the velocity of the fluid in the tank, of the fluid in the tank is equal to 0, so discharge
coefficient Cd can be determined as
∆𝑃 𝑔 ∆𝑃 𝑔
− − ∆𝑧 − 𝐹 = 𝐶𝑑 2 (− − ∆𝑧)
𝜌 𝑔𝑐 𝜌 𝑔𝑐
Now, if we solve this equation for getting the average instantaneous distance velocity from the
leak, that is
𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑢 = 𝐶𝑑 √𝛼√2[ + 𝑔ℎ𝐿 ]
𝜌
Now, if we say that
if C0 = Cd√𝛼
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Then,
𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑢 = 𝐶0 √2[ + 𝑔ℎ𝐿 ].
𝜌
So, therefore the instantaneous mass flow rate will be given as
𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶0 √2[ + 𝑔ℎ𝐿 ]
𝜌
through which you can assess the instantaneous mass flow rate, this is instantaneous mass flow
rate. Now, as the tank empties, the liquid height decreases and the velocity and mass flow rate
decreases.
Now, if the vessel was fill out with an inert gas to prevent the explosion or was vented to the
atmosphere then the gauge pressure “P”, “P” on the surface of the liquid is constant. So, for a
tank constant cross sectional areas having the At, the total mass of liquid in the tank above leak
is
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑡 ℎ𝐿
So this is the total mass of liquid, mass of liquid in the tank above the leak, that is like this, you
are having this, you are having the leak over here, so this is the total mass.
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Now, let us have a look of rate of discharge, late of rate of change of mass. So, this is always
having the time factor, so
𝑑𝑚
= −𝑄𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Now, if we combine all the equations and integrate then you will find that
hL = hL0 ; at t = 0
hL= hL; at t = t
So, we can find out the liquid height level in the tank, so
𝐶0 𝐴 2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 𝑔 𝐶 𝐴
ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝐿0 − √ + 2𝑔ℎ𝐿0 𝑡 + 2 ( 𝐴0 𝑡)2
𝐴𝑡 𝜌 𝑡
So, mass discharge rate at any time t is given by
𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝐶0 2 𝐴2
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝐶0 √2( + 𝑔ℎ𝐿0 ) − 𝑡
𝜌 𝐴𝑡
So, by this equation you can calculate the mass discharge rate at any time t.
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Now, let us have a look about the time for empty, emptying the tank. This is again, one of the
thing which we need to discuss, how much time required to empty the tank? Again, let us have
this tank in question. Now, here you are having the leak like this, this is the hL u1 bar is equal
to 0, Ws is equal to shaft work is equal to 0, now this is the tank. Now, time for vessel to empty
to the level of the leak you can determine by
1 𝐴𝑡 𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔 2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑡𝑒 = ( ) [√2 ( + 𝑔ℎ𝐿0 ) − √ ]
𝐶0 𝑔 𝐴 𝜌 𝜌
Now, if vessel is at atmospheric pressure then
Pg = 0
Then
1 𝐴
𝑡𝑒 = ( 𝑡 ) √2𝑔ℎ𝐿0
𝐶0 𝑔 𝐴
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Now, let us consider another thing that is the flow of liquid through pipes. Now, here is a pipe
like this which is having the length L, rho, let us take that rho is constant, through pipes, my
initial conditions are P1, u1, Z1 and the final conditions are P2 is which is less than P1 u2 is equal
to u1 and Z2, here we have taken this thing that “ρ” is constant. Now, let us take say that pipe
transporting liquid is shown in the figure.
The liquid flows through the pipe due to the pressure gradient across the end of pipe. Now,
there will be a definite amount of loss in pressure encountered due to the presence of frictional
forces between the liquid as well as between the fluid and the valve of container. So, losses due
to friction in long pipe are quite larger than the losses due to the bent and sudden enlargement
and contraction in the fitting.
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So, for incompressible fluid the mechanical energy equation can be written as
2
∆𝑃 ∆𝑢 𝑔 𝑊
+ 2𝛼𝑔 + 𝑔 Δ𝑧 + 𝐹 = − 𝑚𝑠̇
𝜌 𝑐 𝑐
Now, frictional loss term “F”, this is the frictional loss term, this includes the loss due to the
flow through length of pipe, fittings such as various kind of fittings may take place like control
valves, bends sometimes orifice, etcetera, pipe entrances and exit, there may be sudden
expansion and contraction across the pipe.
So, there are so many things related to this one. So, we may calculate the friction loss F, like
𝑢2
𝐹 = 𝐾𝑓 ( )
2𝑔𝑐
Where “Kf” is the excess head loss due to pipe or pipe fittings this is usually a dimensionless
and “u” is the fluid velocity and “gc” is of course our gravitational constant. So, excess head
loss you can calculate through this particular equation that is
4𝑓𝐿
𝐾𝑓 = 𝑑
“F” is the fanning friction factor, factor which is all of course (unit less), “L” is the flow path,
flow path length that is having the unit of length and “d” is the flow path diameter having the
unit of length.
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So, for a laminar flow, the fanning friction factor is given by
16
𝑓 = 𝑅𝑒
Re is the Reynolds number that is for the laminar flow regime, and for the turbulent flow it is
given as
1 1 𝜀 1.255
= −4log⁡( + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑑 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
So
0.25
1 √𝑓 − 1 𝜀
= (10 √𝑓 − )
𝑅𝑒 1.255 3.7 𝑑
Now, in this particular table you can have a look of various roughness factors epsilon for the
clean pipe.
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So, in this particular table, we have enlisted different type of pipe materials with different
roughness factors like Riveted steel, it is having the roughness factor of 1 to 10 mm, Concrete
0.3 to 3, Cast iron 0.26, Galvanized iron 0.15, Commercial steel 0.046, Wrought iron 0.046,
Drawn tubing 0.0015, in glass the roughness factor is 0 and the plastic the roughness factor is
0.
Now, here is the Moody's diagram, which tells you about the, this is a depiction of a relative
roughness factor epsilon by d with respect to the Reynolds number that is Re u upon d with the
friction factor F. So, you can have a different you can calculate or you can find out based on
your material in question then you can find out the friction factor either with the help of a
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Reynolds number and relative roughness with the different zones like laminar, critical zone,
transition zones.
So, you can you can easily find out the things which you may require in due course of time for
calculating the friction factors. Now, in the next aspect we are going to discuss. for the fully
developed flow, that is F used for fully developed flow, the F is independent of Reynolds
number.
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So,
For fully developed flow, f is independent of Re
1 1 𝑑
= 4log
√𝑓 3.7 𝜀
Now, if we take the smooth pipe which we have enlisted previously, so
For smooth pipes, 𝜀=0
1 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
= 4log⁡
√𝑓 1.255
Take the help of the previous slides. Blasius approximation. Now, we may take the Blasius’
approximation for this Blasius’ approximation you can refer on the references,
For smooth pipes with Re< 100 000
f = 0.079 Re-1/4
Now, while considering the flow of a liquid through pipes, let us take the 2-K or Hooper model.
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Now, it is possible to calculate the loss in pressure head for pipe fitting, valve, orifice and other
flow obstructions, this is the method (apply) applies for this one. The calculation of losses due
to the pipe friction is not possible through these methods because they have a very long length
of even in kilometres and the friction factor is a function of pipe length. So, in 2-K model
defines the excess head loss in terms of two constant that is Reynold number and the pipe
internal diameter.
So, when we have this this particular aspect in consideration then we may have this
𝐾1 1
𝐾𝑓 = + 𝑘∞ (1 + )
𝑅𝑒 𝐼𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
412
Now, head loss hI through the fitting can be calculated by the determining the value of Kf from
this equation and using it to the this equation that is
𝑉2
ℎ𝑙 = 𝐾𝑓
2𝑔
Now, head loss through pipe friction which you can calculate by
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
So, the total head loss would be
ht = h f + h l
Now, if we apply the 3-K Darby method, so in this method
𝐾1 𝐾𝑑
𝐾𝑓 = + 𝑘∞ (1 + )
𝑅𝑒 𝑂𝐷𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠
Now, here Kf is the excess head loss, k1 and kꚙ they are constant, ID is the in the inside
diameter which is in inches, OD is the outside diameter in inches, so you can calculate this Kf
by this method.
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Now, in the next table this one, we can and we have enlisted the constant for 2-K method for
loss coefficient in fittings and valves, so there are multiple type of fittings like elbow which is
having a 90 degree angle and description of fitting that it is a standard r by D is equal to 1,
threaded and K1 is 800 and K infinity is 0.40. Long radius r/D equal to 1 flanged or welded 800
and 0.25, long radius that is r/ D equal to 1.5 and all types of things are clubbed under this
head, so K1 is equal to 800 and 0.20 is Kꚙ.
Similarly, for elbow which has a (meet) mitered at r/ D equal to 1.5, 1 weld 90 degree, 1000,
1.15, 2 welds 45 degree, it is 800 or point Kꚙ is 0.35, 3 welds 30 degree, 800, 0.30 Kꚙ, 4 welds
22.5 degree and that is 800 and 0.25 and 5 welds 18 degree that is 800 is K1 and 0.25 is K0.
414
Similarly, if we have 45 degree elbow that is standard r/ D is equal to 1 for all types, K1 is 500
and Kꚙ is 0.20, long radius we may have a certain things related to the long radius r/ D is equal
to 1.5, so 500 is K1 and 0.15 is Kꚙ then 180 degree elbow the standard r/ D is equal to 1 maybe
threaded, so 1000 is the K1 and 0.60 is Kꚙ. Similarly, standard r/ D equal to 1 that is flanged
or welded that is 1000 and 0.35 is the Kꚙ and long radius for all types that is r/ D is equal to
1.5, K1 is 1000 and 0.30 is Kꚙ.
There are various Tees, Tess are like this used as sometimes used as elbow, the standard,
threaded may be long radius may be threaded, standard, flanged or welded. So, they are having
the respective range of K1, Kꚙ like 500 to K and Kꚙ is 0.70 then 800 is a K1 and 0.40 is the
Kꚙ and 800 is standard, flanged or welded for this we are having the 800 is K1 and Kꚙ is 0.80.
415
Similarly, sometimes fittings they are used as a elbow that is Stub-in branch, so K1 is for them
the K1 is 1000 and Kꚙ is the 1,0 sometimes they are certain run through fittings they are
threaded 200, 0.1, flanged or welded 150, 0.5, Stub-in branch they may be 100 and none,
sometimes valves may be gate, valve or a plug. The full length size beta is equal to 1.0 and a
K1 is 300 and Kꚙ is 0.1, reduced trim 500 and 0.15, reduced trim beta is equal to 0.8 for this
this the K1 is 1000 and Kꚙ is 0.25.
Then there are certain fittings related to the globe then the standard, for the standard the K1 is
1500 and Kꚙ is 4 then angle or gamma type, then K1 is equal to 100 and Kꚙ is 2. There are
diaphragm and butterfly, the dam type of description of the fitting is dam type, then for this
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1000 to 2 is infinite Kꚙ 800 and Kꚙ is 0.25. Check valve maybe left 2000 to 10, swing 1500,
1.5 and tilting disk 1000 to and Kꚙ is 0.5.
Now, this particular table enlisted the constants for 3-K method of loss for loss coefficient in
fitting and you can have a look of all kind of 90 degree elbow that is threaded, threaded long
radius, flanged, etcetera and their respective values in terms of K1, Kꚙ and Kd. So, for your
reference you can always use this particular aspect.
And here in this particular table the 45 degree elbow is enlisted with respect to the K1, Kꚙ and
Kd. The standard, long radius, etcetera, threaded, flanged and different descriptions likewise.
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In this particular table, you can have a look of different type of Tees, like the standard, long
radius, etcetera and their respective K1, Kꚙ and Kd values.
Now, in this slide we have the different valves like angle valve, globe valve, plug valve, gate
valve, ball valve, butterfly by valve, swing valve, lift check valve and the values of K1, Kꚙ and
Kd. So, in this module we have discussed different aspects of source model and specially
applicable for the liquid and liquid system. So, we have discussed the flow of liquid through a
small hole, cracks, etcetera.
418
And in case of further referencing, you can have a look of various references which are listed
in this particular slides and hopefully this particular information is useful for you, thank you
very much.
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Lecture 18
Source Models for Gas
Welcome to this module, which is pertaining to the source model for various gases. Now, have
a look about that what we have studied previously.
We have introduced that various aspect of source modelling. We have discussed about this step
to follows starting from release incident to selection of model depending upon the type and a
nature of various incidents, mitigation and a consequences analysis. We have discussed about
the basic source models like flow of liquid through a hole, flow of liquid through a hole in a
tank and the flow of a liquids through pipe.
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Now, in this particular module we are going to discuss about what is the understanding aspect,
the difference between the handling of liquid and vapour, type of flow of vapour through hole
and pipes, flow of vapours through different type of holes, flow of gases through pipe and their
types, flashing liquids, liquid pool evaporation or boiling.
Now, what we need in different models for gases. Now, usually gases are compressible fluids
and hence all of its physical properties changes according to the external conditions, these
external conditions may be pressure, may be temperature, etcetera. Moreover handling of gases
can more tougher than liquid. Now, because of the variety of reasons because one reason is,
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the gases they are usually invisible hence a small leakage is difficult to detect unless otherwise
you are able to recognize through its order.
Vapours at same temperature due to the presence of latent heat they are more energetic than
liquid.
Now, here we have a comparison of liquid versus vapour, liquid usually they are compressible
flow whereas vapours they are the compressible one. In liquids, the kinetic energy term is
negligible whereas in vapours the pressure energy converts to kinetic energy and the liquids
approximately constant density however the vapours, the temperature, pressure, density all
changes when it passes through a narrow opening.
So, you can imagine that how critical is the scenario for the modelling in vapours. Now,
physical properties of vapours can be assumed constant for small changes in pressure like P1,
P2. P3 or etcetera and a very low velocities.
422
Now, let us have a look about the types of flow of vapour through holes and pipe. Now, there
are two type of things, one is throttling and other one is the free expansion release. Now,
throttling we all know may be through a small cracks, there is a large frictional losses, a little
conversion of pressure energy to kinetic energy, they require the detailed information on the
physical structure of the leaf.
So, you must have all these type of things with you while you are considering the throttling
behaviour.
423
Whereas in a free expansion, the most of the pressure energy converted into kinetic energy,
assumptions to isentropic process is usually valid because while you consider this free
expansion you may have to take certain assumptions. So, one assumption is to the isentropic
process which is usually valid in this case. Now, they require only a diameter of a leak, so this
is a bit easier.
Now, there are two type of things which we need to consider under the head of the free
expansion one is, the non-choked or subsonic another one, is the choked or sonic one.
So, while considering the throttling flow, throttling is a type of flow such as a flow through
valve like in this figure you can see, the flow through a valve or a crack or within the porous
material. So, these geometries oppose high resistance to flow that results to a large amount of
a pressure drop. Now, you can see in these figures this is the partially open valve and you can
see the throttling flow.
Whereas in the second figure, you can see this is this is a porous plug and you can see the flow
is through this porous plug under the throttling behaviour. So, while considering the throttling
flow, we can seek the help of first law of thermodynamics.
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Now, first law of thermodynamics says
𝑑𝐸
= ∑ 𝑄̇ − ∑ 𝑊̇𝑠 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (ℎ + 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘 )𝑖𝑛 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (ℎ + 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘 )𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Now, here E is the total energy and hence “dE/ dt” represents rate of change of total energy,
“Ws” is the shaft work and this dot over this represents the quantity per unit time, m represents
the mass flow rate of the liquid, in case sorry, mass flow rate of fluid. Now, here fluid is gas.
“h” is enthalpy of the gas, “EP” and “EK” are the potential and kinetic energy at inlet and outlet.
So, we may take different assumptions for this particular equation like the potential and kinetic
energy effects are neglected. We may assume their steady flow, adiabatic conditions and we
may assume the shaft work is zero.
425
So, by employing these assumptions in our system we can get the this equation
𝑑𝐸
= ∑ 𝑄̇ − ∑ 𝑊̇𝑠 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 (ℎ + 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘 )𝑖𝑛 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 (ℎ + 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘 )𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑡
dE over dt is equal to Ws which is cut because we have assumed the shaft work negligible then
summation mi h plus EP plus EK in, now this is again cancelled out then m out h plus EP plus
EK for the outlet, now again this is a cancel out. So, hence isenthalpic flow can be consider in
this particular case.
So, if we take that
dT = f (P, h)
then we can take the partial derivative like this
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑇 = ( )ℎ 𝑑𝑃 + ( )𝑃 𝑑ℎ
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
Now, if define the Joule-Thomson coefficient, this is the Joule, Joule-Thomson coefficient,
now
𝜕𝑇
𝜇≡( )
𝜕𝑃 ℎ
So, if we consider the isenthalpic flow then in that particular case
𝜕𝑇
( ) =0
𝜕ℎ 𝑃
426
and if we integrate then
𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = ∫ 𝜇𝑑𝑃
𝑖𝑛
Now, the most gases have positive Joule-Thomson coefficient, so as the pressure drops, the
temperature drops.
Now, let us have a look about a free expansion leak. Now, here we can visualize this figure
you are having a gas pressurized within a process unit and it leaks through this particular point.
So, initial condition if we say that P0, T0, u0 is equal to 0, Δz is equal to 0 and shaft work is
equal to 0 and here the things are at the external surrounding. So, here you can have a throat
where P is
𝑃
< 𝑆𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑢
427
So, if we consider this particular aspect through hole then we can write the mechanical energy
balance for flow.
And that is the
2
Δ𝑃 𝑢
∫ + Δ( )+𝐹 = 0
𝜌 2𝛼𝑔𝑐
Where delta P over delta rho is the pressure energy change, P is the pressure of the fluid of the
fluid, ρ is the density of the fluid, 𝑢 is the average velocity at the hole. So, we need to define
the discharge coefficient C1 at this juncture, now this is defined as
∆𝑃 Δ𝑃
−∫ − 𝐹 = 𝐶1 2 (− ∫ )
𝜌 𝜌
So, but at this point of time we can define the discharge coefficient, now C1 is the discharge
coefficient.
428
Now, if we combine the both the equation and integration from integrate from P is equal to P0,
V is equal to 0 to P is equal to P then we will have
𝑃 2
2 Δ𝑃 𝑢
𝐶1 ∫ + =0
𝑃0 𝜌 2𝛼𝑔𝑐
So, for any ideal gas undergoing isentropic expansion, we are having this universal equation
𝑃
𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜌𝛾
This is the well-known thermodynamic equation.
So, velocity of a fluid any at any point during the isentropic expansion is given by
bar u square 2 gc C 0 square gamma, gamma is a adiabatic constant and usually it is represented
by CP/ CV.
1
2 2 𝛾 𝑃0 𝑃 𝛾−𝛾
𝑢 = 2𝑔𝑐 𝐶0 [1 − ( ) ]
𝛾−1 𝑃 𝑃0
Now, therefore the mass flow rate of any time during the isentropic expansion can be given by
2 𝛾
2𝑔𝑐 𝑀 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾 𝑃 𝛾−1
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐶0 𝐴𝑃0 √ [( ) − ( ) ]
𝑅𝑔 𝑇0 𝛾 − 1 𝑃0 𝑃0
So, by this way you can calculate the mass flow rate at any time during the isentropic
expansion, so this is the general equation. Now, sometimes velocity of a gases gas increases
429
with the decrease in downstream pressure or increase in upstream pressure until it reaches a
critical velocity, the choked the pressure “Pchoked” is the maximum downstream pressure
resulting in maximum flow through the hole or a pipe.
So, if we wish to calculate the Pchoked then it is represented as
𝛾
𝑃𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑃 𝛾+1
to be more precise you can get this particular Pchoked from this particular equation.
Now, for if we have P is less than Pchoked, the velocity of the fluid at throat is equal to the
velocity of sound, velocity of the fluid at the throat is equal to velocity of sound and the velocity
and mass flow rate cannot be increased further and third point is that become the flow become
independent of the downstream condition, so this type of a flow is called choked, critical or
sonic flow.
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Now, in the next aspect, we will consider the flow of gas through pipe, flow of gases through
pipes. Now, here we are having a pipe like this, here the initial conditions are P1, T1, U1 Ma1
and Q is equal to 0, here the final condition are P2 is less than P1, P2 is the greater than P1, these
two are the conditions T2, U2 is greater than U1 or U2 is less than sonic velocity Ma2 is greater
than Ma1 and Ma2 is less than 1.
Now, Ma is the Mach number, (here Ma is the Mach number), so Ma is represented as
𝑢
𝑀𝑎 =
𝑎
Now “a” is the velocity of sound, so “a” is represented as
𝜕𝑃
𝑎 = ∫ 𝑔𝑐 ( )
𝜕𝜌 𝑠
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So, for ideal gas,
𝛾𝑔𝑐 𝑅𝑔 𝑇
𝑎=√
𝑀
So, by this way you can calculate the velocity of a sound, so velocity of a gas if you wish of
gas is represented as bar u is equal to a that is a speed of sound is equal to
𝛾𝑔𝑐 𝑅𝑔 𝑇
𝑢̅ = 𝑎 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 ) = √
𝑀
So, the mass flow rate at the choked condition would be Qm that is choked is equal to
𝛾+1
𝛾𝑔𝑐 𝑀 2 𝛾−1
(𝑄𝑚̇ )𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶𝑜 𝐴𝑃𝑜 √ ( )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇𝑜 𝛾 + 1
Now, C0 is equal to 0.61 for sharp edged orifice and C0 is equal to 1 for worst case scenario.
So, these are the two conditions which may need to encounter during the course of calculation.
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Now, there are two types of flow, one is the adiabatic flow, adiabatic flow and second one is
the isothermal flow. Now, in adiabatic flow the well-insulated valve there is no energy loss to
the surrounding and in isothermal flow the constant valve temperature that is the submerged
pipe. So, let us take the example of adiabatic flow, now please recall the previous figure which
we have and for your the convenience I am redrawing it, that was the pipe flow, initial
conditions were fixed at P1, T1, U1, Ma1 and the final conditions are P2 is less than P1, P2 is
greater than P1 and so and so on, you may recall the previous figure.
Now, as shown in the figure, the gas is flowing from left to right direction due to the presence
of a pressure gradient across the two ends of the pipe. Now, as the gas moves forward, it is
starts expanding due to the decrease in the pressure because P2 is less than P1 in the direction
of the flow,this results to increase in velocity and the kinetic energy of gas. The increase in
kinetic energy is compensated from the decrease in thermal energy of the gas.
Now, the gas starts cooling down due to the decrease in thermal energy, so the friction force
between the gas molecules and the valve of container also plays a significant role in the change
in temperature of the gas as well as towards the pressure drop. Now, these frictional forces
increases or increase the temperature of the gas hence both cooling or heating of the gas during
the flow is possible.
So, through this way we can write the mechanical energy balance equation
Δ𝑃 𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑔 𝛿𝑊𝑠
+ + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝐹 = −
𝜌 𝛼𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑚
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Now, the following assumption that is
𝑔
𝑑𝑧 ≈ 0
𝑔𝑐
is valid for this particular case. So, assuming the straight pipe without any valve or fitting
although this is purely an assumption, so we will have our dF is equal to
2
2𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝐹 =
𝑔𝑐 𝑑
Now this is for the straight pipe without any valve or fitting and no mechanical leakage, this is
again the purely assumption that if no mechanic leakage are present then
𝛿𝑊𝑠 = 0
So, we may write the total energy balance equation like this
𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑔 𝛿𝑊𝑠
𝑑ℎ + + 𝑑𝑧 = 𝛿𝑞 −
𝛼𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑚
this is the total energy balance equation. So, if we go ahead further then this is represented by
𝛾 + 1 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝛾 − 1 𝑃1 2 𝑇2 2 − 𝑃2 2 𝑇1 2 1 1 4𝑓𝐿
𝑙𝑛 − ( )( 2 − 2 ) + =0
𝛾 𝑃2 𝑇1 2𝛾 𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑇1 𝑑
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Now, let us take the G which is a mass (flus) flux is equal to
2𝑔𝑐 𝑀 𝛾 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝐺=√
𝑅𝑔 𝛾 − 1 (𝑇1 )2 − (𝑇2 )2
𝑃1 𝑃2
this is the mass flux.
Now, in the other example we may take the isothermal flow. Again considering this, the figure
of the pipe flow P1, U1, Ma1, P2 is less than P1, P2 is greater than P choked u2 is greater than u1,
u2 is less than sonic velocity Ma2, Ma1 or Ma2 is less than 1. So, if we consider this type of
aspect then the isothermal flow of a gas, we have considered in this case the T is constant, let
us have the thing that this we are considering the L length.
Now, considering the case when the velocity of the gas is well below the sonic velocity of the
gas, like this, now gas is flowing from left to right direction due to the presence of pressure
gradient across the two ends of the pipe, these are the two ends of the pipe. Now, gases starts
expanding due to the decrease in pressure in the directional of direction of flow. Now, as the
gas expends the velocity must increase to maintain the same mass flow rate.
So, the pressure at the end of the pipe is equal to the pressure of the surrounding. So, the
temperature is constant across the entire pipe length we have taken (all) already taken this
assumption. So, we may write the mechanical energy balance equation that is
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Δ𝑃 𝑢𝑑𝑢 𝑔 𝛿𝑊𝑠
+ + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝐹 = −
𝜌 𝛼𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑚
Now we may take the following assumption for this particular case that is
𝑔
𝑑𝑧 ≈ 0
𝑔𝑐
Now, we may assume that the straight pipe without any valve or a fitting. So,
2
2𝑓𝑢 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝐹 =
𝑔𝑐 𝑑
this is for the straight pipe, pipe without any valve or fitting. So, if there is no mechanic leakage
then this is
𝛿𝑊𝑠 = 0
So, we may use the following conditions
𝑇2 = 𝑇1
with T2 is equal to T1 because we have assumed the isothermal condition. Then
𝑃2 𝑀𝑎1
=
𝑃1 𝑀𝑎2
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Now,
𝛾𝑔𝑐 𝑀
𝐺 = 𝜌𝑢 = 𝑀𝑎1 𝑃1 √
𝑅𝑔 𝑇
𝑃1 𝑔𝑐 𝑀 4𝑓𝐿
2𝑙𝑛 − 2 (𝑃1 2 − 𝑃2 2 ) + =0
𝑃2 𝐺 𝑅𝑔 𝑇 𝑑
𝑀𝑎2 1 1 1 4𝑓𝐿
2𝑙𝑛 − ( 2− 2) + =0
𝑀𝑎1 𝛾 𝑀𝑎1 𝑀𝑎2 𝑑
So, by this way we can model or we can calculate the appropriate things. Now, there are certain
conditions related to the flashing of liquid and we may consider the four cases.
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The adiabatic flashing, flashing of flashing liquids, so first thing is that we may assume the
adiabatic flashing. Second is adiabatic flashing through hole, third is isothermal flashing
through hole and fourth is the liquid pool boiling. So, flashing liquids, now flashing event may
occur when the liquid is stored under the pressure above their normal boiling points. Now, if
liquid is stored in a container or flowing in a pipe develops a leak under such condition, the
liquid starts partially flashing into vapour, explosive flashing may also occur.
So, this process can be assumed as an adiabatic process, the energy of vaporization comes from
the superheated liquid which results to the decrease in temperature of the liquid.
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Now, if m is the mass of a original liquid, mass of original liquid and CP is the heat capacity of
the liquid energy plus mass degree and T0 is the temperature of the liquid before (depressive)
depressurization, temperature of the liquid before the depressurization, Tb is the depressurized
boiling point of the liquid. So, excess energy contained the superheated liquid may be
calculated by this original thermodynamic equation,
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
This excess energy provides the heat of vaporization ΔHv for the mass of liquid vaporized that
is dmv, this is the mass of liquid vaporized and this is the heat of vaporization.
So,
𝑄 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
d𝑚𝑣 = Δ𝐻 = .
𝑣 Δ𝐻𝑣
So, we can calculate the fraction of liquid vaporized like
𝑑𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
𝑓𝑣 = =
𝑚 Δ𝐻𝑣
Now, if you integrate between the initial temperature T0 with the liquid mass m and the final
boiling point Tb with liquid mass “m-mv”. so, if we integrate between this then
𝑚𝑣 𝑇𝑏
∫ =∫
𝑚 𝑚 𝑇𝑜 Δ𝐻𝑣
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Now,
𝑚 − 𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑏 )
ln ( )=−
𝑚 Δ𝐻𝑉
So,
𝑚 − 𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣
𝑓𝑣 = = 1−
𝑚 𝑚
So, after substituting the value we get the fraction of liquid vaporized as
𝑓𝑣 = 1 − exp⁡[−𝐶𝑃 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑏 )/Δ𝐻𝑉 ]
Now, equilibrium flashing choking conditions, so fluid path is great fluid path length greater
than 10 centimeter, now choked pressure is approximately assumed equal to the saturation
vapour pressure of the fluid in question.
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So, the another aspect is that the liquid is stored above saturation pressure, if we take liquid is
stored above saturation temperature, so if L is less than 10 centimeter, assume incompressible
liquid is flowing. Now, if L is greater than 10 centimeter assume choked flow with P is equal
to P saturation. So, like this here the P1 this is the length L and this is the P2, so this is the case
of adiabatic flashing through holes.
So, mass flow rate can be given as
𝑄𝑚 = 𝐴𝐶0 √2𝜌𝑙 𝑔𝑐 (𝑃 − 𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
so this gives you the mass flow rate where A is area of release, C0 is the discharge of coefficient
which is unitless, ρl is the density of liquid mass per volume, P is the pressure within tank and
Psat (saturation) is the saturation pressure.
Now, let us consider the isothermal flashing through a hole.
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Now, if we assume the choked flow of a two phase fluid then
𝑔
̇ =𝐴 − 𝑐
𝑄𝑚 √ 𝑑𝑉
( )
𝑑𝑃
this is the isothermal flashing a hole. Now, here V is the specific volume,
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓𝑔 𝑓𝑣 + 𝑉𝑓
Vfg is the difference in specific volume,
Vf is the liquid specific volume,
fV is the mass fraction of vapour.
Now, if you differentiate with respect to pressure then we will get
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑓𝑣
= 𝑉𝑓𝑔
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
So, we derived that
=
𝑚 Δ𝐻𝑣
and
dmv = - dml
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So, applying all these conditions we have therefore
𝑑𝑚𝑣 𝐶𝑃𝑙 𝑑𝑇
=− = d𝑓𝑣
𝑚 Δ𝐻𝑣
Now, if we substitute df in this particular thing into dV/ dP we have
𝑑𝑉 𝑣𝑓𝑔 𝐶𝑝.𝑙 𝑑𝑇
=−
𝑑𝑃 ∆ℎ𝑣 𝑑𝑃
So, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation can be used for dT over dP, so
𝑑𝑃 ∆ℎ𝑣
=
𝑑𝑇 𝑇𝑣𝑓𝑔
So, if we combine the equations then we will get
𝑑𝑣 −𝑣 2𝑓𝑔 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 𝑇
=
𝑑𝑃 (∆ℎ𝑣 )2
So, we can substitute the into the final relationship that is
−𝑔𝑐
̇ =𝐴
𝑄𝑚 2
√ −𝑣 𝑓𝑔 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 𝑇
( )
(∆ℎ𝑣 )2
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Now, reducing the equation for vapour mass flow rate then
∆ℎ𝑣 𝐴 𝑔𝑐
̇ =
𝑄𝑚 √
𝑣𝑓𝑔 𝐶𝑃,𝑙 𝑇
So when flashing process is done or done at or a near a Psat (saturation), small droplets of liquid
are also entrained with vapour. So, design assumption is taken as the mass of the liquid
entrained is equal to the mass of vapour formed from the (from) flashing. So, in this particular
module we have discussed a different aspect of leakage through hole and orifice.
And in the subsequent module we will discuss the liquid pool evaporation and other models
for applicable for gaseous fluid, thank you.
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Lecture 19
Source Model for Pool Boiling
So, welcome to this model of source model for Gases. In this, before we start this module, let
us have a look that what we have studied in previous modules.
We have gone through the difference between the handling of liquid and vapours. We have
discussed various types of flow of vapour through hole and pipe and the model and we discuss
the various models. Flow of vapours through holes we have discussed about a flow of gases
through pipes and their types. We have gone through the flashing of liquids.
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So, in this particular module we are going to discuss about the liquid pool evaporation or
boiling, pool evaporation of highly volatile liquids. These two phenomena are extremely
important in chemical engineering process industries and we are handling the liquid system.
So, in the introduction part let us have a look that what is evaporation and a boiling.
So, evaporation occurs at the liquid vapour interface when the vapour pressure is less than the
saturation pressure of the liquid at a given temperature. Whereas boiling, this occurs at the
solid-liquid interface when a liquid is brought into contact with a surface mentioned at a
temperature sufficiently above the saturation temperature of the liquid. So, this is the basic
difference between the evaporation and a boiling.
446
So, whenever we are considering the boiling, boiling is divided in two different categories like
pool boiling, flow boiling. So, pool boiling, boiling, this is the boiling in the absence of bulk
fluid flow where and motion only due to the boiling factors, so these are the this is related to
the pool boiling. And we consider the flow boiling, the boiling is in the presence of bulk fluid
flow and the fluid is forced to move in a heated pipe or over a surface by external means such
as pump.
Another aspect is, the subcooled boiling, so usually occurs when a temperature of main body
of the liquid is below the saturation temperature. Saturated boiling, when the temperature of
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the liquid is equal to the saturation temperature of the liquid in question. So, this is the
difference between the subcooled boiling and a saturated boiling.
So, pool boiling usually is a phenomenon in which vapour is generated at the surface of a
superheated wall whose surface is dimensionally small as compared to the surrounding liquid
that is a pool in which it is submerged. So, the motion of the liquid towards the heating surface
is induced by the boiling process. Now, the liquid at higher temperature have the lower density
compare to the adjacent liquid at the lower temperature.
So, this is the governing equation for that particular segment.
𝜌 = 𝜌0 /(1 + 𝛽∆𝑇)
448
Now, the motion of the vapour away from the heating surface will be induced by the buoyancy
effect of the vapour. So, the velocity of the motion for both phases is assumed low. Now,
bubbles usually do not form on heating surface until the liquid is heated a few degree above
the saturation temperature. Now, this particular state is referred as metastable state and the
liquid is slightly superheated in that particular case.
Now, heat transfer from heating surface to the fluid by the natural convection, so usually this
occurs by the natural convection.
There are certain important industrial perspectives, now pool boiling is unusual in industrial
instruments as multiple heating devices are used in single pool. Now, if a flow of liquid past
the wall of the heating mental may be considered zero, then also due to the confinement of the
449
liquid and due to the presence of multiple heaters, the behavior will be considered close to the
forced convective boiling.
You can have a look in this particular diagram, there are, this is a typical heat exchanger, steam,
condensate, bottom product liquid fuel and the boiling, here is a phenomenon of pool boiling.
450
Now, however the special conditions usually implemented in the pool boiling experiments such
as a maximum possible flow rate of vapour and a liquid away and towards the heating surface
respectively that is called the critical heat flux and the no forced convection of liquid or vapour.
So, provided very (impor) this provides a very important formation for designing the large
scale industrial system.
451
Now, the peak heat flux or burnout heat flux represents the upper limit of fully developed
Nucleate boiling, you can have a look in this particular, this is a Nucleate (boiled) boiling zone,
this one. So, while designing the engineering component, this heat flux provides the maximum
limit of safe operation beyond this limit heat removal rate from the surface of heating device
degrade substantially and this lead the melting or burnout of the surface.
So, usual question arises that how this pool boiling occur? Now, liquid is in contact with the
surface maintained at a temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid, so boiling
occurs at the liquid solid interface that is the thin boundary between the outer surface of the hot
element and the adjacent film of liquid from the surface. Now, one thing to be noted that based
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on the contact between the liquid and heating surface, liquid boiling is divided into two
categories one is, pool boiling and second is the, convective boiling.
Now, sometimes we need to draw the boiling curve, so let the liquid is heating using the
cylindrical wire submerged horizontally under the water level. Now, if you plot the graph
between the heat flux and a temperature, we get a boiling curve. Now, this curve is between
the heat flux and temperature.
Now, this curve can be divided into six regions, which is represented here, region one, there
the pure convection, superheated liquid rising to the interface, this is the Nucleate boiling with
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bubbles continued in the liquid, this one is the Nucleate boiling with the bubble rise to surface,
this is the partial Nucleate boiling and unstable film boil, this is the film boiling is stabilized
under these this fifth zone and the last zone is a radiation becomes dominant in this region.
So let us have an elaborative approach of this particular plot. Now, let us consider this region
one, this region one temperature difference between the surface and the stagnant liquid layer,
very small, hence the vapour form only due to the evaporation of the liquid into gas nuclei over
the exposed surface of the liquid, you can have a look of this particular region. Now, second
region that is the Nucleate boiling this one.
Now, with increase the temperature difference additional small bubble form along the heating
surface but later condense in the region above the superheated liquid.
454
In the third region, that is bubble rise to the surface, this one, the bubbles rise to the surface.
The temperature difference is a strong enough to sustain Nucleate boiling, bubbles start leaving
the surface irrespective of the condensation rate. Now, in the fourth region, this one is the fourth
region, now that is a unstable film boiling, the unstable film of vapour forms over the heating
surface and a heat transfer rate decrease due to the presence of film over the surface.
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Now, the region five attributed to stable film formation. Now, you can see in this particular this
is the region five. The stable film of vapour form over the heating surface and heat transfer rate
becomes minimum. The last region that is, a radiation heat transfer dominants region, in this
particular the radiation heat transfer dominates and temperature difference (become) becomes
so strong, also stable film formation reduces the convection convective heat transfer rate.
Hence, the radiation heat transfer becomes dominating phenomenon in this particular region,
you can have a look in this particular curve. So, this is the all the six regions of this particular
phenomenon. Now, next is your pool evaporation of highly volatile liquids, this particular
phenomenon is extremely common in process industry.
456
Now, for this the calculation of mass vaporization rate is carried out, so the total mass flow rate
of evaporation of a volatile from the pool of a liquid, this is determined by this equation, earlier
in different module we have derived this particular equation,
𝑀𝐾𝐴𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑄𝑚 =
𝑅𝑇𝐿
Qm is the mass vaporization rate, that is the unit of mass per time, M is the molecular weight
of the pure material, K is the mass transfer coefficient having the unit of length per time.
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A is the area of exposure, Psat (saturation) is the saturation vapor pressure of the liquid and R
is the ideal gas constant and T L is the temperature of the liquid. So, in case of volatile liquid
heating from the surrounding, the boiling phenomenon is limited to heat transfer from the
surrounding to the liquid.
So, different modes of heat transfer while considering if this aspect then heat is transferred
from the ground by the convection usual equation applicable is
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)/𝐿
Now, from air by conduction and convection
𝑄 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)
458
By radiation from the sun and adjacent sources such as fire, etcetera then
𝑄 = 𝜖𝜎𝐴(𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
Now, this (σ) is the Stefan’s Boltzmann constant having the value of 5.67 into 108 watt per
meter square kelvin to the power 4, ɛ is the Emissivity of a surface value and usually values
ranging from 0 to 1.
Now, for liquid having the boiling point below ambient temperature, boiling is controlled
initially by heat transfer from the ground and due to the conduction from the heated ground.
Now, the heat transfer from ground is modeled with a simple one dimensional heat conduction
equation that is
𝐾𝑠 (𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇)
𝑞𝑔 =
(𝜋𝛼𝑠 𝑡)1/2
this equation is not considered conservative.
459
Now, here qs is the heat flux from the ground energy having the unit of energy per area time.
ks is the thermal conductivity of the soil energy per unit length time and degree, Tg is the
temperature of the soil in degree, this one. T is the temperature of the liquid pool in degree, this
one, αs is the thermal diffusivity of the soil having the unit of area per unit time and small t is
the time after spill that is the unit of time, this one.
460
So, the rate of boiling is determined by assuming that all the heat is used to boil the liquid, that
is thus, so
𝑞𝑔 𝐴
𝑄𝑚 =
Δ𝐻𝑣
Qm is the mass boiling rate, qs is the this one, s is the heat transfer for the pool from the ground,
A is the area of the pool and ΔHv is the heat of vaporization of the liquid in the pool that is
energy per unit mass.
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So, solar heat fluxes and convective heat transfer from atmosphere become important when the
temperature difference between the ground and the boiling liquid becomes small. For spillage
of high volatile matter such as liquefied natural gas, LNG, these heat fluxes become more
important and may be only contributors towards the evaporation of the liquid.
The higher hydrocarbons especially from C3 and above require a more detail heat transfer
mechanism. Now, this model also neglects the possible water freezing effect in the ground and
which can significantly alter the heat transfer behavior, this is very important phenomenon.
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Now, let us have a look of different heat sources. So, industrial plant usually provide heat
transfer using very high temperature single phase fluid such as air or a condensing fluid such
as superheated steam. Now, this is true for the case of forced convective heat transfer but for
pool boiling it is practically not at all possible due to the difficulty possessed in measuring the
wall temperature.
Hence, electrically resistive heat transfer is used to conduct the process in controlled heat flux.
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So, let us have different heating methods. So, in method number one, the heating can be done
(use) using cylindrical tubes or rectangular plate mould made from thin electrically conductive
material or metal or (allow) alloys such as Nichrome. The uniform heat input is calculated from
the current and voltage across the reactor. The temperature measuring devices such as
thermocouple are attached to the surface of the wall which is which do not participate in the
boiling process.
Now, this non boiling surface is maintained adiabatic by thermal insulation or guard heating.
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Another method attributed, now as we know that electricity flows only through the surface of
electrically conductive material and not inside the surface. So, electrically conductive material
such as gold or tin oxide is doped over the insulated material. Glass is used as a substrate to
provide the optical transparency. Now, temperature is measured from its electrical resistance
or measured at the back of the substrate.
A very thin layer is doped over the substrate then we can also observe the boiling process from
the backside.
The third method is, the indirect electrical heating in conjunction with the, with the a thick wall
of a good thermal conductor such as copper or aluminium. An electrically insulated element is
embedded or clamped to the back of the wall. The thermocouples are installed in the wall to
measure the temperature. Now, this method can be used for heater of circular or rectangular
cross section.
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Now, let us have a look of burnout phenomenon. A typical boiling process usually does not
follow the boiling curve beyond this particular point, point number C. So, when the power
applied to the heated surface exceeded the value at point C, this one, even slightly, the surface
temperature increased suddenly, now you can see here, to a point number E, this one. So, when
the power is reduced gradually, starting from point this the cooling follows a sudden drop and
the excess temperature when the point D is reached, this one, this point.
Now, let us have a look of heat transfer correlation in pool boiling. Now, different heat transfer
relations need to be used for different boiling regimes. In the natural convection boiling regime
heat transfer rates can be accurately determined using the natural convection relations.
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Now, let us have a look of the Nucleate boiling reason. There is no general theoretical relations
for heat transfer in the Nucleate boiling regime. Experimental based correlations are sometimes
used. The rate of heat transfer strongly depend on the nature of nucleation and the type and the
condition of the heated surface.
A widely used correlation proposed by Rohsenow in 1952 is given by this particular equation
1
𝑔(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 2 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 ∆𝑇𝑒 3
𝑞𝑠" = 𝜇𝑙 ℎ𝑓𝑔 [ ] ( )
𝜎 𝐶𝑠,𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝑙𝑛
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Now here,
𝑞̇ is the Nucleate boiling heat flux, this one, μl is the viscosity of the liquid in kilogram per
meter second, g is the gravitational constant, ρl is the density of the liquid and ρv is the density
of the vapour, Csf is the experimental constant which depends on surface-fluid combination,
this one. The surface tension of the liquid-vapour interface is this one then Cpl that is a specific
heat of the liquid in Joule per kilogram degree Celsius, this one.
Ts is a surface temperature of the heater, Tsat (saturation) is a saturation temperature of the fluid
in degree Celsius, Prl is a Prandlt number of the liquid, n is the experimentation constant that
depends on the fluid.
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So, for Nucleate boiling region, the value of Rohsenow equation can be used for any geometry
since it is found that the rate of heat transfer during the nucleate boiling is essentially
independent of the geometry and orientation of the heated surface. The correlation is applicable
to clean and relatively smooth surfaces. Error for heat transfer rate is given excess temperature
that is, 100 percent. Error for the excess temperature for a given heat transfer rate for the heat
transfer rate and by 30 percent.
The critical heat flux, the maximum or critical heat flux in nucleate boiling was determined
theoretically by S. S. Kutateladze in Russia in way back in 1948 and N. Zuber in the US in
1958. So, it is a represented by this particular equation,
"
𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 1/4
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑣 [ ]
𝜌𝑣2
Now, here C is the constant whose value depends on the heater geometry but generally is about
0.15.
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Now, this CHF that is the critical heat flux is independent of the fluid heating surface
combination as well as the viscosity, thermal conductivity and the specific heat of the liquid.
The CHF increases with the pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure and then
starts to decrease and becomes zero at the critical pressure. The CHF is proportional to hfg and
a large maximum heat fluxes can be obtained using the fluid with the large enthalpy of
vaporization such as water.
The minimum heat flux, the minimum heat flux, which occurs at the Leidenfrost point, is of
the practical interest since it represents the lower limit of heat flux in the film boiling region.
Now, Zuber derived this particular expression for the minimum heat flux for a large horizontal
plate and this relation can be given by 50 percent or more.
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" 𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ) 1/4
𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.09ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑣 [ ]
(𝜌𝑙 + 𝜌𝑣 )2
In this particular module, we have discussed the pool boiling, various aspects of pool boiling
and a modeling aspect of a pool boiling.
And in case of any query or a rift, you can always feel free to see these references we have
listed.
As or 12 references for the future study, thank you very much.
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Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Lecture 20 - Source Model Problems
So welcome to this module of Source Model and in this module we are going to discuss several
problems which are helpful in the entire study.
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So let us have the first problem. This problem here you need to calculate the head loss using 2-K
which we have studied in the previous module, developed in due to pipe friction and fitting for the
section as shown in the figure this one, this particular figure and details whatever details are
required they are as follows: That pipe material which is having the cast iron 4 inch, the pipe
internal diameter is given to you which is 10.23 centimeter, the pipe length is 60 meter. You are
using the fluid as water, the density of the fluid is 1000 kg per meter cube.
Viscosity of the fluid is 8.9 into 10 to the power minus 4 Pascal Second, the velocity of the fluid
is 5 meter per second. 2 fittings are there, elbow 3 x 90 degree long radius that is r by D is equal
to 1.5 and a gate valve 1 into full line size and beta is equal to 1.
So this is the figure, here this is the 10 meter and then the gate valve is there, the height is 10 meter,
then again the length is 10 meter and this 10 meter height. To assist you we are having the Moody’s
chart with us, so let us start with this particular problem, the solution of this particular problem.
The value of K and K0 we can determine the table which was given earlier.
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The 90 degree elbow r by D is equal to 1.5, so the K1 is 800 and Kꚙ is 0.2 and gate value, the K1
is 300 and Kꚙ is 0.10. So absolute roughness for cast iron pipe, ɛ is 0.15 mm and the relative
roughness is ɛ upon D that is 0.15 upon mm, so it comes out to be 0.0015. So it is equation 1, 2
and 3. The Reynolds number Re, DV/ν, DVρ/μ, it is 0.1023 meter into 5 meter per second into
1000 kilogram per meter cube divided by 8.9 into 10 to the power minus 4 kilogram per, which is
(57), 574719.1, nearly you can write 5.75 into 105. Now we can determine the value of friction
factor using Moody’s curve, now here we are having the Moody’s curve with us.
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So we can determine the value of friction factor, so if we utilize the values which we have
calculated earlier (the) this is your Reynolds number and this is the relative pipe roughness. Now
with the help of these 2 factors we can calculate the friction factor. Now, here the relative
roughness is 0.0015, so we can calculate from here and the Reynolds number is 5.75 into to the
power 5, so the point of cross section is somewhere here and if we extrapolate the things to the
friction factor it is coming out to be 0.021, now this is a very useful information through which we
can proceed further.
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Now, let us calculate the resistance coefficient for 90 degree elbow, the
𝐾1 1
𝐾𝑓 = + (1 + )
𝑅𝑒 𝐷
now using K1 and Kꚙ from the previous equation and the Reynolds number from equation number
4 and D is equal to 0.1023 meter, we can calculate the Kf that is 800 divided by 5.75 into 105 + 0.2,
2.54 centimeter per inch.
Now always remember to convert the value of D into inch for determining the value of resistance
and even in fact all calculation you must be consistent towards the unit.
Now Kf is 139.13 into 105 plus 24965.79 x 10-5
So, Kf is coming out to be 25104.92 into 10-5, now Kf is 0.251. Now for elbow of the similar
geometry we can directly multiply the value of this particular value with 3, so Kf for 3 x 90 degree
elbow which is equal to 3 into 0.251 which is coming out to be 0.753.
Similarly for gate value K1 is equal to 300 and Kꚙ is 0.10 which is for gate valve, the remaining
value will be the same, now Kf for gate value is equal to 300 on 5.75 x 10-5 + 0.1, 1 plus 10.23,
2.54 which is 52.17 into 10 to the power minus 5 plus 12482.89 into 10 to power, so 12535.06
into, or nearly 0.125.
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So the total resistance coefficient due to the fitting will be Kf is equal to Kf 90 degree elbow plus
Kf gate valve that is Kf is equal to 0.753 plus 0.125, 0.878, now total head loss due to fitting can be
calculated using this particular equation that is h L is equal to Kf V square upon 2g and this is
0.878 into 5 meter per second square divided by 2 into 9.81 meter per second square, h L is 1.12.
Now calculation for the head loss due to pipe friction, so f is equal to 0.021, hf is f LD, V square
upon 2g. L is 60 meter that is given, V is 5 meter per second again given, D is 0.1023 meter that
is given, so hf is equal to 0.021 into 60 and 0.1023 into 5, 9.81 meter per second square, so hf is
15.70 meter.
So total head loss, 1.12 plus 15.70 which is 16.82 meter, now it is to be noted from the equation
number 10 and 9 that the loss due to fitting is comparatively very less than the losses due to friction
pipeline of 60 meter. So therefore for a large pipeline such as the crude oil pipeline which usually
flows from countries to countries in several kilometers we can neglect the frictional loss due to
fitting whereas for safety calculation these values are extremely important.
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Now, let us take the second problem that is you need to calculate the head loss for the smooth pipe
such as glass or plastic using the 2K method for the same problem which we have discussed in the
previous problem, so as all conditions are same for this problem except the pipe material low and
hence the relative roughness, so we can directly calculate the value of the friction factor, now from
Re which we have calculated in the previous equation Re is equal to 5.75 into 105.
Now with the help of Moody’s chart which is given over here we can calculate because the relative
pipe roughness is will be different because we have changed the configuration and Reynolds
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number is same. So we can, if we extrapolate then we can have this value of f that is f is equal to
0.013, so hence losses due to the fitting will remain same. Only losses due to the friction pipe will
reduce and can be determined with the help of this equation that is f into L upon D into V square
upon 2g, so this is comes out to be 0.13 into 60, 0.1023 meter into 5 meter per, into 2, into 9.81
meter per square, so h f is 9.72 meter.
Now, let us have another problem, the problem number 3, the problem says that, “How head loss
will change for the problem number 1, if we change the fluid from water to oil which is having the
density of 900 kilogram meter cube and kinematic viscosity of 0.00001 meter square per second?”
So now we have changed the fluid, so as a Reynolds number depends upon the density and
viscosity of the fluid, so it will be changed and hence all the calculation will be changed
accordingly.
So let us see that how Reynolds number is having its value 0.1023, we have taken it from problem
number 1, 5 meter per second, 0.00001 meter square per second, so Reynolds number is coming
out to be 51150 that is roughly 5.15 into 10 to the power 4, now for cast iron with ɛ upon D is
equal to 0.0015 and Reynolds number 5.115 into 10 to the power 4, now we have calculated the
Reynolds number, so now next aspect is to calculate, to find out the Moody’s chart.
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Now this is our Moody’s chart, from here we can calculate because we know the roughness (fact)
relative pipe roughness which is point 0.0015, here you can see this one and Reynolds number is
somewhere in the zone of this one, so the cross section is this one and if we extrapolate the things
and it is comes out to be 0.25. So if that is the friction factor is 0.25, now calculation for
determining the resistance coefficient for 90 degree elbow with K 1 is equal to 800 and K infinity
is equal to 0.2.
So Kf is equal to K1 upon Re plus 1 plus 1 upon D which is 800 upon 5.115 into 10 to the power 4
plus 0.21 plus 1 upon and 10.23 centimeter upon 2.54 cm. This is 156.4 into 10-4 plus 2496.58 x
10-4, so Kf is 0.265.
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Now for 3 elbow, the Kf 3 into 90 degree elbow which is 3 into 0.265, 0.795. For gate valve K1 is
equal to 300 and Kꚙ is 0.10. Now Kf is 300 upon 5.115 into 10 to the power 4 plus 0.10, 1 plus 1
upon 10.23 centimeter, 2.54. Now Kf is 58.65 into 10 to the power minus 4 plus 1248.29 into 10
to the power minus 4, so Kf that is gate valve 0.131.
So the total resistance coefficient Kf total is 0.795 plus 0.131 which is 0.926.
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Now the head loss due to the fitting can be calculated as h L is equal to Kf V square upon 2g, this
is 0.926 we have calculated earlier into 5 divided by 2 into 9.81 meter per second square, so that
is h L is equal to 1.180 meter.
Now head loss due to friction in pipe can be calculated as hf is equal to f into L upon D into V
square upon 2g, this is the head loss due to friction in pipe which is 0.025 into 60 meter upon
0.1023 meter into 5 meter per second square upon 2 into 9.81 meter per second square.
So h f is 18.68 meter, so that total head loss is 18.68 plus 1.18 is equal to 19.86 meter, this is what
we required. Now it is to be noted that in above mentioned 3 problems if we did not consider the
loss of head due to the kinetic energy change, so try to calculate the head loss for the problem
number 3 using the case for a smooth pipe.
So the next problem is related to the pool boiling, now here is the problem that a liquid in a tank
is to be boiled through a 2 centimeter diameter nichrome coil electrical resistance heating device.
Now you need to determine the maximum heat flux that can be attained in the nucleate boiling
regime and the surface temperature of the heater surface for the case. Now there are sufficient data
given that is the properties of the liquid at its boiling point 100 degree Celsius.
Small sigma is equal to 0.0589 Newton per meter, density of the liquid ρl is 957.9 kilogram per
meter cube, density of the vapor Ρ V is equal to 0.6 kilogram per meter cube, Prandlt number for
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liquid Prl l is 1.75, enthalpy of vaporization hfg is 2257.1 into 10 to the power 3 joule per kilogram,
viscosity of the liquid mu f is 0.282 into 10 the power minus 3 kilogram meter per second, the
specific heat of the liquid Cpl is 4217 joule per kilogram degree Celsius.
And approximately Csf is 0.006 and n is equal to 1.0 for the boiling of the liquid on nickel plated
nichrome surface, so let us take the problem. This is the figure of the pool boiling here, this is the
2 centimeter electric supply, this is the supplied electric supply, 100 degree Celsius, now P is 1
atmosphere. Now the heating element in the case can be considered to be the short cylinder whose
characteristic dimensions in its radius that is L is equal to r is equal to 0.01meter. The
dimensionless radius L star and the constants here can be determined from the table which I am
going to draw.
483
Now here the heating, this is very important table, heater geometry L, range of L star, now here
the large horizontal flat heater 0.149, or dia, small horizontal flat heater which is our case 18.9,
large horizontal cylinder 0.12, in this case we will consider radius. This L star is greater than 1.2.
Small horizontal cylinder 0.12 L star, radius 0.15, L star 1.2. Large sphere 0.11, 4.26 L star is
greater than 4.26. Small 0.227 LS star, fine less than 4.2 size. So if we calculate the K1 which is g
Ρ minus Ρ L minus Ρ V, A of heater. L star is L g Ρ L minus Ρ V, half which is 0.01, 9.81, 0.6
going to the power half which is, now if we compare with this table the L star is coming out to be
the greater than 1.2.
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Now which corresponds to C r is equal to 1.2, then the maximum or critical heat flux is you can
determine from the equation which we have discussed previously h fg, g Ρ V square Ρ L minus Ρ
V to the power 1 by 4 which is 0.12, 2257 into 10 to the power 3, 0.0589 into 9.8 into 0.6 square
into 957.9, 0.6 to the power 1 by 4. So Q maximum is 1017411, so once our radiation which gives
the nuclear boiling heat flux for a specified surface temperature can also be used to determine the
surface temperature when the heat flux is given.
Now if you substitute the maximum heat flux into the following equation that is this one, ρ V, T S
minus T and to the power 3, so it is 1017411 is equal to 0.282 into 10 to the power minus 3 into
2257 into 10 to the power 3 into 9.81, 957.9 minus 0.0589 to 1 by 2, multiplied by 4217 T S minus
100 upon 0.013 into 2257 into 10 to the power 3, 1.75 whole cube.
485
So this is 3.996, 4217 T S minus 100, 0.013 2257 into 10 to the power 3 into 1.75 whole cube, so
T S is equal to 100 plus 3.996 into 0.013 into 2257 into 10 to the power 3 into 1.75, 4217, so T S
is coming out degree Celsius this is the desired result. So, by this way we have discussed 4 different
problems related to the source model and I hope that these problems, because these problems are
very elaborative I hope that these problems are helpful for understanding of this particular chapter.
Thank you very much.
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Lecture 21 - Fire & Explosions: Introduction
Welcome to this Fire and Explosion module and in this particular module, we are going to discuss
about the fire and explosion, what are the basic definition of fire and explosion and what is the
difference between the fire and explosion, what kind of and conditions required to produce any
kind of fire, what how the heat being, whatever heat being generated in fire or explosion being
transmitted to some other places, that is modes of heat transfer, we will discuss about the fire
triangle, what are the necessary ingredients and what are the necessary arms of this fire triangle.
We will discuss about the various kind of flammability characteristics.
487
Now we know that fire is extremely dangerous not only for our domestic affairs but for the various
industrial establishment. Now sometimes this fire may lead to explosion because explosion is the
rapid generation of shockwaves, maybe because of fire, may or may not be because of some other
reasons. So in this particular module, we will discuss that what are the different conditions required
for the fire, how the fire may lead to the explosion, what kind of explosion are dangerous for the
industrial establishments.
Because ultimately whenever there is a fire, then definitely there is a loss of not only to the human
being but also for the vegetation, animal and above all the property. And sometimes explosion may
lead to the hidden danger to the nearby buildings, to the vegetation, to the human being, etc. Now
question arises what is fire? Now fire is very common, we cannot imagine our sustainability
without fire, we cannot cook food, we cannot have several other aspects, we cannot steam etc.
488
So what is fire? This is the rapid chemical process that produces heat and usually light, now fire is
a visible effect of the process of combustion. Now for combustion what kind of different condition
required, we will discuss in this particular module. Now it occurs between oxygen in the air and
some sort of fuel, this is known as fire triangle.
Now before we go into detail of this fire triangle, let us have a thing that what is fuel. Now fuel is
that what is actually being burned because everything is not having the probability of fire
generation ability. Now this fuel is available in 3 physical states: solid, liquid and the gases. Best
489
example of solid is coal; liquid, your gasoline; diesel gasesous, natural gas etc. So, combustion
usually occurs when fuel presents in gaseous state.
Now let us have a discussion about the chemistry of combustion, now usually oxygen and fuel
they are having the affinity in 3 aspects. One is oxidation, another one is combustion, now if
oxygen is not present then pyrolysis and usually whenever we discuss about fire then there are 2-
3 major issues related to the sustainability of the fire. So if there is a net release of heat then only
the fire will sustain. Now when there is a combustion then we can expect a variety of products for,
of combustion. Usually, the combustion produces smoke and other substances, now this smoke
sometimes carry some dangerous or toxic materials.
So specific products, whatever product being generated during the combustion, they are dependent
on what kind of fuel being used and what is the temperature and how much quantity of oxygen is
available for that particular process. Suppose, there are unsaturated hydrocarbon, then they may
lead to the generation of CO2, CO etc and how much fuel is being consumed during the process of
fire. So, these all the product of combustion, they all depend on these three criteria or these three
systems. Sometimes you may experience that few fires may consume all available fuels.
490
Now let us have a look of smoke, because usually when there is a fire then definitely you can
expect the certain quantity of smoke being generated. Now, usually the smoke is airborne product
of combustion, usually consists of ashes, some gases, some unburned hydrocarbon or some
unburned fuel, different aerosols and usually these sometimes these ashes, gases or aerosols, they
causes severe health hazards. So inhalation of smoke, they may cause severe illness, sometimes
even it may lead to the death and usually the dangerous part is that generation of this type of smoke
cloud, it may propagate to the to the nearby population where these ashes, the people may inhale
the ashes, gases, aerosol etc, it may create the health hazard.
491
Now the smoke contents, they are usually particles, solid metal consisting of some unburned
partially or completely burnt substances, it can be very hot or toxic in nature. Sometimes, certain
vapors may be generated, they are the small droplets of liquid suspended. Oils from fuel or water
from suppression efforts etc, again this type of effect is extremely dangerous.
There may be a generation of certain gases, certain off gases and usually these gases produced by
fire they are toxic in nature, CO, CO2 and unburned hydrocarbons and sometimes if a polymer or
a plastic product catches fire then some sort of dioxins, etc and these all gases are extremely
492
dangerous or extremely hazardous to the human being as well as they are the heat carriers. So,
carbon sorry, common gases these usually includes the carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
sometimes hydrogen cyanides, sometimes phosgene.
So these are so many accidents in past in the chemical industries they took place and they generated
these off or dangerous gases and they become the part and parcel of human being and causes a
severe death and a fatality to the human being. So, practically one must know that what kind of
fuel, what kind of source of fuel is there and how the combustion took place so that the necessary
action towards safeguard of mankind or towards the safeguard of environment can take in place.
Now, once we know that this chemistry of fire, then question arises, if this is an exothermic
reaction and if the net heat being liberated during the course of fire then how it can be transmitted
to some other place? In the Jaipur accident one particular storage tank caches the fire, caught fire
and then the heat was transmitted to some other tanks and through the auto- ignition temperature
all these tank, the temperature of those tank rose very rapidly, the vapors were formed and they
took the temperature, they acquired a temperature of auto-ignition and then they catch the fire. So,
we must know that what kind of different modes of heat transfer be there.
So heat energy, usually we know that this is a basic phenomenon that heat energy always flows
from hotter to colder part. So combustion gives off heat that can ignite other nearby fuel,
sometimes maybe because of auto-ignition and sometimes because of the conduction, because of
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the convection or because of radiative heat transfer. So three methods of heat transfer use
conduction, convection and radiation.
Now, let us have a brief look about these modes of heat transfer: Conduction, now heat transfer
from one molecule to another, they are the direct in contact and the conductors usually transfer
heat very well and you can experience that if you have a metal plate and if you try to heat one end
of that particular metal plate, then automatically it goes to the other part of the metal plate. Now,
usually to overcome such type of problem in a positive manner we usually adopt the concept of
insulation and usually insulator do not transfer heat very well. So in case if you wish to inhibit the
heat transfer so that it cannot go from one place to another, then you must use the insulators.
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The convective heat transfer, the convection, movement of heat through a fluid medium such as
air or liquid and usually they form the convective currents. You can see in this particular figure,
they usually form the convective current and sometimes the heat may transfer from one place to
another place through these convective layers.
Now let us have an example. Suppose, these 2 are the tanks where say petrol or a gasoline is filled
and by any means this particular tank catches fire and because of the temperature rise, because of
the other availability of oxygen in the near, in the air atmosphere the fire propagates and by this
way lot of heat being generated in due course of time to this particular area. The generation of heat
may lead to the formation of more and more vapors so that because oxygen is available in
abundance, because it is surrounded by air then the fire catches rapidly and if it if it is having the
heat value substantially high, then the heat may transfer to this particular tank number 2. This is
tank number 1, this is tank number 2.
Now through this convective heat transfer the content of this particular tank is eaten up and it may
produce enough vapor and if this particular tank is not equipped with safety devices or sometimes
it may be equipped with the safety valve, so enough vapors may generated. And there are 2
possibility, one possibility is that this the fire which is here it may come to this place and the vapors
being generated may catch the fire, another possibility is that the content of this particular tank
may approach to the auto-ignition temperature so that it may ignite.
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And you can imagine the scenario that both of the tanks may be in a position of burning and the
quantum of heat being generated in due to course of time, so you need to think about that what
should be the, how we can eliminate the formation of convective-convective heat transfer, how we
can cordon it off once it is this particular tank catches fire, and if it is not possible then how we
can control the fire, because if there is another tank then because the heat is propagated in such a
way or heat is being liberated in such a way that both the tank they catches they catch fire, then
the excess amount of heat may propagate the fire to this tank number 3. So, one must know that
how to control this particular aspect.
Sometimes when in our domestic affair there is a fire and that is unwanted fire then sometimes it
may create like, suppose you are sleeping and you having a room heater or somebody ignited the
cigarette and by any means the quilt or anything catches the fire and sometimes the convective
layers may form within this room and these and the reason of the formation of these convective
layers is that hot gases they are having the density difference with cold gases.
So there may be a chance of formation of this type of convective layers and these hot gases usually
they travel horizontally. So gas then bank down a wall or move outside and sometimes horizontally
or vertically etcetera. And whatever toxic gas is being generated, somebody who is within this
room, the toxic gases those who are generated in due course of time that particular person may
inhale this thing and it may create a future problem or it may create the immediate problem.
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Radiation, the radiation is again a very good source of heat transfer and sometimes in past so many
accidents are attributed to the radiative heat transfer. So the transfer of heat in the form of an
invisible wave is clubbed under the head of radiation, so heat radiated to nearby structure even it
can ignite it. Radiated heat passing through a window can ignite an object, so in combination of
radiative heat transfer and convective heat transfer sometimes major accident they took place in
passed.
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Now how we can prevent the accident there those who are attributed to fire? So a prima facie the
engineers must know or must be familiar with that the fire and explosion properties of the material.
It is quite obvious that if you are handling the petrol and if you are going to a petrol pump or petrol
station, petrol filling station then always you took a proper attention or you have to take the proper
attention not to ignite any kind of cigarette or sometimes there are so many advisories be written
on those petrol pumps that not to do and do not’s etc, because we all know that what are the
flammable properties of petrol. Similarly, if you are working in a kitchen then you are familiar
with the flammable properties of LPG.
So you cannot treat the petrol with simple potable water or simple water, so because we all know
that it catches fire immediately and it produces off gases and the fire may propagate and fire may
destroy each and everything. So, we usually take some precautionary measure. So when
engineering perspective coming in the picture then engineers must be familiar with the fire and
explosion properties of the material, that what is the boiling point, what is the flash point, what is
the flame point, etc.
The nature of fire and explosion process, how it can catches the fire, what kind of things may lead
to fire? Then, procedure to reduce fire and explosion hazard, if once it is ignited then, how we can
reduce the fire? Sometimes, you may use the sprinkler system, sometimes you may you use to
cordon off air, sometimes you may use to cut the fuel supply to the source, etcetera. So you must
498
know and all 3 things which we have covered in this particular aspect, they are particularly the
engineered things and how we can engineer all those things we will discuss in next couple of slides.
Now, to be more precise and to be more in scientific manner, the 3 essential elements are required
for combustion or you can say fire: fuel, oxygen, heat or source of ignition.
So all 3 combine to form a fire triangle. Now if any one of the arm is missing then there would be
no fire and if all the arms of this particular triangle are combined then there would be fire and
suppose if you wish to extinguish the fire you need to eliminate any one of the arm. So usually
whenever we remove oxygen or net release of heat or fuel supply then fire is extinguished, so
usually in other aspect this is the chemical chain reaction which keeps the fire burning.
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Now how we can assess that what are the necessary conditions for the formation of fire triangle?
So, prima facie, first thing comes into our mind is the fuel because usually when we used to go to
the petrol pump or when you used to go to the kitchen, our subconscious mind says that there is a
presence of LPG, we do not bother about the source of ignition, we do not bother about the
availability of oxygen at the source. So fuel, let us have a brief discussion about fuel, fuel must be
present in certain concentration.
Now remember there is a stoichiometric metric demand of fuel, let us have a basic equation of
methane burning, this is the basic equation:
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + ∆𝐻
Now for 1 mole of methane, the 2 moles of oxygen is required, so if the oxygen is available suppose
in 2 mole and if there is a half mole, then this stoichiometric demand will not fulfill. So fuel must
be present in a certain concentration, we will discuss about the lower flammability limit and upper
flammability limit in due course of time.
Now typical cases where fire occur or if there is a leak during the filling operation, transfer
operation or excessive dust, we will take up as a Jaipur accident as one of the case study and all
aspects like filling operation, transfer operation they took place in the Jaipur accident, often we
cannot always eliminate these sources. Sometimes it is very impractical to eliminate all things like
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all arms of, or any one arm of fire triangle. Like if you wish to cook something in your kitchen,
how can you imagine the scenario that your fire triangle is not fulfilled? You require the presence
of fuel, you require the presence of oxygen, you require the presence of source of ignition and
above all you require that net chemical chain reaction be there.
So we cannot always eliminate these sources. We can help by having the good ventilation or we
can have help of good housekeeping to keep the vapors from building up. Now there are certain
examples of liquid, solid and gaseous fuels like gasoline acetone, ether, pentane; they are clubbed
under the head of liquid. Solid; plastic, wood, dust, fiber, metal particles, etc. Gaseous, acetylene,
propane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, etc. So you can list, you can enlist N number of source of
fuels. So once you characterize the few, then the oxidizers.
Oxygen is the most common oxidizer, especially that found in ambient air. So now why the oxygen
or oxidizers are important? The reason is that, suppose if we wish to extinguish the fire and
sometimes it is not possible to cordon off oxygen, then we should dilute the fuel concentration in
such a way that the essential amount of oxygen whatever required as per the requirement of
stoichiometric nature then the concentration should be on the lower side.
So for oxygen we often use inerting with the nitrogen or helium blankets over the flammable
material to reduce the oxygen content or to cordon it off from the fire. So the oxygen content
should be below the required amount of combustion. Go back to the previous example:
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𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + ∆𝐻
now if for 1 mole of CH4 if the oxygen is, suppose oxygen the availability of oxygen is say for 1
mole then definitely there would be no fire because the mixture is too lean to combust.
So it is essential that the oxygen must present in sufficient quantity whether you are taking the fire
in a positive manner or you are taking the fire in a negative manner. So a different type of oxidizers
available as on date, the liquid hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, perchloric acid. There are certain
solid oxidizers like metal peroxides, ammonium nitrite, etc. They are certain gases; obviously
oxygen is most common source of oxidizer, then fluorine, chlorine, etc.
Then the last thing in the fire triangle is this ignition source, now usually heat is the common
ignition source and remember one thing that all the ignition sources are free. Even the static charge
being developed or accumulated on your hair may be dangerous and if you are wearing some silk
cloths et cetera, sometimes you may observe that the static electricity being generated and
sometimes you may observe that there is a generation of spark, it is extremely dangerous. The
spark being produced by the shoe nails of your, nails of you shoes again it is easily or it is free
available source of ignition.
Now one can eliminate ignition sources; it is almost inevitable that the ignition source it will be
available if there is a large release of flammable material that cannot be diluted quickly. One more
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thing is that whatever source of ignition you are using, it must have a sufficient quantity of energy
or delta H within it so that it can ignite that combustible mixture. So once it is ignited then there is
a formation of chemical chain reaction and the net release based on its delta H, it is sufficient to
sustain that particular fire. So, the various example of ignition sources like a spark, flame, static
electricity, heat etc. So, you can modify the fire triangle with respect to this chemical chain reaction
because if you wish to sustain the fire then definitely you must have a chemical change reaction
within it.
Now once we go into deeper in the fire and explosion, we must know the various definition because
we will use different type of terminology in due course of time in all modules of this fire and
explosion. So we have divided the things into a couple of aspect.
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So first we will discuss about the various definition. The first scientific definition of combustion
is the chemical reaction in which a substance combine with an oxidant and releases energy.
Remember that particular release of energy is required for the sustainability of the fire, so if you
remove this particular energy being liberated during the course of fire, you can extinguish the fire.
Explosion, the rapid expansion of gases resulting in rapidly moving pressure or shockwaves. The
mechanical explosion, this is due to the sudden failure of vessel containing high pressure non-
reactive gases. There may be certain physical explosion, this results from the sudden failure of a
vessel containing high pressure of non-reactive gases.
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Then detonation, the explosion, we will discuss this detonation and deflagration in the subsequent
modules. The detonation, explosion chemical reaction with a shockwave greater than speed of
sound, this is extremely dangerous because sometimes the shockwave whatever being generated
due to the explosion may match with the natural frequency of any object and a couple of times and
that particular object may destroy or may collapse.
So this is the detonation is extremely important. Then, deflagration, the explosion or the chemical
reaction with the shockwave less than the speed of sound. Then BLEVE, the Boiling Liquid
Expanding Vapor Explosion, when liquid is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point
sometimes vessel ruptures and flammable liquid flashes and results in fire or explosion. We will
discuss this BLEVE in detail in the subsequent modules.
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The confined explosions, then explosion occurring within a vessel or building usually results in
injury to building inhabitants and extensively damage. The unconfined explosion and explosion
occurring in open usually result from a spill of a flammable gas spill. These explosions are rarer
than confined since dilution occurs.
Now, usually these unconfined explosions are extremely dangerous because you do not have any
control and confined explosions, suppose you are sitting in a particular room and sometimes vessel
(rupture) ruptures and the vapor cloud of the flammable vapor forms and it moves here and there
in that particular room, then you are having the liberty or you are having some equipment or safety
devices through which you can control that particular vapor cloud which is not, this facility is not
available for the vapor cloud explosion, sorry unconfined explosion and in past the flibborough
explosion and Jaipur accident they took place because of this unconfined explosion.
Dust explosion: Now this explosion results from the rapid combustion of fine solid particles and
many solid material become very flammable when reduces to a fine powder. Another aspect is that
since we learn about that detonation and deflagration, we must know that what is shockwave
because we utilize the term shockwave over there.
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So shockwave, an abrupt pressure wave moving through a gas. And in open air a shockwave is
followed by a strong wind. The combination of a shockwave and winds can result in a blast
pressure wave. So you can see there is a combined effect of all factors. Overpressure, the pressure
of an explosion above atmospheric pressure and more specifically the pressure on an object
resulting from the shockwave.
We should know about the ignition: Usually, a flammable material which may be ignited by the
combination of a fuel and oxidant in contact with an ignition source or if a flammable gas is
sufficiently heated the gas can ignite, so we must the practical definition of ignition. The minimum
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ignition energy, the smallest energy input needed to start the combustion, so usually the typical
minimum ignition energy of hydrocarbon is around 0.25 mega joule. Now to place this in
perspective the static charge from walking across a carpet is 22 millijoule, an automobile spark
plug is 25 millijoule.
Now you can imagine that this much amount of minimum ignition energy is required for
combustion of hydrocarbon and walking across a carpet generates this much quantum of energy,
so how dangerous it is? Auto-ignition temperature, the temperature threshold above which enough
energy is available to act as an ignition source. So in this particular chapter we have discussed a
particular module, we have discussed about the various definition, what is the chemistry of fire,
what is the concept of a fire triangle because the knowledge of this fire triangle is extremely
important to extinguish the fire.
In the subsequent modules, we will discuss about the flammability characteristics, what kind of
definitions required, what are the flammability limits, how we can deal the mixtures, etc. Thank
you very much.
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Lectures 22 - Fire & Explosion: Flammability Characteristics
Welcome to the second module of fire and explosion. Up till now we have studied about the fire
and explosion, the basic definition of fire and explosion, different type of fuels which are
responsible for fire, we have discussed about the different mode of heat transfer through which
fire or heat generated being transmitted to some other part and we discussed about the fire triangle
which is responsible for fire propagation, initiation etc.
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Now in this module we will discuss about the flammability characteristics which is extremely
important that how, what are the different parameters required for flammability, minimum oxygen
concentration, minimum ignition energy, adiabatic compression, auto-ignition temperature and
various sources of ignition.
Now flammability characteristics. Before we discuss the flammability characteristics lets have a
look about the flash point. Now flash point, this is a property of a material used to determine the
fire and explosive hazard, this is the lowest temperature of a liquid at which it gives off enough
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vapor to form an ignitable mixture with air. So whenever there is an ignitable mixture there are
another criteria which needs to be fulfilled before any particular flammable mixture caches fire.
We will discuss in the subsequent slide.
Now generally this flash point increases with increasing pressure and it needs to be determined
experimentally. Now there are different method for determination of flash point like open cup,
closed cup. Now open cup flash point is few degree higher than the closed cup flash point and one
point should be remembered that whenever we report the flash point then it must be reported that
through which method it was determined.
As far as liquid fuels are concerned, another point is fire point. This is the lowest temperature at
which a vapor above liquid will continue to burn once ignited. The fire temperature is higher than
the flash point temperature. There are certain other things which are proposed by national fire
protecting agency, United States about the flammable liquid, the liquid which with a flash point
less than 100 degree Fahrenheit. Now this type of characterization is essential whenever we need
to design the protective equipments. We need to design the fire retardancy aspect of any process,
then we must know that which liquid is flammable and which is not.
Then combustible liquid, the liquid with flash point greater than 100 degree Fahrenheit. Now let
us have a look about the flammability limit. We must know that which is the flammable mixture,
which mixture can combust. So far when mixture is having the higher concentration then definitely
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the corresponding amount of oxygen would be on the lower side, then definitely the mixture would
not be ignitable. So question arises that, what are the limit and how we can ignite the combustible
mixture?
So people have proposed 2 types of limit, lower flammability limit and upper flammability limit,
so there is a usually range of composition of a flammable vapor and air where the combustion
occurs. Now the one thing must be remembered that for any kind of flammability, any kind of
formation of combustible mixture, there must be a fulfillment of stoichiometric demand. Let us
have a hydrocarbon combustion formula
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
now once these two things with methane and oxygen they are in the stoichiometric demand, only
then the fire will catch. So in other words if there is a too little fuel and which is not enough for to
burn, that is covered under the head of lower flammability limit.
And if too much fuel, that means the fuel concentration is on the extremely higher side and which
is not duly supported by the supply of oxygen, then again there would be a difficulty in fire. So in
this particular plot we can see the concentration of flammable gases in volume percent and
explosion pressure. So this is, these 2 are lower explosive limit, this 1 and upper explosive limit.
Sometimes LFL and UFL they are called lower explosive limit and upper explosive limit, so
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whatever is inside this plot that is the combustible, we will discuss in the subsequent slides in
detail.
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Now the flammable and the explosive limits, the range of composition of material in air which
will burn, that is upper flammable limit, lower flammability limit, sometimes it is termed as higher
explosive limit and lower explosive limit.
Now measuring these limits for vapor air mixture, mixture of known concentration are placed in
specially designed closed vessel apparatus and then ignition is attempted. The maximum explosion
pressure is measured, now usually test is repeated with different concentration to establish the
range of flammability for the specific gas.
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Because sometimes it is advisable that you must not able to form this type of mixture within this
LFL and UFL. So if you wish to work in safer range, then you need to have your mixture either in
this range or in this range because this range is a flammability region. Somehow if by any source
it catches the source of ignition then definitely there are chances that it will ignite. So if you wish
the fire to be placed there, then deliberate attempt, then your mixture should be in this range. And
if you do not wish then definitely you have to take certain attempts so that the mixture does not
fall in this flammability region.
Now whenever we wish to form any kind of flammability relationship or flammability chart, we
should not forget the importance of flash point, auto-ignition temperature etc, because sometimes
if your mixture is beyond this range and by any means it acquires sufficient amount of energy then
it will automatically auto-ignite and then the things would be more dangerous compared to the
previous one. So whenever you wish to form or we are having any hydrocarbon or any flammable
liquid or flammable gas with you, then it is important that you need to know that what is my LFL,
what is my UFL and what is a flash point and auto-ignition temperature.
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Sometimes it is again equally important to form the different type of flammability diagram so that
you can have the flammability mixture line. Now here you can find this particular diagram is very
interesting, the reason is that you are having one fuel, you are having one oxidizer. Apart from this
you are having an inert. Now question arises that, why do we use inert? The reason is that we
having LFL and UFL in place, that means and suppose I am working in a hexane environment.
So definitely we do not want to have combustible mixture that is the combination of hexane vapor
plus oxygen and somehow because if by any means you are not in a position to avoid such kind of
mixture, then definitely your attempt should be like this that you must introduce some inert so that
it fall either with, either it goes lower to the LFL limit so that this mixture does not in place or
somehow if you wish to increase or if you are in a position to increase the supply of fuel, so you
enrich the combustible mixture in such a way that the concentration of methane is on the higher
side.
But remember this particular aspect is extremely dangerous, the reason is that if by any chance or
by any leaking sufficient quantity of oxygen or air is entrapped within the zone, then definitely it
will form a combustible mixture. So you must know that how much quantity of inert material is
required to make the things safer, for this these type of diagrams are quite beneficial. Now this is
the particular diagram for the methane, here you must, this particular region is the flammability,
flammable region. Now here you can assess that what should be the, at what concentration of
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methane and at what concentration of oxygen because you can see the stoichiometric line, so your
attempt should be like this that you must introduce nitrogen in such a way so that it does not cross
the LFL mark.
So this is another line that is depicting the limiting oxygen concentration, the limiting oxygen
concentration it says that the volume percent of oxygen below which combustion cannot occur.
That means there is no adequate supply of oxygen to meet the stoichiometric demand. If you recall
the previous chemistry formula for CH4 + 2O2, that means if you are increasing the amount of
nitrogen that means definitely it will not cross this limiting oxygen concentration mark, now this
is a safer zone.
So that is why whenever you are having such type of scenario, you must calculate that up to how
much quantity of inert material is required so that it does not cross this LOC barrier or it does not
cross the LFL line.
This is again for the ethylene, ethylene hydrocarbon again, sorry, now here again you can see the
LOC and this is our air line that means a supply of air. Oxygen is automatically being extracted
from the air, so ethylene the combustion of ethylene requires this quantity of oxygen.
So by any means of introduction of nitrogen if you introduce certain quantity of nitrogen, that
means the concentration of oxygen or limiting oxygen concentration is on the lower side or the
LFL is on the lower side so that the mixture does not form the combustible one. Now question
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arises that once we have discussed the flammability limit, what are the parameters those who are
affecting these flammability limits?
So there are 3 different parameters, that is a concentration of inert material we have discussed
through two diagrams, the temperature and the pressure, so these 3 are the measure parameters
those who are affecting the flammability limits.
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Now let us have a look that how this LFL is determined and what are the different mathematical
equations applied for, to govern this LFL. So lower flammability limits for several common
substances we need to determine and usually it is advisable to determine those limits through
experimental process. However, if you have adequate knowledge of flash point then LFL you can
be estimated through the flash point. Now here is the formula that LFL equal to vapor pressure at
flash point divided by 760 mm mercury, so determination of a vapor pressure using the Antoine
equation, Antoine equation is a very famous equation in chemical thermodynamics. So you can
determine the vapor pressure through which you can assess that what will be the theoretical LFL
of that particular substance.
Now if one have a mixture of flammability components, lower flammability limit or LFL mixture
can be calculated using the Le Chatelier’s relationship. Now this Le Chatelier’s relationship is
there,
1
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑦𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑖
This LFLi is a flammability limit for component i and yi is the mole fraction of ith component on
combustible basis. Remember, this particular combustible basis because inert material you cannot
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take into consideration. And n is the number of combustible species present in that particular
mixture.
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Similarly, you can calculate the upper flammability too for the mixture using again the same Le
Chatelier’s relationship,
1
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑦𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑖
Other designation like this is the mole fraction, ith component and on the combustible basis.
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Now for determination of these LFL and UFL there are certain inherent assumptions we have
taken, the inherent assumptions though they are theoretical one but still we cannot overlook their
importance. The product heat capacity is our constant though I cannot say precisely because the
temperature is on the varying side. The number of moles of gas is assumed to be the constant, the
combustion kinetics of pure species is independent and unchanged by the presence of other
combustible species.
The adiabatic temperature rise at the flammability limit, is the same for all species reasonably valid
at LFL and less so that of UFL, so because the temperature variance and mole they do effect in the
determination of LFL and UFL, so earlier slides we have discussed that the LFL and UFL both are
having impacted by temperature.
Now these are the formula through which you can assess the effect of temperature on LFL and
UFL and usually the standard denotation of or standard representation of LFL and UFL is 25
degree Celsius. So if you wish to determine the LFL UFL, let us say 80 degree Celsius or 90 degree
Celsius, then you can easily utilize these 2 formula,
0.75(𝑇 − 25)
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑇 = 𝐿𝐹𝐿25 (1 − )
∆𝐻𝑐
0.75(𝑇 − 25)
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑇 = 𝑈𝐹𝐿25 (1 + )
∆𝐻𝑐
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Now theoretically you can determine all this LFL and UFL so that you can anticipate that suppose
if I wish to run the reaction at say 120 degree Celsius then definitely it is my first right to know
that what would be the LFL and UFL at the specified temperature at my working temperature. So
these formula or these mathematical relationships, they are quite useful, now the last effect is the
flammability limit, the pressure effect. Now LFL is usually not affected by pressure except a very
low pressure and usually at very low pressure the chances of ignition are very rare.
So UFL does depend on the pressure and this is the mathematical relationship through which you
can predict the pressure of pressure effect on UFL at particular point of time. So,
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑃 = 𝑈𝐹𝐿 + 20.6 (log10 𝑃 + 1)
So the procedure is to correct for the temperature prima facie then the correct for pressure and then
calculate for the mixture. So you are having the wide spectrum through which you can assess that
what would be LFL and UFL of the mixture and individual component.
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Now let us have a look about the minimum oxygen concentration, see we talked about this
importance of oxygen in the previous slides that the mixture or fuel must be in stoichiometric
presence so that it can catches the fire. That means you require a minimum oxygen for any kind
ignition for any kind of fire, so LFL is based on air but actually it is oxygen that is important.
Often, it is industry they inert to dilute the oxygen concentration so that it is just below the LFL
range, so below the minimum oxygen concentration the reaction cannot generate enough energy.
So that it cannot beat the requirement of ΔHc to heat the entire mixture of to the extent required
for self-propagation. The MOC in previously has also been called the limiting oxygen
concentration, the maximum safe oxygen concentration is MSOC. Sometimes you may find in
literature that it is reported in terms of MSOC. So LOC depends on inert gas species, that is why
if you recall in the previous slides that we have discussed the nitrogen, the effect of nitrogen those
diagrams. So usually depends on inert gas species, the LOC has the unit of percentage of moles of
oxygen in total moles.
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Now this is the mathematical relationship or derivation through which you can calculate
theoretically the minimum oxygen concentration.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛

𝑀𝑂𝐶 = { }{ }
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 & 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑀𝑂𝐶 = 𝐿𝐹𝐿 { }
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
So need to balance the stoichiometric relationship, this is the generalized hydrocarbon combustion
relation,
𝑥
𝐶𝑚 𝐻𝑥 𝑂𝑦 + 𝑧𝑂2 → 𝑚𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻 𝑂
2 2
Now though which you can calculate this one,
Z = m + x/4 – y/2
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑍= { }
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
So through which you can calculate easily calculate the minimum oxygen concentration.
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Now we have talked about the essential requirement for a combustible mixture. Now let us have a
look about the minimum ignition energy, the knowledge of ignition limits of a combustible gas
mixture is of importance in many combustion system. Now in order to successfully ignite a
flammable gas mixture, sufficient amount of energy is needed; the smallest amount of energy that
results in the successful ignition is known as the minimum ignition energy. Now this is the standard
definition, without this minimum amount of energy you cannot ignite the mixture.
So this is the minimum amount of energy required to ignite a particular mixture, now in other
words a minimum energy that can ignite a mixture of specified flammable material with air or
oxygen measured by a standard procedure, now this is the scientific definition of MIE.
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Now the minimum energy input in single line aspect, you can always say that minimum energy
input needed to initiate the combustion. Most hydrocarbon, they are having very low minimum
ignition energy, that is around 0.25 millijoule whereas a spark from walking across the room is
around 22 millijoule, so almost hundred times greater than as required for this one. That is why
whenever you visit the refinery or any hydrocarbon plant it is always advisable not to use the shoes
which are having the shoe nails or iron nails. So we always assume that an ignition source will
exist, only thing is that we need to minimize the impact of the source of ignition.
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Now minimum ignition energy requirement varied with the mixture composition, fuel type,
pressure and a temperature, so the lowest amount of energy required for the ignition depend on the
major variables, those are dependent on temperature, percentage of combustible and the different
type of compound which are in question because the hydrocarbon those who are having the lower
molecule weight, it can easily catch the fire.
Now next is the adiabatic compression and this is most common phenomenon in hydrocarbon
combustion and especially you can easily visualize this particular phenomenon when you are using
your motor car and scooter which is having too high temperature or if you run across a 500-600
kilometers without giving any rest then the temperature will rise up.
So this is an additional means of ignition is the adiabatic compression. So when gases are
compressed to an adiabatic temperature that exceeds the auto-ignition temperature, they heat up
and can ignite. This how the diesel engine works, also the cause of knocking in various gasoline
engine. So, you can calculate the adiabatic temperature by this standard thermodynamic
relationship
𝛾−1
𝑃𝑓 𝛾
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 [ ]
𝑃𝑖
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So you can calculate and if this temperature is just above your auto-ignition temperature then
definitely you need to take certain attempts to minimize the effect of auto-ignition.
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Now auto-ignition temperature because we have discussed this auto-ignition temperature in

adiabatic compression then again it is a prime duty to have a look at what is auto-ignition
temperature. So the auto-ignition temperature of a substance is the lowest temperature at which it
is spontaneously ignite in normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition. So in other
words the temperature at which the vapor ignite spontaneously from the energy of the environment.
Now see if you compare with the adiabatic compression then the temperature at this paraphernalia
is on the higher side.
Then auto-ignition temperature and if sufficient quantity of oxygen is available then definitely it
will ignite. Now this AIT is the function of concentration and the volume of the vapor, the pressure
of the system, the material in contact and size of containment. Now we have discussed various
aspects of flammability characteristics and without the source of ignition you cannot imagine the
fire whether it is in the positive sense or in a negative sense.
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So what is ignition source? An ignition source is a process or event which can cause a fire or
explosion. Open flames, spark, static electricity and hot surfaces are all possible ignition sources,
an explosion can occur when flammable gases or vapors in the air come in contact with the ignition
source and remember one thing that ignition sources are almost free and available everywhere.
We have collected some statistical information about the ignition sources, this is based on the
accidental investigation, so electrical motor or wiring of motor they causes almost 23 percent of
accident; smocking 18 percent; friction bearing or broken parts, almost 10 percent; overheated
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material abnormally at high temperature, almost 8 percent; hot surfaces, burner flames, combustion
sparks, spontaneous ignition, cutting, welding etc.
So they all contributes, the basic purpose of this particular table is that you must know that what
is the impetus of different variables through which, and what is the gravity of those variable or
sources of ignition those who are incorporating in terms of accident. So we must aware that this
can be a very dangerous.
Now these sources of ignition must take adequate precaution to prevent the ignition of flammable
vapors, they are some of the casual sources of ignitions are smocking, electrical equipment, so that
is why if you go to refinery you are not allowed to smoke inside the refinery. The heaters, the
contractor tools and equipments, arsons etc, so you can see in these pictorial figures, that there are
so many sources and sometimes all these equipment may get heated or so the heat is sufficient
enough to produce the spark.
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There are certain open flames, they varies from to lit a cigarette to welding activity. Mechanically
generated, now why I am talking about the welding activity? Sometimes, if you are working in the
combustible environment and if any because of variety of reasons wear and tear may take place in
any equipment and you need to perform the welding activity, so when you need to perform this
welding activity you must ensure that either your workplace is cordon off or you must insure that
there would be no chance of any combustible mixture within the periphery.
Now another is the mechanically generated impact spark, the few example is that hammering or
hammer blow on rusty steel surface compared to the hammer blow on a flint stone, so spark may
be generated. The speed and impact angle between the surface and hammer are important and 90
degree blow on the surface is relatively harmless, so you must know that at what point of time you
must impact all those hammers to the surface required. Electrical spark, for example, a bad
electrical connection or a faulty pressure transmitter, the electric energy content of the spark
determines the effectiveness of the ignition sources.
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There sometimes you may encounter the high surface temperature, this can be the result of milling,
grinding, rubbing, mechanical friction in a stuffing box or a bearing or a hot liquid pumped into a
vessel. There may be enough sources. Then electrostatic discharge, static discharge can be
generated by the air sliding over a wing or even the pipeline transfer of any hydrocarbon from one
place to another place. Then adiabatic compression, sometimes air is pumped into vessel and the
vessel surface heats up, then again it may cause the adiabatic compression. Radiation, lighting etc,
because in history there are so many accidents they are attributed to this type of ignition sources.
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Then there is chance of static electricity, it is major cause of fire and explosion in many industries,
and generated when fluid flows through a pipe or from an opening into a tank. Main hazard are
fire and explosion from spark containing enough energy to ignite the flammable vapors, so we
must know and there is any chance of generation of static electricity, the system must be properly
grounded, bounded etc, we will discuss in subsequent modules.
They are so many piping systems; they are responsible for generation of electricity, static
electricity. So in piping system the generation rate and the subsequent accumulation of static
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charges are function of flow rate, liquid velocity, pipe diameter and a pipe length. So as a chemical
engineer you must know that what kind of parameter those who are impacting the generation of
static electricity in the piping system. Then filling operation, the turbulence experienced in the
filling operation usually caused by large flow rate, splashing.
Free falling liquids greatly increase the charge accumulation above the liquid generated in the
piping system, we will discuss this filling operation in subsequent modules. Filtration, filter
because of their large surface area can generate as much as 200 times the electrostatic charge
generated in the piping system without filtration.
An another important aspect is the auto oxidation, the process of slow oxidation accompanying
evolution of heat sometimes leading to auto-ignition if energy is not removed from the system.
Liquid with relatively low volatile are particularly susceptible to this problem and liquid with the
high volatility are less susceptible to auto-ignition because they self-cool as a result of evaporation.
So this is sometimes known as spontaneous combustion when the fire results in oil on a rags in a
warm storage area. Sometimes it is quite common when you store the oil bearing seeds in the
closed silos and sometimes because of this auto-ignition ability you may experience the rise in
temperature.
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Then sometimes spray and mist, they do contribute towards the generation of static charges, so
static electricity is generated when mists of spray is passed through an orifice, a charge may
accumulate and discharge in a spark. If flammable vapors are present, a fire or explosion will
occur. And mist and sprays also affect the flammability limits, so do care because sometimes if
you are spraying the inert material to a particular zone then definitely you cannot overlook the
importance of generation of spray and mist.
So in this particular module we have discussed about the various flammability characteristics,
various aspects, we have gone through the different type of parameters and especially LFL and
UFL because these particular aspects are essential and important while designing the safety or
devices in a particular workplace. Thank you very much.
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Lecture 23 - Explosion & its Classification – 1
Welcome to the third module of Fire and Explosion. So up till now we have studied in the
different modules about the fire and explosion, different type of fuels, what are the different
kinds of modes of heat transfer through which fire can propagate. We have discussed about the
fire triangle and different flammability characteristics.
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Now in this particular module we will study about the explosion and its classification, vapor
cloud explosion.
So explosion, it is an extremely dangerous thing and there are so many accidents they are
attributed to because of explosion. In the history, in the chemical engineering history there are 2
major accidents; one is Flixborough and other one is the Jaipur accident. They took place just
because of explosion.
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So question arises that what is an explosion? This is the definition of explosion: This is the rapid
burning of a material resulting in sudden build-up and release of heat and gas pressure. In other
words it is a sudden and violent release of energy, the violence of the explosion depends on the
rate at which the energy is released. So sometimes fire may lead to explosion and sometimes it
may not. When the fire is leading towards an explosion then the conditions are extremely
dangerous.
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This is the second of the major hazard is explosion. The explosion in the process industries
causes fewer serious accidents than fire but more than toxic release, so when it does occur
however it often inflicts greater loss of life and damage than fire because sometimes the one
additional thing in the explosion is that the generation of shockwaves. This can matches with the
natural frequency of nearby building and all those building may get extremely damaged. So
explosion is usually regarded as having a disaster potential greater than that of fire but less than
that of toxic.
So in other modules we will discuss different case studies. We can see the toxic accident that is
attributed to Bhopal is dangerous compared to the Jaipur accident or Flixborough accident. Now
fire and explosion may be, you can say they are 2 sides of same coin, they both are based on
strongly exothermic chemical reactions, usually the combustion in air.
So explosion as opposed to a fire, when the rapid expansion of gases produces the higher
pressure and this higher pressure through rapid propagation may result the explosion and may
cause the generation of shockwaves which are again devastating. So an explosion is more likely
when the fuel-oxygen mixture is midway between the flammability limit because in that
particular case the fuel-oxygen mixture may escape to the atmosphere and it would not be, you
would not be able to control it in which direction because usually it propagates towards the
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direction of wind inversion. So you will not be able to apply all your safety measures to that
uncontrolled escape of this vapor cloud.
The measure distinction, when we talk about distinction between the fire and explosion, the
major distinction between fire and explosion is the rate of energy release. Fire releases energy
slowly whereas explosion releases rapidly, typically in the order of microseconds. So in very
small time duration you can experience the sudden release of extreme amount of energy. So fire
can result from explosion and explosion can result from fire, so that is why we have said that
more or less these are the 2 sides of a coin.
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A good example of how the energy release rate affects the consequences of an accident is a
standard automobile tyre. You may experience that when burst, the compressed air within the
tyre contains huge quantum of energy and if energy is released slowly through the nozzle the tyre
is harmlessly deflated and if tyre ruptures suddenly then all energy within the compressed tyre
releases rapidly and the result is a dangerous explosion. And you sometimes may experience the
large noise as well as, all of sudden then you can see the dust and other dust particles they are
escaping when this tyre ruptures. So this is the difference between the fire and explosion. You
can extrapolate the things in term of fire and explosion.
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And just the fire is exothermic oxidation with the flame. Explosion, the higher energy release
rate, pressure or a shockwave and this may trigger each other. The usual effects are injuries,
casualties, property losses, process interruption. This may be because of thermal radiation, toxic
products, blast, fragments, etc. So required knowledge for prevention material properties
obviously, the nature of fire and explosion process procedure to reduce the hazard. So you must
know that what kind fire is there and how it propagates, what kind of explosion is there, how it
can propagates.
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So when we deal with the method of extinguishment, then you must know the either of 3
methods: How to cool the burning material, how to exclude the oxygen, how to remove the fuel
and how to break the chemical reactions.
Now coming back to explosion, usually when we talk about because we have discussed a lot
about the fire, so when we talk about the explosion the explosion behavior depends on large
numbers of parameters and we have enlisted all the parameters. Number 1 is the ambient
temperature and pressure. So you must know that what is the ambient temperature and pressure.
In the previous module we have discussed the temperature and pressure on LFL and UFL, so if
you are having the adequate knowledge, so in case of eventuality you can avoid the further
accidents.
You must know the composition and physical properties of explosive materials. For this you
must know that what is the importance of MSDS, so you cannot treat the all hydrocarbons or all
combustible materials in a single platform. You must know what will be the delta H of each and
every one. Nature of ignition sources: type, energy, duration this is again important. In the
previous module we have discussed about the ignition sources.
So which kind of source of ignition may be present in the workplace in case of any problem, how
much energy is being there and what would be the duration, millisecond, seconds etc? And
sometimes you may experience that if you go to the petrol pump station then it is advisable not to
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use your mobile phones, it is advisable not to lit the cigarettes etc, it is always advisable to be
very careful in that particular zone. Because sometimes the little spark being generated from the
mobile phone may be extremely harmful and again one more advisory is that if you are working
in a kitchen and some by any means LPG releases then it is always advisable not to turn off or
turn on any kind of electric switch whether it is a ventilation or the electrical switch.
The reason is that the small spark may be extremely dangerous. Then you must know the
geometry of surrounding if it is confined or unconfined, remember the confined geometry is
somehow favorable. The reason is that whenever you are working, supposed I am working in a
pool of hexane, I know that hexane is flammable, it may create a problem, it may form a
flammable mixture, so my outside environment is extremely safe by the use of safety devices.
So I am very much aware about what kind of safety devices are there. Now by any means by the
generation of excessive pressure, by the generation of any means these hexane vapors they
escape to the atmosphere, and because of the wind inversion, because of the wind velocity it may
go to some other places. Adequate quantity of oxygen is available through air, so it may form the
combustible mixture and you do not have any clue about that what kind of different sources of
ignition be there. Sometimes somebody starts his car, sometimes somebody start his scooter or
he may be using the mobile phone, then definitely the adequate source of ignition they are
available.
So you must know about the importance of geometry of surrounding. You must have a
knowledge about the amount of combustible mixture. Suppose I am working over here with the
pool of hexane and say 1000 kiloliter of hexane is there, then how much quantity of hexane is
escaped to the atmosphere so that I can devise or I can actuate my safety devices accordingly?
Turbulence of combustion material, again it is equally important that how much quantity of air
being mixed with this combustible material. You must know about or you must analyze the time
before ignition, the reason is that it gives you enough idea so that you can anticipate that how
much dilution is present.
How your combustible, released combustible material is diluted because of the presence of
atmospheric air? The reason is that again LFL and UFL comes into the picture, if adequate
oxygen is there then definitely they will form the combustion but if more than required oxygen is
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there then definitely the mixture will be to lean to catch fire. So suppose again I am working in
this reactor with the hexane or LPG or any combustible material, because some thermal runaway
reaction the combustible material releases to the atmosphere, at this particular point of time it
may not catch the fire but where it goes at that particular point of time it may catch fire. So you
must know that rate at which combustible is released.
So all these eight parameters, they are extremely important to discuss the or to analyze the
combustible behavior. Now, why we are discussing this combustible behavior a priori? the
reason is that whenever any kind of fire took place then definitely we must analyze or we
perform the accidental investigation in these lines. Now remember one thing before go ahead
that explosion behavior is very difficult to characterize and simultaneously the explosion
behavior is still not completely understood. So these 2 things must be, you must aware about
these 2 things.
Now before we go ahead with the explosion, the question arises, are we in a position to classify
the explosion? Yes, we can classify the explosion.
So explosion in the process industry can be classified in several ways: physical explosion,
chemical explosion, vapor cloud explosion, Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion
(BLEVE), confined explosion may or may not followed by the reaction, unconfined explosion,
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dust explosion, propagating reactions, uniform reactions, thermal explosions, detonation and
deflagration. So we will take up one by one.
The physical explosion, this may be just attributed to the mechanical failure of pressure system,
overpressure of pressure system, under pressure of pressure system, over-temperature of pressure
system, under temperature of pressure system. So chemical reactions they do play a very vital
role because the pressure and temperature both are integral part of any chemical reaction.
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Then chemical explosion, a chemical reaction or situation that causes a sudden almost
instantaneous release of pressure, gas, heat or light when subjected to sudden shock, high
temperature or applied potential. This may be attributed to the ammonium nitrate, organic
peroxides, sodium chloride etc; so you must know that what is the efficacy of these chemical
explosions.
The vapor cloud explosion, very common and extremely important. The explosion resulting from
the ignition of a cloud of flammable vapor, gas or mist in which flame speeds accelerate to
sufficiently high velocity to produce significant overpressure. This is extremely dangerous, lot of
accidents took place in history those who are attributed to vapor cloud explosion.
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Then boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion, BLEVE, a boiling liquid expanding vapor
explosion is an explosion caused by the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that
has reached temperature above its boiling point. We will discuss this is in subsequent slides.
The confined explosion may or may not with reaction, a confined explosion occurs in a confined
space such as a vessel or a building. Remember, every time whenever we are anticipating the
chance of any confined explosion the we always equip with the barrier safety devices, so this
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explosion involve the vapor combustion, reactor explosion, other explosion involving the liquid
phase reactions etc.
Another classification is attributed to the unconfined explosion, these explosions occur in open
and this type of explosion is usually result of a flammable gas spill maybe through the
pressurized or un-pressurized vessel. The gas dispersed and mixed with air until it comes in
contact with the source of ignition. These explosions are destructive in nature because large
quantity of gas and large areas are frequently involved and practically you are handicapped with
the non-availability of your safety devices in those areas where it blown up.
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Next is your dust explosion, dust explosion is a swift combustion of fine particles suspended in
the air within an enclosed location. Now dust explosion can occur where any dispersed powder,
combustible material is present in high-enough concentrations in atmosphere or other oxidizing
gaseous medium, such as pure oxygen. So again it is very important, and again there are so many
accident in history, they took placed just because of the dust explosion.
Next is the propagating reactions start at a point and propagate as a front through the mass of
reactants. Sometimes explosion may attributed to the uniform reactions, the uniform reactions
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occur more or less uniformly throughout the mass of reactants. The thermal explosions, they are
results from the exothermic reactions under confinement with inadequate dissipation of heat.
The detonation, this is again very destructive and very important. An explosion in which the
reaction front moves at a speed greater than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium: a very
high highly turbulent combustion, very high flame speeds and extremely high pressure.
Sometimes it is more than 10 bars and there are so many accidents in the history they are
involved with multiple classes of explosion like vapor cloud explosion led to the detonation,
sometimes BLEVE led to the detonation.
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The last in these classes, the deflagration, an explosion in which the reaction front moves at a
speed less than the speed of sound in the unreacted medium. In detonation the reaction front
moves at a speed more than the sound of a speed in the unreacted medium, the combustion with
flame speed at non-turbulent velocities of maybe say 0.5 to 1 meter per second, pressure rise by
heat balance in fixed volume with pressure ratio of about 10. Deflagrations they are easier to
control than detonation, usually by example, examples are adding water to the burning
hydrocarbon such as oil or wax produces a deflagration.
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Now in subsequent slides or subsequent modules we will discuss 3 special cases or 3 special
classification streams: One is vapor cloud explosion, this result of release flammable material in
the atmosphere, a subsequent dispersion phase and after some delay an ignition of the vapor
cloud. We will discuss these cases in detail. The boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion,
BLEVE, explosion caused by the rupture of a vessel containing a pressurized liquid that has
reached temperature above its boiling point, we will discuss this one. And third one is the dust
explosion, so we will discuss 3 special classification among all 12 classification streams, we will
discuss these three.
Now vapor cloud explosion, this is one of the most dangerous and destructive explosion in
chemical process industries. This explosion occur by a sequence of steps. Just try to understand
these sequences: There is a sudden release of large quantity of flammable vapor. Suppose I am
working in the pool of hexane, this is the closed pool of hexane and we know that the boiling
point of hexane is around from 65 to 70 degree Celsius based on the purity of a material. So I am
working say around at 110 or 125 degree Celsius, it is a closed vessel pressurized vessel.
So sudden release of a large of quantity of flammable vapor, maybe the tones of hexane,
typically this occurs when vessel containing the superheated and a pressurized liquid, it ruptures.
Then dispersion of vapor throughout the plant site while mixing with air, so this pool of hexane
by any means may be through safety valve, may be because of some crack in the pressure vessel
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it dispersed to the atmosphere where it forms, where it comes into contact with atmospheric
oxygen and forms the flammable mixture.
And the third step is the ignition, with ignition of the resulting vapor cloud maybe by any
chance, maybe because of the spark generated through the shoe nails, maybe the dry hair, maybe
the silky cloths etc, the combustible mixture ignites because these sources of ignition are N. So
ignition of this resulting vapor cloud, so this is a 3 step process, we will take up a case study of
Flixborough which took place under the class of vapor cloud explosion.
Now VCE or vapor cloud explosions, they are increasing in numbers due to the increase in
inventories of flammable material in the process plant and operations at most severe or more
severe conditions. So they are increasing day-by-day, so thereby the importance safety devices
are also increasing day-by-day. So any process containing quantities of liquefied gases, volatile
superheated liquid or high pressure gases considered a very good candidate for vapor cloud
explosion. Now VCEs they are difficult to characterize primarily due to the large number of
parameters needed to describe an event. Now accident under uncontrolled circumstances, they
are also attributed to the vapor cloud explosion.
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So and we have discussed that there are large number of parameters they have attributed to the
vapor cloud explosion. Now we can have, looked at what are the different parameters those
affect vapor cloud explosion behavior. Number one is that how much quantity of the material
released. Supposed I am here with working with the pressure vessel having the amount of hexane
say 100 kiloliter and almost 500 kiloliter is escaped, so must know that how much quantity of the
material released, what of the fraction of the material is vaporized because the only vaporized
material can participate in fire or ignition or it can form the combustible mixture.
But simultaneously whenever it is ignited it produces sufficient quantity of material to form the
additional vapors which are not being vaporized, then what is the probability of ignition of the
cloud which is being escaped from your workplace? Then distance travelled by the cloud prior
ignition, the reason is that how much time is given to the cloud for the dilution or for the
dispersion or for the formation because if it is escapes from this particular point where I am
working the concentration would be on the higher side, concentration of hexane would be on the
higher side, so probably it may be beyond UFL.
So when it is it released to the atmosphere then at what particular point of time or a distance it
matches the range of LFL and UFL? And simultaneously it is again required to know that how
much time it would take to neutralize the effect of LFL and UFL range, because if it is too
diluted or the concentration of the fuel is very less, then definitely it would not be ignite
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whatsoever the source of ignition is there. So you must know that distance travelled by the cloud
prior to ignition and time delay before ignition of the cloud so that you can analyze that what is
the greater, again there are other parameters like density etc, they are again very crucial.
Then probability of explosion rather than fire, because the fire may lead to explosion and
explosion may lead to fire. Then existence of a threshold quantity of material, again this is
attributed to the LFL and UFL. Then what is efficiency of the explosion? See, if it is extremely
pressurized vessel then the explosion may lead to the formation of shockwaves, nearby buildings
may get collapsed and if these nearby building or establishments they do have the storage of this
flammable material then again the problem will be more destructive. The same happened at the
Jaipur accident.
Then location of ignition source with respect to release, we must know that at what location was
there for that source of ignition. See, why I am telling you this, suppose by any means it releases
and it goes to say 100 meter apart or 200 meter apart, remember this particular zone is filled with
your all kind of safety devices but 100 meter or 200 meter apart you would not find any safety
devices, and somebody by any chance because they do not know that what kind of scenario is, by
any chance they start their car, so source of ignition is there flammable mixture is there, there
may be a chance the cloud may catches fire. So you must know that what is the location of this
ignition source.
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Now ignition probability increases as the size of the vapor cloud increases because if it is on the
larger side then definitely it is very difficult to eliminate the source of ignition at that particular
point. Now vapor cloud fires are more common than the explosion, obviously the explosion
efficiency is usually small and the turbulent mixing of vapor and air and ignition of the cloud at a
point remote from the release increases the impact of the explosion. A large cloud of combustible
material is very dangerous and almost impossible to control and the same happened in Jaipur
accident.
Now we can discuss that various methods through which we can use to prevent vapor cloud
explosion and this includes the keeping low inventories of volatile flammable materials.
Obviously, it is always advisable you reduce your warehouse and you reduce the number of
volatile and you use only up to a certain limit and Flixborough they stored a huge quantum
flammable material in their establishment. So you keep low inventories, it is not only reduces
your safety problem but also reduces the economics, economic burden involved in warehousing.
Using process conditions which minimize flashing if a vessel or pipeline is ruptured, recall the
industrial hygiene where we discussed a lot in such aspect. Using analyzers to detect leak at a
very low concentration, though it is very costly but again for the safety of your plant it is always
advisable. Installing automated block valves to shut the system down while the spill is in the
incipient stage of development so that you can cut the supply of the fuel to the danger zone.
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Now let us have a look at what happens to a vapor cloud. Now, simultaneously we can have look
a look of this particular diagram. The cloud spreads from too rich, through a flammable range to
too lean, that is subjected to the availability of air. So first hand, edges start to burn through the
deflagration, the steady state combustion and enough vapor is being generated and enough heat
is being liberated. Now this cloud disperses through a natural convection, because of heat
generation the density difference usually takes place and this density difference lead to the
natural convection of this dispersion. Now flame velocity will increase with containment and
turbulence.
Now if velocity is high enough, cloud will detonate like this, so the cloud will burst just like
anything. Now if cloud is small enough with a little confinement it cannot explode. The reason is
that you will be able you will be in position to control it. So in this particular module we have
discussed the various classification streams of explosion and we have taken 3 special cases,
vapor cloud explosion, BLEVE, and dust explosion and we have discussed the vapor cloud
explosion. Thank you very much.
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Lecture 24 - Explosion & Its Classification – 2
So welcome to this module of Fire and Explosion. In the previous module we have studied about
the fire and explosion with different modes of heat transfer, heat generated and the fire.
Discussed about the fire triangle, we have discussed about that flammability characteristics, there
are different parameters involved in the fire explosion. We have classified the various aspects of
explosion, we have discussed and in the previous module we have taken 3 special cases, vapor
cloud explosion, BLEVE and dust explosion. So we have completed the discussion about the
vapor cloud explosion, however the case studies will be discussed in the subsequent modules. In
this particular module we will discuss about the BLEVE, the dust explosion.
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Now BLEVE, the boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion, this is extremely dangerous and
destructive explosion. Now the result of vessel failure in a fire releases a pressurized liquid
rapidly into fire, now a pressure wave is being generated, a fire ball is being created and the
vessel fragments and burning liquid droplets are usually formed in terms of a result.
Now this is the typical figure of BLEVE, here this the fuel source and it is surrounded this entire
vessel is being heated by some other sources.
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So this occurs when a tank storing liquid fuel under pressure is heated excessively, maybe
inherent or maybe some other sources or maybe some external sources or maybe because of the
heat being transmitted through various modes of heat transfer. Now BLEVE is a phenomenon
which occurs when a vessel containing a pressurized liquid substantially above its boiling point
is ruptured releasing the contents explosively. Now remember here the liquid which is inside the
pressurized vessel is above its boiling point and moreover the vessel is pressurized.
So by any means if it ruptures there is not only a tendency of releasing the pressure, excessive
pressure and moreover since the temperature is so high, so there in a fraction of seconds or in a
fraction of time there may be a chance that vapors may generate and it may come into contact
with the atmospheric air and if the sufficient supply of oxygen is there or a sufficient supply of
source of ignition is there or if the liquid which is inside is sufficiently at high temperature, so it
may catch the auto-ignition probability. So let us summarize the incidence of a BLEVE or a
sequence and there are different sequences in the BLEVE.
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Once it is the tank is heated, now the internal pressure because of the heat rises past ability to
vent. Now tank fails catastrophically, the safety devices or it ruptures in any way and a liquid
fuel above boiling point is released to the atmosphere, liquid immediately turns into the rapidly
expanding cloud of vapors and vapor ignites into the huge fireball, so we can imagine that how
destructive it is.
Now BLEVE can injure and even kill fire fighters and civilians by creation of fire ball, by
ignition of expanding vapors, large pieces of the tank propelled great distances, because of the
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rupture small pieces may be generated because of the pressurized vessel rupture. Then these
large pieces of the tank or small pieces of the tank may propel to and it may cause harm to the
fire fighters or a nearby person those who are around that particular vessel.
Now it is you can visualize the things through this figure, suppose we are working in a particular
closed system and pressure increases and somehow it catches the heat just like in Jaipur one
vessel caught the fire and heat propagated to the another vessel and this is being heated up. So by
any means it catches the heat and the liquid though somehow temperature rises or temperature
increases and the formation of vapors propagated.
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Since pressure increases rapidly and where the continuous addition of the heat there may be
volumetric expansion of the vapors as well as since whatever liquid is there it is just above the
boiling point, so almost 1600, 1700 or 1800 times of volumetric expansion experience and at this
point the vessel ruptures. So liquid, whatever liquid is inside because it is at the higher
temperature as well as the pressure, so liquid flashes and all flashed vapors they are having the
tendency to escape to the atmosphere.
So this is again very, very destructive and again it may create a problem of confined or
unconfined vapor cloud explosion and sometimes you would not be able to control it because of
the excessive pressure being built up. As I told you that small or a large piece of vessel may be
generated, this may create a harm to the parson those who are working around or those who may
actuate or initiate safety devices. So by this way this is extremely dangerous and all the liquid
sometimes all the liquid within the pressurized vessel may escape to the atmosphere and the
problem will be extremely destructive in nature.
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Now come to the third special case that is the dust explosion. Now the dust explosion is the rapid
combustion of fine particles suspended in the air within an enclosed location, this can occur
where any dispersed powered combustible material is present in high-enough concentrations in
the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous medium such as pure oxygen.
This occurs when the combustible dust build up in the air and combust rapidly causing a strong
pressure wave to form and they are deadly hazard in a variety of workplace from grains silo to
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plastics factories or polymer factories etc, dust explosion requires several factors to be present at
once.
Now question arises that, which dust can burn explosively? So answer is material which if finally
divided and dispersed in air can burn explosively, this includes most of the organic materials,
many metals like iron, aluminum, etc, some of the non-metals like sulfur, silica, P2S5 etc.
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Now nature of dust explosion, so because we know that what kind of material can explode, can
burn then we must know that what should be the or what is the nature of dust explosion. So
generally they are deflagration not being detonation. So deflagration and that is the flame front
propagate into the unburned cloud at subsonic speed by a combination of heat and mass transfer.
Now given favorable conditions such as long large diameter pipework, energetic dust may
detonate. That is the flame front propagate into the unburned cloud by compression caused by
shockwaves travelling at or above sonic velocity.
Now this may be, you can visualize this is silo or silo within the factory premises is there and
dust explosion took place and it led to the fire.
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Now what are the conditions required for a dust explosion? Usually a suspension of dust within
its flammable range, the sufficient air or other oxidizers and effective ignition source. So these 3
are the favorable conditions for dust explosion.
Now there are various properties which are influencing the dust explosion hazard, we have
discussed some of the properties in the previous modules like minimum ignition energy.
Flammable limits, deflagration index this is the new one, the maximum explosion pressure
obviously this is desired because the rupture of vessel took place, ease of dispersion in air and
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sometimes the wind speed or wind inversion plays a very vital role in the ease of dispersion or
the dispersion of the material in the air.
The minimum ignition energy of a dust cloud depends on various factors, they are particle size
like for many dust and minimum ignition energy is approximately proportional to the particle
diameter cubed, the temperature increasing temperature decreases the minimum ignition energy,
the moisture the increasing moisture increases the minimum ignition energy so that you require a
large quantity of energy or a bit higher energy required. So the turbulence the turbulence
increases the heat losses from the ignition source.
And consequently the MIE for the dust cloud typically increases, so this is again very important,
the oxygen concentration the reducing the oxygen concentration in air increases the energy
required for ignition and MIE reduces if oxygen concentration in the air is increased above 21
percent.
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Now a there are 2 type of dust explosion, primary and secondary dust explosion. Now in order
for a dust explosion to occur it is necessary for the dust to be in suspension and within its
flammable range. You must know that what are the flammable range of that particular dust. A
unique characteristics of dust is their potential to accumulate on surfaces and then to be re-
suspended a strong air movement or a shockwave. Now we will discuss this particular aspect
with the figure in subsequent slides.
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Now if a small dust explosion occurs in an area where there is a dust, a secondary explosion may
occur which could be significantly more severe than the primary one. Now as little as 1 by 32
inch of a dust layer is sufficient to cause this one, we can see that what is the gravity of this
particular aspect and the mechanism has historically been responsible for explosion propagating
between the inter-connected building, equipment etc.
Now you can have a look of this particular figure, this is the best example of primary and
secondary dust explosion. It have a blender, the additive blending room; this particular room is
equipped with the false ceiling and there is a small quantum of dusty layer. This is accumulated
over the period of time, now this while working this blender with this blender a certain quantity
of fine particles is being generated.
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Now over the period of time these fine particle they are accumulated over this dust layer. Then
somehow this false ceiling destroyed and these dust they forms the clouds just like this. You do
have a blender, there may be chance that these dusts are of ignitable material or there may be a
chance that, so this is creating a pressure front which may cause the severity of the problem.
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So in due course of time with the effect of pressure front, with the effect of accumulation of
some more desk, with the effect of the collapse of this false ceiling there is a chance of dust
explosion. So this particular thing is the primarily one and this one is the secondary one. So
whenever we are dealing such type of a scenario do not ignore the importance of deposition of
finally divided dust at the false ceiling or some other location which are not at the closed vicinity
of or the close visibility of ourselves.
Sometimes we may experience the problem of dust explosion in interconnected vessels. Now
typically dust handling processes involve multiple items of equipment that are interconnected. So
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this can result the pressure piling which results in higher explosion pressure and reduces the
effectiveness of explosion venting.
Now how it can happen? Now this is again the 2 scenario, they are interconnected, this device
and certain quantity of dust is being accumulated over here. So expanding gases in the first
vessel they displace unburned gases into the second one from here and pre-compressing the
mixture and increasing the peak explosion pressure because they are well interconnected. So by
this way there may be a chance that the dust or pressure whatever is accumulated being
exploded.
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Now question arises that how can we prevent the dust explosion? It can be prevented by the
implementation or implement a hazardous dust inspection, testing protocol, proper housekeeping
methodologies and control program. I gave you an example that sometimes you ignore the dust
deposited in the false ceiling and if we are performing some specialized activities then definitely
it creates a problem. So one must use the proper dust collection system, we must regularly
inspect the for dust residues in open and hidden areas. Now if ignition sources are present, use
cleaning methods that do not generate dust clouds, you must control the smoking, open flames,
spark including the mechanical sparks and friction.
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Other part of the prevention methodology includes the elimination of fuel. We must eliminate
and just imagine the scenario the dust say metal dust is there and that is supported by the
generation of a fuel, then definitely the results would be more destructive. You must prevent the
formation of any dust suspension; try to add more and more moisture. Now reason is that as
earlier discussed that if moisture increases then minimum ignition energy increases, so the
chances of explosion or chances of fire is on the lower side.
So keep fuel below the lower flammability limit, obviously it is desirable because and do not rely
upon the upper flammability limit, so keep fuel below lower flammability limit. Reduce the
supply of oxygen to below minimum oxygen concentration, this is the primary required so that it
does not match the FLF and UFL requirement or it does not close to the minimum oxygen
concentration. This is just to avoid any kind of fire or dust explosion, try to eliminate ignition
sources because you cannot eliminate completely all the ignition sources.
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There are various type of dust like acetamide, adipic acid, aluminum, barley, carbon, cellulose,
coffee, corn, epoxy resin, iron, milk, nylon, paper, polystyrene, starch, steel, sucrose, wheat,
wood, zinc etc. So dusts are in N number of things, only thing is that you need to identify that
which can contribute what.
Now here we have enlisted certain minimum energies of dust versus vapors. So aluminum like
aluminum 10 millijoule; corn 2 percent moisture, 110 millijoule; epoxy, milk powder, sugar
sulfur, acetone, acrolein, benzene, carbon disulfide, heptane, toluene, so you can have this
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particular information from various literature, different handbooks. So these are the standard
things so that you can avoid the scenario of fire and explosion. So in this particular module we
have discussed about the BLEVE.
We have discussed about the dust explosion and the gravity of dust explosion, we have discussed
about the BLEVE concept because BLEVE is the Jaipur accident is again a best example of
BLEVE. So, whenever you are performing any kind of safety analysis, whenever you are
performing any kind of accidental investigation, do not forget you must know that what can
contribute want. Thank you very much.
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Lecture 25 - Fire Extinguishers – 1
Welcome to this module of Fire and Explosion. In this module, we will study about the different
type of fire extinguishers. So up till now we have studied in previous modules about fire and
explosion, different modes of heat transfer through which fire can propagate, the fire triangle,
flammability characteristics, what kind of different type explosions with their classification. We
have gone through the vapor cloud explosion, BLEVE and the dust explosion.
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In the present module we will study about the fire extinguisher, how we can classify the fire and
based on this particular classification what kind of different fire extinguishers are in place. See,
the fire is of 2 types, positive approach and a negative approach. So when we are cooking food in
our kitchen that is the positive approach but when fire adopts the destructive nature then it is a
negative approach. So once it adopts a destructive nature that means we need to extinguish the
fire in a scientific manner and there are different type of fire, so you need to know that which is
which kind of fire it is and how to extinguish this particular fire.
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So in this particular module, we will have a look that what kind of different fire extinguishers are
there and based on the different class of fire which kind of fire extinguisher we need to use for
that particular kind of fire.
Now let us have a basic approach of fire extinguisher. A fire extinguisher is an active fire
protection device used to extinguish or control small fires often in the emergency situation. Now
usually prevention is based on elimination or minimizing one of the components of a fire
triangle, so it is a rule of thumb. If you wish to produce the fire in the, obviously we have
discussed the fire triangle in the previous modules, so if you wish to have a fire then you need to
have 3 different ingredients of fire: fuel, you must have a source of ignition or net sustain net
release of heat and sustainability aspect and oxygen.
So if you wish to have a positive approach for fire, then you need to have all arms of fire triangle
intact. In the vice versa if you wish to extinguish the fire then you need to disable this fire
triangle either by a way of blanketing it so that the supply of oxygen may be cordoned off or you
wish to cut off the supply of fuel or you have to remove the excess amount heat being liberated
so that it cannot sustain in due course of time.
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So in a nutshell, we can remove, we can have the fire extinguishment in 3 ways: one is starvation
that means you remove the supply of fuel, another is that is smothering that you remove the
supply of oxygen and then cooling that you remove the excess amount of heat being liberated. So
remove any one of these components, then fire cannot be sustained. Now how we can remove
these arms, that is a basic scientific question.
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So fire safety at its most basic is based upon the principle of keeping fuel source and ignition
source separate so that once fire initiated it do not propagate and if propagate then it should be
extinguished in a simpler manner.
Now three things must be present at the same time to produce fire: Enough oxygen to sustain
combustion that means one way is to remove the supply of oxygen so that it cannot it does not
meet the stoichiometric demand of that particular fuel, enough heat to reach ignition temperature,
another way in a positive sense is that you extract the excess amount of heat being liberated in
due course of combustion process so that it cannot sustain, fuel or combustible material whatever
is there it should not be there so that the fuel definitely the fire will not be sustained.
So together if all these things are together then definitely they will have a chemical reaction and
that is called the fire and if it is not then definitely the fire will be extinguished. Now let us have
a look of fire classification, because in our day to day affair you may see that there are different
types of fire, fire through the electric circuit, fire through the chemical run away reaction, in a
domestic approach your LPG that is purely a combustible reaction that is in the positive way. So
based on this type of approach there are various way through which we can classify the things.
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Low let us have a look of few line that fires are classified according to the type of fuel that is
burning, that is one approach to classify the fire. Now if one use the wrong type of fire
extinguisher on the wrong class of fire, one might make matters worse, like if you are in a
domestic affair if you try to extinguish the fire that is based on the cooking oil with the help of
say water then definitely the scenario would be extremely destructive, the reason is that the oil
will sputter it out. So it may cause more danger compared to the fire. So it is very important to
understand the different classes of fuel.
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Now there are five different classes of fire: The class A, class B, class C, class D and class K. So
the class A fire that is the ordinary combustible such as wood and paper, you can distinguish it
with the normal water. Class B fire, flammable and combustible liquid and gases; class C fire,
energized electrical equipments, so you cannot use water sprinklers etc because it will propagate
the thing and that the result would be more destructive; class D fires that is combustible metals
and class K fire, cooking oils and fats.
So most fire extinguishers will have a pictograph labeling telling you which type of fire the
extinguisher is designed to fight like this. Let us have example, the simple water extinguisher
might have a label like this which means that it should be only be used on class A type of fire.
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So you may see different type fire extinguishers in different places you visit or different industry
you work upon, so there are different classes of fire extinguishers: one is the class A basically
attributed to cloth, wood, rubber, paper, plastic; class B gasoline, grease, oil; class C, electrical
fires; class D combustible metals; class K that is the kitchen fires etc.
Now traditional lettering system has been used for many years that is for the labeling of fire
extinguishers like ordinary class A ordinary combustible, flammable liquids class B, electrical
equipment C and combustible metals D, these are the traditional one.
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But nowadays it is being replaced to some pictographs etc, so the pictograph system which we
recently developed that is based on this type of figure, you can have a look this figure that is A
class, B class, C, K etc. Now this is more easier to understand for workers who use, those who
are illiterate so that they can visualize the things based on these pictographs. So that is why there
was a need of labeling with the help of this pictograph system.
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Now types of extinguishers, basically they are classified by the way of type of fires on which
they may be used, like fire extinguisher, these are the pictographs used that you may find the fire
extinguisher at particular place.
Now there are two main type fire extinguisher; one is based on stored pressure and cartridge
operated. Now in stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the
firefighting agent itself, now depending on the agent used the different propellant are used like
nitrogen, air etc. The stored pressure fire extinguishers are the most common type, even you can
find it in your domestic affairs plus office places, industry etc.
They are certain cartridge operated extinguishers that contain the expellant gas in a separate
cartridge that is punctured prior to discharge exposing the propellant to the extinguishing agent
and usually this type is not common but for some specific use it is being used.
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The fire extinguishers they are further divided into handheld and cart-mounted, also called the
wheeled extinguishers. Sometimes in a big establishment you will find it this type of
extinguishers, they are handheld extinguishers weigh from 0.5 to 14 kilogram and hence easily
portable by hand so that in case of zonal fire you can use those handheld extinguishers even in
the household some people they are using it. The cart mounted unit, typically weigh around 23
kilogram and these wheeled model are most commonly found at construction sites, airport
runways, heliports as well as docks and marinas; so they usually used for the big fires and big
establishments.
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Now based on this particular knowledge we can have a different type of fire extinguishers to
fight the different classes of fire. There are four most common type of fire extinguisher: water
APW air pressurized water, carbon dioxide CO2, dry chemicals ABC BC DC, and the wet
chemicals.
Snow first let us have a look of water or air pressurized fire extinguishers, so usually they are
large silver fire extinguishers that stand about 2 feet tall and weigh about 25 pounds when they
are full. As I told you earlier that APW stands for air pressurized water, so air is usually
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pressuring to the water droplet so that it can squeeze it out in a pressurized manner, so the
pressure acts in a two-fold, one is that it promotes the usual way of water to reach the fire and
another one is it promotes the formation of fine droplets.
So fine droplets they are having the large surface area so that the fire can be extinguished easily.
The basic purpose is to extract as much as heat you can extract from that the firing surfaces so
that the one arm of fire triangle can be eliminated in such a way that heat is gone away. So filled,
usually they are filled with ordinary tap water and pressurized air they are essentially large squirt
guns.
Now APWs they extinguish fire by taking away the heat element of the fire triangle because of
the formation of small droplets.
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Now they these air pressurized water extinguishers are designed for class A fires only, that is
attributed to wood, paper, cloth. Using water on flammable liquid fire could cause the fire to
split, using water on the electrical fire increases the risk of electrocution. If you have no choice
but to use an APW on an electrical fire, make sure the electrical equipment is unplugged or de-
energized, otherwise the person who is using this APW may get may be in danger.
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This APW will be found in older buildings particularly in public hallways as well as the
(residence) residential houses etc, they will also be found in the computer laboratories. It is
important to remember, however that the computer equipment must be disconnected from the
electrical source before you use this APW. Now it has the advantage of being inexpensive,
harmless, relatively easy to cleanup because you are using water, a normal tap water.
So they are relatively inexpensive, they are usually harmless because you are not using any kind
of chemical to extinguish the fire and you can easily cleanup even because after extinguishment
you are having only water, so you can easily cleanup this water. So that is why they are having
this particular advantage. It has the advantage of being inexpensive, harmless and relatively easy
to cleanup. And disadvantage, because when anything is having advantage simultaneously they
are having the disadvantage, that they the water inside within the fire extinguishers freezes at
around it 32 degree Fahrenheit or 0 degree Celsius.
So you cannot use this fire extinguisher when the temperature is at around 0, atmospheric
temperature is around 0 or the subzero. Now another disadvantage is that the load-stream
extinguishers sometimes wetting agents or water mist can be formed, so in other way in the
positive sense you can use certain wetting agent so that the normal freezing point can be changed
or the water mist.
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Now there is another class of fire extinguisher that is carbon dioxide fire extinguisher and
usually they are denoted in red color. They ranges in the size from 5 pounds to 100 pounds or
larger. On larger size the horn, this is the horn be at the end for a long flexible hose, the pressure
in CO2 extinguisher is so great that a bit of dry ice may be shoot out of the horn, so sometimes
they are called the dry ice extinguishers.
Now CO2 are designed for class B and class C type of fires, flammable liquid and electrical
sources fire. CO2 fire extinguishers will frequently be found in laboratories, mechanical rooms,
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kitchen, flammable liquid storage arena, so they are having the wide spectrum, so they are
applicable for class B and class C type of fire.
Now why we are taking this CO2 fire extinguisher? Now CO2 is a non-flammable gas that is
takes away the oxygen element of the fire triangle and without oxygen there is no fire, so this is
the plus point or this is the basic advantage of this CO2 fire extinguisher. Now CO2 is very cold
as it comes out to of the extinguisher, so it cools the fuel as well. So you can utilize this aspect to
eliminate the excess heat even you can utilize the preheating of the fuel if the fire is propagating,
so it is having the multifold advantage.
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Now CO2 may be ineffective in extinguishing a class A fire as it may not be able to displace
enough oxygen to successfully put the fire out or the high pressure cloud of gas can scatter the
burning material. Now you can see that they are in the red color and this is this one is the horn.
CO2 is not suitable for use on fires containing their own oxygen source, metal or cooking media
although it can be rather successful on a person on fire, its use should be avoided where possible
as it can cause frostbite or suffocation. So that is why this is one of the disadvantage of using
CO2 fire extinguisher. So class A material may also have tendency to reignite, so that is why it is
again very sensitive case, so you be particular about the using of CO2 fire extinguisher in
specially in class A.
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Now this limitation includes another, they are certain limitations with the carbon dioxide fire
extinguisher and this limitation includes the weight because it is a bit heavy, the range because of
pressurized CO2 range is limited; weather conditions, confined spaces and suitability with
different class of fire and different type of environment.
The next class of fire extinguisher is dry chemical ABC fire extinguishers. So dry chemical
extinguishers they put out fire by coating the fuel with a thin layer of dust and this separates the
fuel from the oxygen in the air. So suppose you are having the fire over here, this is a pool and
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when you apply the dry chemical fire extinguisher then it will cordon off the things, so it is
separates the fuel from the oxygen in the air. So by this way it can extinguish the fire. The
powder also works to interrupt the chemical reaction of fire and these extinguishes are very
effective at putting out fire.
Now ABC they are filled with the fine yellow powder, the greatest portion of this powder is
composed of mono ammonium phosphate, and these extinguishers are pressurized with the help
of inert nitrogen. So they are usually like this: the anatomy of these fire extinguishers is like this,
they are fine powder and they are supported with this nitrogen and here is the pressure gauge and
it may have a hose or horn etc that depends on the situation. So usually the color code for these
ABC type of fire extinguishers are red.
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Now these dry chemical extinguishers they come in variety of types and you may see the
different type of label in these dry chemical fire extinguisher. One class is the DC that is stands
for dry chemical, another is ABC it can be used for class A, class B, and class C of fire. BC that
is designed for the use in class B and class C of fire, so it can have a variety of classes.
Now it is extremely important to identify which type of dry chemical extinguishes are located in
your area or at your workplace so that is case of a fire you can use appropriate type of fire
extinguisher and ABC extinguisher will have a label like this that indicating may be used for A B
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or C class of a fire. You do not want to mistakenly use a BC extinguisher on a class A fire
thinking that it was an ABC extinguisher, so do not be get confused, you have to use the
appropriate type of fire extinguisher for the fire in question.
The dry chemical extinguishers with powder designed for class B and C fires may be located in
place such as commercial kitchen and area where you may have a flammable liquids etc, some
industrial locations and so on.
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Now the additives, you may use a different additives to prevent the packing and caking.
Sometimes they may form a lump if they are rose, that is why you may observe that some of the
fire extinguishers they do have some expiry dates. Now disadvantage of this dry chemical
extinguishers are the chemicals which are used in the dry chemical extinguishers they are
corrosive in nature and the primary compounds which are used in the dry chemicals are sodium
bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, sometimes urea based potassium carbonate, potassium
chloride, ammonium phosphates etc.
So in this particular module, we have studied 3 different type of fire extinguishers and before
study of these different type of fire extinguishers we have classified the fire and based on this
classification we have gone through 3 different type of fire extinguishers; APW, dry chemical,
and CO2 type of. Subsequent module, we have other type of fire extinguisher along with the
methodology and anatomy of and how to use those fire extinguishers. Thank you very much.
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Lecture 26
Fire Extinguishers – II
Welcome to the last module of Fire and Explosion, in this particular module we will have the
remaining part of the Fire Extinguisher as well as how to use the appropriate method for the
use of Fire Extinguishers.
So, let us have a brief look back about what we have studied in the last modules. We have
discussed about the Fire and Explosion, discussed about the anatomy of Fire Triangle. We
have discussed about the various kinds of Flammability Characteristics like LFL and UFL.
We have classified the Explosion along with its definition, discussed about the Vapor Cloud
Explosion, BLEVE, Dust Explosion and in the last module we discussed the different class of
Fire along with three different type of Fire Extinguishers.
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Now, in this particular module we will discuss the remaining part of Fire Extinguisher, what
is the Fire Extinguisher anatomy so that you can aware about how to use at appropriate place
and when it should be used. What kind of different Fire Extinguisher applications, how to use
the Fire Extinguisher in a proper manner, what are the guidelines for fighting of fires and Fire
fighting decision criteria.
Now, we have discussed different type of Fire Extinguishers so until now we have discussed
about the Air Pressurized Water Fire Extinguisher, Carbon Dioxide based Fire Extinguishers,
Dry chemical based Fire Extinguishers.
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Now, in this particular module we will start with Wet Chemical Fire Extinguishers. Now, this
Wet Chemical based Fire Extinguisher is applicable for Class “A”, Class “C” and Class “K”
of fire. This is one of the kind of Wet Chemical Fire Extinguisher. Usually they are having 10
to 12 feet effective range, so you must know that from where or how proximity you have to
use this Fire Extinguisher.
On Class “K” fire do not use until after the fixed extinguishing system has deactivated
because it has certain other disadvantage associated with it. Extinguishes by cooling and
forming foam blanket to prevent the re-ignition so this is the added benefit of this Wet
Chemical Fire Extinguisher.
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Foam, usually this is another class of fire extinguishing agent and it is one of the most
common type of fire extinguishment media that is foam. This is the water based foam,
concentrate solution used on Class “A” or Class “B” type of fire. Sometimes we may use
different additives, so additive depend on the compatibility with the fuel that is the next
source of fuel.
Some foams are approved for the polar solvents because the solvents may sometimes like
Hexane and etc they may act as a fuel for different class of fire. They are not at all suitable
for class “C” fires and cannot be stored or used at a freezing temperature. So, these are some
advisories for using foam type of fire extinguisher because ultimately your aim is to
extinguish the fire.
There are certain halogenated agents they are acting as a fire extinguishing media. They are
produced from the family of liquefied gases, clean agents, they are twice as effective as
Carbon dioxide and they are having the two categories. One is the Halons and they are having
very limited usage and Halocarbons they replace the Halons. So sometimes because people
are using halocarbons, so they replace the Halons. Now, Halons they are having very limited
usage, very specific use for the extinguishment of fire.
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Usually it is stored as liquid and discharged under very high pressure. Now, vapor mist
disrupts chain reaction, this is one of the added benefits of Halogenated agents. Dissipate in
windy condition and Displace Oxygen in a confined space so these are some of the added
benefits of these Halogenated agents. One advisory is that the Halon 1211 should rarely be
used because it creates the environmental problem.
There are certain Dry powders being used as fire extinguishment media. Now they used on
the combustible metal fires that is attributed to Class “D” fire. Usually they are stored in
granular or powdered form and this forms solid crust over the burning material so it can
cordon off the fuel supply with the atmospheric Oxygen, so it creates the blanket and that is
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why the fire is extinguished. Commonly used as agent as Sodium Chloride or a Graphite
powder, avoid splatter and water.
Now, this is the Fire Extinguisher anatomy. You can think upon the basic methodology and
basic anatomy of this Fire Extinguisher, they are having the discharge liver, so you can press
it with the help of this carrying handle to release the pins, the pin they are located over here,
that is a Discharge locking pin and seal so that accidentally if anybody presses then definitely
it will come out.
Now, here this is a pressure gauge and usually it is not found in CO2 type of extinguisher.
The pressure gauge tells you that how effectively you can use this one and whether there is
any efficiency left in this particular type of fire extinguisher, so it is quite obvious that the
needle should be green paraphernalia so this is the safest zone because you cannot go with the
excessive pressure and if pressure is too lean then definitely it will not give the desired result.
This is the discharge hose through which you can direct the chemical or water to the place of
fire. This is the discharge nozzle and sometimes the people are using discharge orifice so that
you can direct towards the fire. Here this is the data plate where you can put the relevant
information that is for which class of fire it is to be used like “A”, “B”, “C”, “D”, etc. At
what point of time it is being refilled? So because I told precisely that the dry chemicals, or
CO2 they are having some shelf life or expiry. So, it is nearly approaching the expiry
irrespective of the pressure in question you need to recharge it or refill it.
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Apart from this there are certain regulatory information being placed, one is that who is
responsible for refilling it, who has manufactured it, etc. And some of the data plates they are
having endorse type of advisory that it is to be used for specific type of fire for which this
particular extinguisher is designed for. This is obviously the body of the fire extinguisher.
Now, in a nutshell you can see in this particular slide that different class of fire and effective
extinguisher types. That means you can have a look, or you can have a idea that what are the
different applications of these fire extinguishers. So, class “A”, trash wood paper, usually
pressurized water, multipurpose dry chemical being used, larger size Halons and wet
chemicals.
Class “B”, the Liquid Grease type of fire that is multipurpose dry chemical and the Carbon
dioxide, Halon. Class “C”, the Electrical equipment, dry chemicals, Carbon dioxide, Halon
and the wet chemicals. The combustible metal in which you can use the metal as a fire
extinguishing media. Cooking media you can always use the wet chemical extinguisher, but
do not use the water based things because water may things. So, these are the advisories
usually they are supposed to be put on the data plate of the fire extinguisher.
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Now, how to use the fire extinguisher? Usually we may follow the PASS system. Now PASS
system says Pull, aim towards the fire, Squeeze means you just put the liver and sweep away
like this. So, your industrial workers, etc must be trained for this type of PASS system.
Now, first thing is that how to use it? That is the pull the pin, as I showed you in the anatomy
of a fire extinguisher there is a pin. So, you need to pull that pin out. This will allow you to
squeeze the handle, these handles, in order to discharge the extinguishing media towards the
fire.
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Then you need to aim the fire extinguisher like this, it is shown in this cartoon, that aim at the
base of the fire and you need to hit the fuel, if you aim at the flames the extinguishing agent
will fly right because of the density difference, without stopping the fire. At this particular
point you may experience the density difference. So, if you aim it towards the fire you may
definitely experience that it will fly right away. So, it will not impart the desired result, so
that is why you need aim at appropriate place.
Then you need to squeeze the top handle so squeezing the handle opens a valve that releases
the pressurized extinguishing agent from the fire extinguisher. So, this type of advisories
always put on the fire extinguisher.
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Then sweep from side to side like this, you can go like this, you can go like this so that you
can generalise the things. You sweep side to side and you keep on this particular process until
the fire is completely out or is completely extinguished. So, start using the fire extinguisher
from a safe distance because your safety is prime around 6 to 8 feet, it all depends on that
what kind of fire, if it is excessive fire then you definitely you would not be able to reach 6 to
8 feet because of the generation of excessive heat.
Now, after approaching to the safe distance slowly move forward if possible, sometimes if
you see that the fire is extinguishing in this zone then you may take the liberty to come little
bit forward to approach towards the fire. Once the fire is out, keep an eye on the area in case
it reignites. Again, reignition of this is a dangerous situation because in that particular case
you may not have supporting things with you because sometimes your fire extinguisher may
be exhausted.
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So, you can again have a look different type of extinguisher, then works by, then effective
agents which you can use that pressurized water, it works by cooling, Carbon dioxide
smothering, multipurpose dry chemical is smothering, Halon based smothering, combustible
metals they again smothering and the wet chemicals cooling and smothering so different
types of effective agents.
Now, the purpose of this particular table that it can be placed at different location of your
workplace so that your plant workers, your industry persons they must be acquainted with
what kind of fire it is and what kind of extinguishing media they need to use because I am
repeating it again that it is a very case sensitive thing.
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So, whenever we use this fire extinguishing protocol, then you must have a RACE protocol,
that is Rescue, Alarm, Contain and Extinguish. So, first thing is you need to rescue yourself
then you put an alarm so that everybody is aware that there is a scenario of fire, then you
must contain the fire extinguisher with you and try to extinguish the fire.
Now there are certain guidelines for fighting of the fires, so fire can be very dangerous, and
you should always be certain that you will not endanger yourself because if you are your
himself is endangered then you would not be able to extinguish the fire as well as you would
not be in a position to safeguard other people.
So, for this reason when a fire is discovered, assist any person in immediate danger to safety,
if it can be accomplished without risk to yourself. Do not put yourself in danger too. Call the
fire fighters or activate the building fire alarm. The fire alarm will notify the fire department
and other building occupants. If the fire is small and only after having done these 2 things
you may attempt to use an extinguisher, appropriate extinguisher repeat appropriate
extinguisher to put it out.
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Now, before deciding to fight the fire, keep certain things in your mind. You must know what
is burning, so based on your engineering knowledge, based on the knowledge of your 5
ingredient cup of tea you must know that what is burning. Now if you do not know what is
burning you would not know what kind of fire extinguisher is to use, so that is why proper
display and proper knowledge of that particular process is essential.
Even if you have an ABC fire extinguisher, there may be something in the fire that is going to
explode or produce toxic fumes so you are providing a remedy to one problem, thereby you
are creating another problem and toxic fumes are sometimes extremely dangerous and you
cannot avoid the generation because if fire takes place at working place you may have a
process apart from the process you may have certain other things like furniture, you may have
a pen, you may have papers, etc. So, these things may produce some toxic vapor so be aware
about this type of toxic fumes.
Chances are you will know what is burning or at least have a pretty good idea, but if you do
not let the fire department handle it because they are acclimatized, they are trained, and their
equipment are well designed to handle such type of system like if there are toxic fumes then
they may have a mask, etc.
And one more important thing is that in case you are using the fire fighters or a fire
department then you provide adequate information to them so that practically they may be
aware, they should be aware about the scenario. Now if the fire is spreading rapidly beyond
the point where it is started, you must know.
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The time to use the fire extinguisher is at the beginning stage of the fire because whatever we
studied in previous modules as well as in this module the fire extinguishers, they are used for
small fires. Now if it is beyond control then you definitely need to call the fire department or
fire brigade, etc because they are seasoned to handle such type of situation.
Now, if the fire is already spearing quickly it is best to simply evacuate the building so that
you save yourself as well as employees of your unit or department because you would not be
able to do much because the small fire extinguisher will not do anything in that particular
scenario. Then you need to follow the let it go policy that means the fuel, consumption of fuel
may end up the fire, and sometimes the heat liberated may end up with the fire so best policy
is to simply evacuate the building.
Now, as you evacuate the building, close the door, if there is one, behind you, which slow
down the spread of smoke and fire the reason is that it will cut short the supply of Oxygen so
at least you will be in a position to remove one arm of fire triangle, the other arm can be
removed by adopting the let it go policy that means burn whatever is there.
The final rule is to always position yourself with an exit or means of escape at your back
before you attempt to use a fire extinguisher to put out a fire because sometimes it may lead
to some technical problems so that in case of any problem you may be in a position to
evacuate the things.
In case of extinguisher, sometimes it may happen that extinguisher malfunctions or

something unexpected happens, you need to be able to get out very quickly. You do not want
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to become trapped and one more thing is that in case of the propagating fire then there may
be a chance that the environment may become Oxygen deficient, so you may feel the
suffocation so if you are near the exit then definitely you may be in a position to handle the
situation effectively.
Now, we must know that what should be the criteria for fire fighting. So there are 5 different
points need to be addressed. First point is that know department emergency protocol and
evacuation routes and that is why if there is a public gathering or you are residing in a multi-
storied there is a separate fire exit and if you wish to see the movie then definitely you will
find that the light of fire exit is always there. So, you must know that the emergency protocol
as well as what is the evacuation route in case of any eventuality.
Know the location of extinguisher in your area and how to use them as well as you must train
the other person those who are working in that particular area that how to use those fire
extinguishers because if there is any fire and if you do not have any clue that how to operate
this fire extinguisher then definitely you will be trapped in the bad scenario.
Then always sound the alarm regardless of the fire size, the reason is that everybody should
aware and in case of propagating fire then some other person from the different department
may come forward for the rescue as well as to help you out from the destructive fire.
You need to avoid the smoky conditions because sometimes it may lead to the toxic situation
as well as the Oxygen deficient environment and we have studied about the ideal “H”, the
immediate danger to life and we are having the Oxygen concentration less than (19.5) 19.1
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percent so you need to avoid the smoky condition because it is a health hazard as well as it
may lead to the fatality.
Now, you must ensure if you are heading that particular department, you must ensure that
area is evacuated so usually you may follow the head count process, you must know how
many persons they are working in that particular process area and ask them to leave and
assemble at open space or safe space so you may head count so by this way you can say that
and you ensure that area is evacuated so nobody is entrapped within the plant.
Now, do not attempt to fight unless alarm is sounded, fire is small and contained, you have a
safe egress route and can be reached without exposure to fire, available extinguishers are
rated for size and type of fire and if you are in any iota of doubt then you must evacuate along
with your co-workers so you must evacuate the workplace.
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Now, again this type of chart or this type of play card should be placed at appropriate place
that what kind of fire extinguisher available at your place, what kind of fire or what class of
fire, you can use that particular fire extinguisher and it should be properly mentioned that do
not use this type of fire extinguisher in such a class of fire.
Just for the sake of an example let us have a case of electrical fire, so it is always advisory
that do not use the water based fire extinguisher, do not use the fire hose reels that is the
supply of water, do not use the foam based fire extinguisher, you can use the CO2 type of
things, you can use the powder type of things.
So sometimes you may need the fire blanket so be aware and all the persons those who are
working in the sensitive area must aware this type of chart, must be trained for this type of
scenario that is a crucial thing.
So, on this module we have discussed about the fire extinguishing criteria, we have got the
clue that what kind of different fire extinguishers available as on date and how to use them,
what should be the protocol of fire fighting.
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For more studies you can look of these references, those references are enlisted over here and
if you are working in a system where you are the boss then definitely you must train all those
workers, so by this way we are ending up this Fire and Explosion chapter as well as the
module, thank you very much.
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Lecture - 27
Problems related to Fire & Explosion
Welcome to the chapter of Fire and Explosion and in this particular module we are going to discuss
several problems they are related to the Fire and Explosion aspect.
So before we start let us have a look about that what we have studied in last module. We had a
discussion about the Fire and Explosion, then we had a broad discussion about the Fire triangle,
then flammability characteristics related to LFL and UFL. We had classified with the definition
about the explosion. We had a discussion about the Vapor Cloud Explosion, then we discussed
about the BLEVE and Dust explosion. We had a broad spectrum of various uses of fire
extinguishers apart from the classification of those fire extinguishers and also, we have a
discussion about different classes of fire. So, in this particular module we are going to discuss
several problems especially numerical problems related to the Fire and Explosion.
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So, let us have a look about the first problem and this problem is related to the LFL, Lower
Flammability Limit and Upper Flammability Limit of a gas mixture which is composed of 0.8
percent of hexane, 2percent of methane and 0.5percent of ethylene by volume.
So, it is a mixture which is having 3 different hydrocarbons and all hydrocarbons are having the
flammability aspect, so let us have a discuss about this particular problem to handle this type this
problem we need certain statistical information or certain reference information which we discuss
in due course of time.
So, the first thing which we need to calculate is the mole fraction on combustible basis that is the
fuel only basis and we have to construct a table so that we can put all the desired values in that
particular table.
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So, let us have a look about the solution of this particular problem which is comprises of 3 different
hydrocarbons, so we enlist those hydrocarbons like hexane, then we have a volume percent which
is given in the problem so hexane is having 0.8percent volume, then we will have to calculate the
mole fraction on combustible basis then we will have a LFL that is based on volume percent and
then UFL that is again based on volume percent.
So we are having hexane, then we are having the methane which is given in the problem is 2
percent, then we are having ethylene which is having 0.5 percent so the total combustible they are
coming out to be 3.3 so the remaining part we are having that is 96.7 so if we calculate the mole
fraction on combustible basis it is coming out to be 0.24, 0.61 and 0.15 and LFL on the basis of
volume percent is given as I mean you can have this particular information from your textbook
that is Crowl and we have supplied the standard table at the end of this particular module.
So, this is 1.2 and UFL is 7.5 these are the standard and for methane the LFL is 5.3 and UFL is 15
and ethylene it is 3.1 and UFL is 32.0, so we have calculated with respect to the mole fraction and
then we are going ahead with the standard formula which we had discussed in the Fire and
Explosion things. So, we may use this equation
1
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑦𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑖
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So, if we calculate,
1
𝐿𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = = 110.363
0.24 0.61 0.15
+ +
1.2 5.3 3.1
Or equal to 2.75 percent by volume total combustible, so this is the LFL so in case if they fall.
Now, let us have look about the UFL of this particular mixture. So we will discuss this UFL in the
next slide and if you recall that the formula is almost similar.
So,
1
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑦𝑖
∑𝑛𝑖=1
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑖
1
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑥 = = 12.9%
0.24 0.61 0.15
+ +
7.5 15 32.0
So, now since this particular mixture contains 3.3 percent of total mixture contains 3.3 percent of
the total combustible and we have calculated that LFL and UFL, LFL and UFL of the mixture and
UFL is 12.9 and LFL is 5.3. So, it is flammable because it falls under the range of LFL and UFL
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so the mixture is flammable. So, this is the solution which through which you can easily calculate
that whether a particular mixture is combustible or not and we had 3 different hydrocarbons
hexane, methane, ethylene, etc. So we can calculate that if it falls under the LFL and UFL range
then you need to take several precautions.
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Now, let us have a look about the second problem. Now, this problem relates that if the UFL for a
substance is 13.0 percent by volume at 0 Mega Pascal gauge pressure then you need to calculate
the UFL at 6.8 Mega Pascal gauge. Now, remember that in our previous modules we have derived
the formula which is showing the impact of a pressure change to the LFL and UFL. So, let us have
look about the solution of this particular problem.
Now, the absolute pressure is given by
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P = 6.8 + 0.101 = 6.901 MPa
Now, you can determine the UFL at a given pressure by this particular equation
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑃 = 𝑈𝐹𝐿 + 20.6 (log10 𝑃 + 1)
𝑈𝐹𝐿𝑃 = 13 + 20.6 (log10 6.901 + 1) = 50.88
So it is coming out to be the 50.88 volume percent of fuel in air, so this is the answer of this
particular problem.
So now, let us have a look about the next problem which is the problem number 3. Now this
particular problem relates with the LFL and you need to estimate the Lower Flammability Limit
that is LFL and Upper Flammability Limit for hexane and you need to compare the calculated limit
to the actual values determined experimentally. So in this particular problem we need to seek the
help of the stoichiometric formula which we had discussed in the theoretical modules. So, let us
have a look about the solution of this particular problem.
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So, first let us discuss about the stoichiometry of this particular reaction this is
𝑥
𝐶6 𝐻14 + 𝑧𝑂2 → 𝑚𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻 𝑂
2 2
So z, m, x they are found by balancing the chemical reaction. So by balancing we can find that
M = 6, x = 14
So LFL and UFL they are determined by,
0.55 𝑋 100
𝐿𝐹𝐿 = = 1.19 𝑣𝑜𝑙% = 1.2 % 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
4.76 𝑋 6 + 1.19 𝑋 14 + 1
3.5 𝑋 100
𝑈𝐹𝐿 = = 7.5 𝑣𝑜𝑙%
4.76 𝑋 6 + 1.19 𝑋 14 + 1
So by this way if because you are having the standard LFL and UFL for this component in question
and you can have it from the last slide and you can compare that theoretically whatever you find
it out and what is the difference between the theoretical value and the experimental value and
sometimes this particular things are extremely important the reason is that because of the slight
deviation the properties of the component with respect to LFL and UFL might have changed.
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So, now let us have a look about the problem number 4 that relates to the limiting or minimum
Oxygen concentration. So here you need to calculate the limiting oxygen concentration LOC for
the Butane that is C4H10, so let us have a look about this problem for this particular problem we
need to have the stoichiometric equation.
So, the stoichiometric of this particular equation suggests that
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 6.5𝑂2 → 4𝐶𝑂2 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
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So if we see the LFL of a Butane from our table it is comes out to be 1.9 percent by volume so
from stoichiometric equation we can have the limiting Oxygen concentration that is moles of fuel
divided by total moles into moles of Oxygen divided by moles of fuel. So, upon simplification it
is LFL into moles of Oxygen divided by moles of fuel.
So, if we substitute we find it that,
1.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 6.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛

𝐿𝑂𝐶 = { }{ }
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 & 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
So, by this way the LOC is coming out to be 12.4 % volume Oxygen, so the you can prevent the
combustion of a Butane by addition of Nitrogen, Carbon dioxide or any inert gas or even
sometimes some water vapor may do this thing which is below to keep the things below 12.4
percent.
So however, one thing must be noted that the water addition is not recommended because any
condition that condenses the water would move the oxygen concentration back into the flammable
region, so this may be the critical issue, so you need to have an appropriate inert gas or inert
material to be inserted in that particular chamber.
Now, let us have a look about the problem number 5 now this problem is that what will be the final
temperature after compressing air over liquid hexane from 1 atmosphere to 34 atmosphere. The
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initial temperature of the hexane is given to you that is 37.78 degrees Celsius and this is a very
common industrial problem. Remember when we are compressing this then we cannot overlook
the importance of other thermodynamic property that is auto ignition temperature. So the auto
ignition temperature of hexane is 487 degree Celsius and γ for air is given as 1.4, so let us solve
this particular problem
So we are having the thermodynamic equation:
𝛾−1 0.4
𝑃𝑓 𝛾 34 1.4
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 [ ] = (487 + 273) [ ] = 2081.51
𝑃𝑖 1
It is approximated that you can say that 2082 Kelvin which is equal to 1808 degree Celsius, so this
is the answer.
Now this temperature because the auto ignition temperature is 487 so this exceeds the AIT so you
need and may cause the explosion so you need to take the precautionary measures. So, this gives
that you can say that one is the theoretical thing and basic thermodynamic problem.
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Now let us have a look about the another problem and this problem is bit big so the lubricating oil
in piston-type compressor is always found in minute amounts in the cylinder bore and the
compression operation must always be maintained well below the auto ignition temperature of the
oil to prevent any kind of explosion that might occur in due course of time because of the
involvement of the pressure.
So, we are having a particular lubricating oil which is having an auto ignition temperature of 400
degree Celsius, now here we need to compute the compression ratio required to raise the
temperature of air to the auto ignition temperature of this particular oil. We need to take an
assumption that an initial air temperature is 25 degree Celsius and 1 atmosphere, so the 25 degree
Celsius is a very common temperature aspect.
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So, let us have solution of this particular problem. Now here again go back to the fundamental
thermodynamic equation:
𝛾−1
𝑃𝑓 𝛾
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 [ ]
𝑃𝑖
So if you solve for the compression ratio we have:
𝛾
𝑃𝑓 𝑇𝑓 𝛾−1
= [ ]
𝑃𝑖 𝑇𝑖
So we are having all the values ready made with us, so,
𝛾
𝑃𝑓 400 + 273 𝛾−1
= [ ] = 17.3
𝑃𝑖 25 + 273
So this ratio this one represents an output pressure of 17.3 X 1 atm i.e. 17.3 atm so the actual
compression ration or the pressure should be kept well below to this particular value. So, it is
desired that it should be kept well below to this value. So, this is the problem again related to the
thermodynamic aspect. Now, let us have a look about the next problem.
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Now this problem is related the involvement of Tri-Nitro-Toluene, so 1 kilogram of Tri-Nitro-

Toluene is exploded so you need to compute the overpressure at a distance of 30 meter from the
explosion.
So, for this particular problem we need to have a graph which represents the scaled overpressure
and the scaled distance, and this is a log graph and these graphs, this particular graph or a plot is
available in various handbooks. Those who represent for a design calculation of the fire and
explosion, so it is easily available graph.
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So, we need to calculate the scaling parameter which we can determine with the use of this
particular equation:
𝑟 30
𝑍𝑒 = ⁄
= ⁄
= 30
𝑚1𝑇𝑁𝑇
3 1 3
1𝑘𝑔𝑇𝑁𝑇
Now, if we go back to this particular plot so by this way we can calculate this because we have
calculated the Ze is equal to 30 m so by this way we can calculate the scaled overpressure so it is
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because this is a standard one so it is somewhere where it is lying, so from this particular figure
we can calculate the scaled overpressure that is given on the y axis which is comes out to be
somewhere here in this particular zone because this is the log plot so 30 and it is come out to
somewhere.
So we have calculated for the ease and it is comes out to be 0.055 so we are having this formula:
𝑃0
𝑃𝑠 =
𝑃𝑎
where Ps is the scaled overpressure, P0 is the peak side on overpressure and Pa is the ambient
pressure. So if, let us say that Pa is 1 atmosphere, then resulting side on overpressure is estimated
by this particular formula:
𝑃0 = 𝑃𝑠 . 𝑃𝑎 = 0.055 𝑋 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 5.6 𝑘𝑃𝑎
So this is the desired result. So this particular plot is easily available in various chemical
engineering handbooks.
Now, let us take another problem and that is the problem number 8 here the 1000 kilogram of
methane which escapes from storage vessel this is mixed with the air and exploded. So here you
need to determine the equivalent amount of TNT and the side-on peak overpressure at a distance
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of 50 meter from the blast. So for the ease of calculation you may assume that the explosion
efficiency of 2 percent.
638
So, let us solve this particular problem, so for this we are having a readymade equation:
𝜂 𝑚 ∆𝐻2
𝑚 𝑇𝑁𝑇 =
𝐸𝑇𝑁𝑇
Now here mTNT is the equivalent mass of TNT having the unit of mass. η is the empirical explosion
efficiency which is unit less, m is the mass of hydrocarbon and ΔHc is the energy of explosion of
flammable gas having the unit in terms of energy per mass and ETNT is the energy of explosion of
TNT.
1𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.02 𝑋 1000 𝑋 ( ) 818.7 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.016 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 𝑇𝑁𝑇 =
4686 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
So, the mass of TNT is coming out to be 218 kg of TNT and that is the desired result which we
need to calculate.
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So for the second part of this particular problem we need to go back to our plot which we had
discussed in the previous problem so for this we need to calculate the Ze, so we are having the
formula:
𝑟
𝑍𝑒 = ⁄3
𝑚1𝑇𝑁𝑇
So these things are given in the problem and we have calculated this m TNT in the previous part,
𝑟 50
𝑍𝑒 = ⁄
= ⁄
𝑚1𝑇𝑁𝑇
3 1 3
218𝑘𝑔𝑇𝑁𝑇
It is coming out to be 8.3 m kg-1/3. Now, through this we can refer back to the plot which we had
discussed in the previous problem here I guess that, now here.
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So we are having scale the distance over here which we have calculated so through by this
(overpressure) y-axis we can calculate the overpressure.
So we are having Ze with us, so from this particular figure plot we can calculate the scaled
overpressure which comes out to be we have for the ease calculation we have already calculated
which comes out to be 0.25 in this particular case (so we are utilizing) we may utilize the formula:
𝑃0
𝑃𝑠 =
𝑃𝑎
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where Ps is the scaled overpressure, P0 is the peak side-on overpressure, Pa is the ambient pressure.
So if, let us take that ambient pressure as 1 atmosphere so the overpressure which we can calculate
is:
𝑃0 = 𝑃𝑠 . 𝑃𝑎 = 0.25 𝑋 101.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 25 𝑘𝑃𝑎
Now this particular overpressure will demolish the steel paneled building so by this way we have
calculated this overpressure, we had a discussion about the overpressure aspect also.
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So, let us have a look about the last problem of this particular module, in this problem number 9,
methanol has a flash point of 54 degree Fahrenheit and its vapor pressure at this temperature is 52
mm Hg, so you need to calculate the flash point of a solution which contains 70% methanol and
30% water by weight.
Now, this is a very common industrial problem. The reason is that there are some time the variation
of this type of solvent or adulteration of anything and we can analyze that what is the impact of
adulteration or mixing of the solvent in different proportion with respect to the solution.
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So, let us have a look about the solution of this particular problem. Here let us assume that we are
having a basis of 100 kilogram of solution, so to ease of our calculation we draw a table here we
are having the Kg’s which is given then because we require the molecular weight of the component
in question and then we need to calculate the moles of those component involved in this particular
solution and then the mole fraction.
So we are having water with us, it is based on this particular basis, it is having the 30 kilogram of
weight, and the molecular weight of water is 18 so the number of moles are 1.67. Similarly we are
having the methanol which is 70 kilogram and having the molecular weight of 32 so its moles
comes out to be 2.1875, so if we calculate the total number of moles these are 3.8575 so based on
this particular information we can calculate the mole fraction so the mole fraction of water it is
coming out to be 0.433 and the methanol is having 0.567.
So, we can use the Raoult’s law to compute the vapor pressure that is the saturation vapor pressure
of a pure methanol that is based on the partial pressure required to flash the solution in question.
So the Raoult’s law that this one so if you need to calculate the saturation pressure,
𝑃 52
𝑃 𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = = 91.71 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
𝑥 0.53
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So just we need to have this particular plot which represents the temperature versus vapor pressure
profile because here we have calculated vapor pressure so on this particular basis we can calculate
the temperature. So our vapor pressure is somewhere in this particular region, so based on this
particular plot we can calculate the temperature and flash point of the solution which we can
calculate with respect to the temperature which is comes to be somewhere near about this particular
point which is 18.95 degree Celsius or if you convert it to the Fahrenheit that is comes to be 66.11
degree Fahrenheit, so this is our solution.
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So, this particular module we had discussed almost 9 problems related to the Fire and Explosion
and if you wish to refer anything related to this particular problems you can always refer to the
references which are listed in this particular slide, thank you very much.
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Lecture 28
Designs to Prevent Fire & Explosion: Inerting & Purging
Welcome to the new lecture that is the design to prevent fire and explosions, so up till now in the
different modules we have studied different type of fires and explosion, we have classified them,
we have find out that what are the causes for those fires whether it is a positive sense or in a
negative sense. Now, since we all agree upon that these fires and explosion are extremely
destructive in nature, so we must design the system through which we can prevent the hazard of
fire and explosion.
So, in these this particular chapter we will discuss all the aspect that how we can prevent the fire
and explosion though theoretically we know we all agree upon that if you remove any arm of a
fire triangle then definitely we can extinguish the fire, but sometimes it is not at all feasible. So
how we can design the system in such a way that we can prevent the hazard of fire and explosion?
So, in this particular chapter we will discuss this type of things in different modules.
So, in this particular module we are going to study the design to prevent the fire explosion systems,
how we can design it, different type of inerting, vacuum purging, pressure purging, combined
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pressure and vacuum purging, vacuum and pressure purging with impure nitrogen, sweep through
purging and siphon purging.
Now, first of all let us have a discussion about how to prevent the fire and explosion. Usually a
twofold strategy is used to limit the potential damage from fires and explosion. One is the prevent
the initiation of fire and explosion obviously this is one of the foremost requirement and the second
is that minimize the damage after a fire or explosion has occurred. For any fire or combustion
explosion to occur, three conditions must be met.
Please recall the fire triangle that fuel, source of ignition and supply of Oxygen and after this to
sustain the fire net chemical reaction that obviously in terms of combustion. So, if we wish to make
the system safer and if we cannot avoid the generation of fire, then we must to design the system
accordingly.
The rule of thumb says if any of three condition of fire triangle is eliminated the triangle is broken
and it is impossible for a fire or combustion and explosion to result or to sustain. So, this is the
theoretical aspect, so while designing the prevention methodology for fire and explosion we must
keep this thing in our mind.
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Now, question arises that how we can design the system? So there are seven broad spectrums
through which we can go ahead with designing aspect. Inerting, static electricity, controlling static
electricity, ventilation, explosion-proof equipment and instruments, sprinkler system and
miscellaneous design features for preventing the reference. So we will discuss all the aspect in due
course of time in various models.
So, let us have first thing that is Inerting. Inerting is a process of adding an inert gas to a
combustible mixture to reduce the concentration of oxygen below the limiting oxygen
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concentration or minimum oxygen concentration. So that the required stoichiometric demand is
depleted, and flammable mixture or inflammable mixture does not catch fire. The inert gas is
usually Nitrogen or Carbon dioxide, although steam is sometimes used, but not in a common
fashion. For many gases the MOC is approximately 10 percent and for many dusts it is
approximately 8 percent.
An inerting system is required to maintain an inert atmosphere in the vapor space above the liquid.
Suppose, I am working here in a pool of say hexane and just because of its vapor pressure certain
quantity of vapors has been generated and just above the pool of liquid surface. So, by virtue of
my system design I am not in a position to cordon off oxygen or supply of air. Then inerting is a
useful way (to inert) to minimize the impact of fire hazard.
We can introduce certain inert gases so that the minimum oxygen concentration or limiting oxygen
concentration is depleted. So ideally this type of system should include an automatic inert gas
addition feature to control the oxygen concentration below the limiting oxygen concentration.
Now this control system should have an analyzer to continuously monitor the oxygen
concentration in relationship to the LOC and controlled inert gas feed system to add inert gas when
the oxygen concentration approaches the limiting oxygen concentration. So that as soon as it
approaches to LOC then it should activate and introduce the inert, so that the whatever oxygen is
there it should come down (to the level) below the level of limiting oxygen concentration.
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However, the inerting system consists only a (regular) regulator design to maintain a fixed positive
inert pressure in the vapor space. Now, this ensures that inert gas is always flowing out of the
vessel rather than air flowing in. So that the impact of air be minimized. The analyzer system
however, results in a significant saving in inert uses without sacrificing safety. Now, thing is that
whenever you are introducing inert gas then definitely certain quantum of money is involved
because ultimately you are going to procure Nitrogen or Argon whatever inert gas is being used
and you must have a pumping system through which you can introduce the inert gas to the system.
So, if you are having a proper analyzer system then definitely you need not to bother the continuous
supply of inert gas to the system because ultimately whenever there is a heat system then if you
are having the unnecessary inert gas over there then it will attract its certain heat value. So that is
why you may have a significant saving if you adopt the analyzer system over there.
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Now, how we can perform the inerting? This is the big question. So there are several purging
methodology, purging is one of the ways through which you can introduce the (inerting matter
material) inerting system. So, there are several purging methods used to initially reduce the oxygen
concentration to the low set point. There are 6 different ways through which you can perform these
purging operation, vacuum purging, pressure purging, combine vacuum and pressure purging,
vacuum and pressure purging with impure nitrogen, Sweep through purging and siphon purging.
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So, let have first let us have a look of vacuum purging. Now, vacuum purging is one of the most
common inerting procedure for vessels. It is quite simple only thing is that it is highly energy
intensive. Now, this process procedure is not used for large storage vessels because they are usually
not designed for vacuum and usually can withstand a pressure for only a few inches of water. So
if you are willing to adopt this protocol for a large hall or a large vessel then obviously you can
create the vacuum inside, but it will be a costly affair. So, it is usually applicable for a small vessel,
small pressure vessel, etc.
Now, there are three steps involved in vacuum purging. One is drawing a vacuum on the vessel
until the desired vacuum is reached. You need to calculate a priori that how much vacuum is
desired to have inerting in the particular system. Relieve the vacuum with an inert gas such as
Nitrogen or a Carbon dioxide to atmospheric pressure and then if you have not achieved the desired
result, so by analyzing the LOC or minimum oxygen concentration, then you need to repeat the
step number 1 and 2 until the desired oxidant concentration is reached.
So, first thing is that suppose you are having the vessel you need to draw the vacuum and once it
is achieved then you can introduce because of the pressure difference you can easily introduce the
inert gas inside and if it is not then definitely again you need to repeat the vacuum system to this
vessel and then again you need to introduce the things accordingly till you achieve the minimum
oxygen concentration.
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We can understand this particular aspect with this small plot here at the x-axis we are having the
time domain and at y-axis the pressure domain.
Now here the PH is the initial high pressure this one and PL is the initial low pressure or desired
vacuum pressure. Y0 is initial oxidant concentration and Y1 is the final target oxidant
concentration, so first thing is that you are having certain quantity of oxygen in a system specially
suppose you are willing to have an introduction of inert gas to a vessel. Then initially you are
having Y0 concentration of Oxygen.
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Then you reduce the pressure until it reaches to PL that is the lower pressure limit, here you
maintain the pressure and you introduce the desired oxygen concentration. Suppose you have
achieved the desired Oxygen concentration by introducing the inert material and then you raise the
pressure so that it can acquire the desired pressure to maintain the reaction mechanism.
So, here you have a Y1 that is the final oxygen concentration and suppose if you are unable to have
this LOC requirement then you need to repeat this system for again and again. So, here in this
particular plot the things are repeated for twice so until it reaches the final desired concentration
of oxidant.
Now this is, you can calculate this through small mathematical formula that is concentration after
J purge cycles suppose in the previous case we have to studied 2 purge cycles, concentration after
J purge cycles vacuum and relief is given by:
𝑛𝐿 𝑗 𝑃𝐿 𝑗
𝑦𝑗 = 𝑦0 ( ) = 𝑦0 ( )
𝑛𝐻 𝑃𝐻
So, you can easily calculate that what will be the final target oxidant concentration under the
system in question.
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So, the total moles of inert gas added for each cycle is constant and you can have a look through
this previous figure, this figure.
So, for j cycle the total inert gas is given by:
𝑉
∆𝑛𝑆1 = 𝑗(𝑃𝐻 − 𝑃𝐿 )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇
Δn represent the change in number of moles of Nitrogen, Nitrogen in this case is introduced as the
as an inert gas. T is the temperature of the system, Rg is the universal gas constant and V is the
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volume. So, by this way you can calculate that how many cycles are required, how many moles
are needed to, how many moles of inert is needed to inert the system, the pressure system, pressure
vessel system inside the reactor.
Now let us have look of pressure purging. Now, vessel can be pressure purged by addition of inert
gas under pressure. Sometimes it performs action like sweep through purging so after the added
gas is diffused throughout the vessel, it is vented to the atmosphere usually down to atmospheric
pressure. So, more than one pressure cycle may be necessary to reduce the oxygen content to the
desired concentration.
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Now here again we are having small plot. Here we are having a high pressure and a low-pressure
zone. Y0 is the initial concentration of oxidant so we increase the pressure of the system and then
we introduce the inert gas to it so that it maintains that Y1 that is the concentration of oxidant in
the vessel and then we lower down it again then we have the same type same concentration and
then again we raise the pressure to PH and then again reintroduce the inert system and maintain the
Y2 concentration of the oxidant and then by this way we can have the Y2 that is the number of
moles of oxygen in the system. And usually in all systems we used to keep the number of moles
of oxygen constant, throughout constant. So, in this way we are having the two pressure purge
cycles.
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Again, we are having the mathematical representation for calculating the number of moles after j
cycle.
𝑦𝑗 = 𝑦0 ( ) = 𝑦0 ( )
𝑛𝐻 𝑃𝐻
𝑉
∆𝑛𝑛2 = 𝑗(𝑃𝐻 − 𝑃𝐿 )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇
So, vessel is initially it is PL and pressurized using the source of pure Nitrogen at PH, nL is the total
numbers of moles at atmospheric pressure at low pressure, then nH the total number of moles under
pressure that is high pressure. So, by this way you can calculate the number of moles needed in
terms of inert gas to make the pressure inerting.
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Now, there are so many advantages and disadvantages associated with pressure purging. Now, one
practical advantage of pressure purging versus vacuum purging is that potential of cycle time
reduction. Now, the pressurization process is much more rapid compared to the relatively slow
process of developing a vacuum. Also, the capacity of vacuum system decreases significantly as
absolute vacuum is decreased. Pressure purging however, uses more inert gas compared to the
vacuum one, so the best purging process is selected usually based on the cost and performance.
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So, if you are willing to inert the hydrocarbon piping system then definitely the pressure purging
is most advantageous because it will be very difficult to have a vacuum purging for a pipeline
having a distance of say 1000 kilometer or 500 kilometer it will be very difficult. So, in some cases
both pressure and vacuum purging are available and are used simultaneously to purge a vessel.
In that particular case, we need to go ahead with the combined pressure vacuum purging system
because sometimes it is a need of time. So, the computational procedure depends on whether the
vessel is first evacuated or pressurized. Now, purging cycle for pressure is the first purge then
purging cycle two for evacuate that is the first purge.
So, this is the comparative diagram here we are having the pressure first purging and here we are
having the vacuum first purging. Here we are having the initial pressure rate say P0 then it raised
up to PH then into introduction of certain quantity of inert material, inert gas and then the pressure
lowered down to PL and then it is a repeated cycle. The same thing here we are lowering down the
pressure to have certain concentration of oxygen and then it is raised then again, the cycle is
repeated to maintain the appropriate level of oxidant within the system.
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Now, question arises that vacuum whether we have to choose the vacuum or pressure and which
one? Now, pressure purging is faster because pressure differentials are greater. So obviously if we
analyze the things in terms of cost, in terms of ease of operation, pressure purging is bit faster.
Vacuum purging uses less inert gas than the pressure purging so if you are not having a
consideration of cost of inert gas then definitely you can go ahead with the pressure purging and
if it is the consideration then you have you may think the option of vacuum purging. So,
combination of these two gain benefits of both especially if initial cycle is vacuum cycle. So that
you can utilize the aspect of pressure differential.
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Sometimes we may have to use the vacuum and a pressure purging with impure Nitrogen. So,
previous equation which we have discussed, developed for the vacuum and pressure purging apply
to the case of pure nitrogen only. Many of the Nitrogen separation processes available today do
not provide pure Nitrogen they typically provide the Nitrogen in the range of 98 percent plus minus
range.
Now, see the question is that if we go ahead with the highest purity then the cost of Nitrogen
production or a cost of inert production would be on the higher side. So, we need to optimize the
thing. So Sometimes it is available say 98 percent 95 percent pure and if it is permissible prior to
thinking of the concentration of Nitrogen and prior to thinking of out the other impurities present
in the Nitrogen string. Then it is always advisable to use such kind of a Nitrogen to reduce the cost
of the system.
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So, assume that the Nitrogen contains oxygen with a constant mole fraction of Yoxy then:
𝑃𝐿 1 𝑃𝐿 1
𝑦𝑗 = 𝑦𝑗−1 ( ) + 𝑦𝑜𝑥𝑦 (1 − )
𝑃𝐻 𝑃𝐻
So, this gives you that what would be the mole concentration of Oxygen in due course of time.
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Now, next is the sweep through purging. Now, usually it is a very common phenomenon and it is
a very beneficial phenomenon for keeping the low concentration of Oxygen within a vessel. So
usually it adds purge gas into a vessel at one opening and withdraws the mixed gas from the vessel
to the atmosphere or scrubber from another opening.
It is a commonly used process when vessel or equipment is not rated for pressure or vacuum. The
purge gas is added and withdrawn at atmospheric pressure. Sometimes say because of inherent
inability you may not be able to have the vacuum system or a pressurized system with in a vessel
may be because of mechanical problem, may be the vessel is not designed to withstand such a high
or a low pressure then this particular technique is extremely useful.
Now, usually what we used to do in, let us have this is my vessel so from one end we used to draw
the vacuum and simultaneously we use to introduce a certain quantity of inert gas over here and
continuously we used to draw the mixed gas from that stream. So, once because of because we
have to maintain a certain pressure difference, so we draw the vacuum first stage then we close it
then we introduce certain quantity of inert gas and continuously we draw the mixed gas from this
front. One time in one phase we are having the advantage, another phase we are having a certain
disadvantage.
The disadvantage is that whatever mixture is coming out from this we need to treat this mixture
appropriately. It may a form inflammable mixture, so it may create a problem at the exit port.
Sometimes it may have some toxic material then again, we need to go for the scrubbing system.
So, we need to be very careful whenever we are adopting this type of a purging scheme so purging
results usually are defined by assuming perfect mixing within the vessel specially applicable
whenever we are designing the sweep through purging.
Now, we have to maintain the things at a constant temperature and a constant pressure. Under
these conditions the mass or volumetric flow rate of exit stream is equal to the inlet stream. So that
we can maintain the properties of the system appropriately.
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Now, here is one of the mathematical relations through which you can analyze the volumetric flow
rate. The volumetric quantity of inert gas require to reduce the oxidant concentration from C1 to
C2, let us have Qvt and it is determined using this particular equation:
𝐶1 − 𝐶0
𝑄𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉 ln( )
𝐶2 − 𝐶0
where C is the concentration of oxidant within the vessel, C0 is the inlet oxidant concentration, V
is the vessel volume, Qv is the volumetric flow rate and t is the time required.
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Now, purging results are defined by assuming perfect mixing within the vessel. Constant
temperature and a constant pressure. So, under these conditions the mass or a volumetric flow rate
for the exit stream is equal to the inlet stream. So, these are certain things we need to keep in mind.
Another purging method is the Siphon purging. Now sweep-through purging process requires large
quantity of nitrogen. Because you need to fill the entire mass of I mean entire volume of the vessel
with the nitrogen. Now, this could be expensive when purging a large storage vessel. So, Siphon
purging is used to minimize this type of purging expenses. Now, it is a very simple and quite
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effective. The Siphon purging processes starts by filling the vessel with the liquid and sometimes
with water or any liquid compatible with the product.
Now, then the purge gas is subsequently added to the vapor space of the vessel and liquid is drained
from the vessel simultaneously. So, it is just like this that you are having this vessel. You filled it
with liquid and then you introduce the inert gas and simultaneously you withdraw the filled liquid
or a water in this case so that you can inert. Because there will be no room for air to entrap so that
the concentration of oxygen will remain low as desired. The volume of purge gas is equal to the
volume of the vessel and rate of purging is equivalent to the volumetric rate of liquid discharge.
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So, when using the siphon purging process it may be desirable to first fill the vessel with the liquid
then use sweep-through purging process to remove oxygen from residual head space. Now, by
using this method the oxygen concentration is decreased to low concentration with only a small
added expense for the additional sweep-through purging. So, these things should be in our mind.
So, in this particular module we have discussed a first phase of design to prevent the fire and
explosion and a primarily we discussed about the 3 different purging methodology. Vacuum
purging, Pressure purging, combined vacuum and a pressure purging, Siphon purging and Sweep-
through purging. So, in the next module we will discuss the other purging methodology and other
methods through which we can prevent the disaster of a fire and explosion.
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You can always see the various references those who are enlisted over here for your further
reading. Thank you.
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Lecture 29
Designs to Prevent Fire & Explosion: Static Electricity
Welcome to the next module of Design to Prevent Fire and Explosion. Up till now we have
studied about the various purging methodologies through which we can inert any work place
where the chances of flammable vapours are on the higher side.
Now, in this particular module we will discuss about the static electricity, what is the static
charge, electrostatic discharge, what is the impact of streaming current, electrostatic voltage
drop, capacitance and how to control the static electricity.
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Now, let us have look about the static electricity. A common ignition source within chemical
plant is spark resulting from static charge buildup and sudden discharge. Static electricity is
perhaps the most elusive of ignition sources. And remember we cannot avoid the generation of
ignition sources and the static electricity is one of the foremost destructive mode of ignition
source.
So, despite considerable efforts, serious explosion and fires caused by static ignition continue
to plague the chemical process industry. Now, static charge buildup is a result of physically
separating a poor conductor from a good conductor or another poor conductor. So, this the brief
outlay of the static electricity.
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Now, question arises that how static electricity is created or generated? Now, friction is one of
the foremost source of generation of static electricity. So, friction of one electrical insulator
against another displaces of electron which accumulate on one of the surfaces. Mother nature
does not like electrical imbalance and the physical world is intended to be at electrical
neutrality. So, Mother Nature will adopt the process of remedy of the problem if you do not.
So, arcing can either ignite or a gaseous mixture or a shock worker. So, mother nature definitely
attempt to neutralize the any kind of charge imbalance within the system.
So, once static electricity or static charge is created, it does not go away. It will not conduct
away since it is sitting on a non-conducting material. And that is why it is called the static
electricity or static charge. So, it must be deliberately dissipated with the variety of tools
available or otherwise the nature will do on its own.
So static charges will arc and ignite a gaseous mixture if the interior static charge is exposed to
the ground and that is one of the most serious problem. Because sometimes this spark or arc
they may have a sufficient energy to ignite any kind of flammable material provided they are
within the LFL and UFL zone.
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Now, let us discuss about the static charge. So, when different material touch each other, the
electron moves across the interface from one surface to other. Upon separation, more of the
electrons remain on one surface than on the other. So, one material becomes positively charged
and other negatively charged. Now, if both materials are good conductor the charge build up
as a result of separation is small because electrons are able to scurry between the surface.
Now if, however, one or both of the materials are insulator or poor conductors, electrons are
not as mobile and are trapped on one of the surfaces and magnitude of the charge is much
greater. So, if charge the charge density is on the higher side, then definitely whatever spark
been generated or whatever arc is generated, must have a higher intensity.
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Now there are certain examples like walking across a rug, placing different materials in a
tumbler dryer, removing sweater and combing hair, and specially the dry hair, so whenever
there is a friction then the charge accumulation or a generation of a charge is on the proximity.
The clinging fabric and sometimes audible spark especially applicable when you are wearing
the silk cloths, etc leaking stream that contacts the underground conductors, pumping a
nonconductive liquid through a pipe, mixing immiscible liquid, pneumatically conveying
solids. So, these are some of the examples through which static charge may generate, may
accumulate, may transfer.
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Now, you may have look that a dangerous energy near the flammable vapours is around 0.1
milli Joule. And if you walk across the carpet or you are simply walking across the floor then
the generation of static charge is around 20 milli Joule. So, you can anticipate that how
dangerous it is. So, it is the foremost requirement to remove whatever excess charge or static
charge build up on the surface to avoid any kind of fire and explosion hazard.
So, electrostatic discharge is usually an electrostatic discharge occurs when two materials at
different potential or polarities come close enough together to generate a charge transfer. In an
explosive environment this sudden transfer of charge maybe so energetic to be a source of
ignition. So, remember we must aware this type of danger, because these are certain hidden
dangers in our work place.
To prevent this ignition, one must understand that how charges accumulate on an object that is
required. How charge is discharged by means of charge transfer. How to estimate the resulting
energy discharge in relation to minimum ignition energy of the explosive environment. So, we
must answer, and we must know the knowledge of these questions.
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Now, sometimes we may experience the electrostatic leak. So, question arises that what is an
electrostatic leak? The charge conditions across the pipe wall can increase high enough to
exceed material breakdown. And this breakdown phenomenon produces a small burned hole
about a size of a pinhole through a pipe wall that can leak the minute quantities of gases.
So, in the previous slides we have discussed that there is an accumulation of charges on an
object. So, question arises that how charges are accumulate on an object. So there four charge
accumulation processes that are relevant to the dangerous electrostatic discharge in a chemical
plant. Number 1, the Contact and frictional charging. So, when two materials with one being
an insulator are brought into contact, a charge separation occurs at the interface. If the two
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objects are then separated, some of the charge remain separated and giving the two materials
opposite but equal charge. That means the neutralization of charge aspect.
Second is the double layer charging. Charge separation occurs on a microscopic scale in a
liquid at any interface maybe solid-liquid, gas-liquid or liquid-liquid. So, as the liquid flows, it
carries one type of charge leaving behind the other charge of opposite sign on the other surface.
The best example is a pipe wall.
The third one is the induction charging. This is applicable only to the material that are
electrically conductive. So, you can see that you are having one metal sphere over here. This
is the insulated stand, and this is the Ebonite rod. So, the charge accumulation takes place in
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these three figures. So, first one is the charge accumulation and then if you provide the
grounding wire. So, one charge that is negative charge is being transferred to the ground and
then it remains the positively charged. So, sometimes it is in you may take the things in a
positive manner, sometimes it is in negative manner.
Now, induction charging, the person with insulated shoes may approach an overhead vessel
that is positively charged. The electron in person’s body migrate towards the positive charge
of the vessel. Hence, accumulating an equal quantity of positive charge on opposite side of the
body, leaving the lower part of the body positively charged by induction. So, when a metal
object is touched there is transfer of electrons creating a spark. Sometimes in our day to day
affair you may experience this type of induction charging through your body.
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The last part is that charging by transport so when charged liquid droplets or solid particles
settle on an isolated object the object is charged. The transferred charge is a function of the
object’s capacitance and of the conductivities of the droplet, particle and interfaces. So, this is
again a very useful phenomenon and very common phenomenon in chemical engineering
aspect.
Now, another question is how charge is discharged by means of charge transfer? So, a charge
can be discharged to a ground or to an oppositely charge object when the field intensity exceed
by 3 mega volt per meter, breakdown voltage of air or when the surface reaches the maximum
charge density by different six methods. So, there are six methods through which it reaches the
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maximum charge density, may be because of a Spark, Propagating brush, Conical pile, Brush,
Lightning-like and Corona discharge.
So, in this particular figure you can see that this is a typical filling operation when the solids
are being filled in a vessel and they are passed through the hoppers because solid particles they
by the friction or the by the transfer they may charge, they may generate the static electricity
or static charge so this particular vessel is properly grounded like this, this grounded thermo
wall to all metals.
Now, there are certain propagating brush discharge so that the charge density may not reach to
the dangerous level. This is again the brush discharge, here the non-conductive linings so by
this way you can adopt the methodology of charge transfer to some other place and through
(which) this way you can discharge whatever charge being generated during the vessel filling
operation or the transfer of the solid material to the ground so that you can neutralize the vessel
or you can neutralize the things as per your requirement.
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There is another aspect that is called the spark discharge that is the discharge between to
metallic objects because both objects are conductive, the electrons move to exit at a single point
of the charged object and they enter the second object at a single point and this is therefore an
energetic spark that can ignite a flammable dust or a gas.
Another is a propagating brush discharge so discharge from grounded conductor when in

approaches a charged insulator that is backed by a conductor. So these discharges are energetic,
they can ignite the flammable gases and dust.
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Another is the conical pile discharge. This is a form of a brush type discharge that occurs at the
conical surface, like we have seen in the previous figure, of a pile of powder. The necessary
condition for discharge are, a powder with a very high resistivity, a powder with the coarse
particle, a powder with a charge to mass ratio, filling rates about 0.5 kilogram per second so
these because the filling rate is on the higher side so the charge density or charge accumulation
or generation of charge would be on the higher side. So, these are the relatively intense
discharge with energies up to several hundred millijoules and therefore they can ignite
flammable gases and dust.
Now brush discharge, the discharge between a relatively sharp-pointed conductor usually the
radius of about 0.1 to 100 millimetre and either another conductor or charged insulated surface.
This discharge radiates from the conductor in a brush like configuration and this discharge is
less intense compared with the point to point spark discharge and it is unlikely to ignite dusts.
However, brush discharge can ignite flammable gases, so the gravity is on the higher side.
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Another method is lightning like discharges that is discharge from a cloud in the air over the
powder. It is known from the experiments like lightning-like discharge do not occur in vessel
with volume less than 60 meter cube or in silos where diameter is less than 3 meters. There is
currently no physical evidence that lightning like discharges have resulted in industrial
deflagrations.
The Corona discharge, it is similar to the brush discharge. The electrode conductor has a sharp
point. The discharge from such an electrode has sufficient energy to ignite only the most
sensitive gases like Hydrogen so here you can see the accumulation of charges, so this is a non-
conductor.
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Another concept is the streaming current, especially when you are transferring an inflammable
material from one place to another place, the concept of stream current plays a very vital role,
so a streaming current is the flow of electricity produced by transferring electrons from one
surface to another by flowing fluid or solid especially valuable when you are transferring
hydrocarbon from one place to another place.
So, when a liquid or solid flows through a pipe like metal or a glass an electrostatic charge
develops on the streaming material, so this current is analogous to a current in an electrical
circuit. So, sometimes you may need to encounter the things related to the relaxation time the
time for charge to dissipate by leakage, so the concept of this relaxation time is important. The
lower the conductivity the higher the dielectric constant and the longer the time so that is the
concept, and we will discuss this relaxation aspect in subsequent slides.
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Now, this picture shows that how the generated charge is streaming just like current so this
flow of material which is being flowing from one place to another place, you can take the
example of vessel filling operation. Here positive and the both negative charges they are
coming towards the vessel and sometimes if this vessel is not equipped with proper safety
devices the spark may generate and the content may be blown up or if this is a flammable liquid
or vapor then definitely the destructive aspect may occur in due course of time so due care must
be taken.
Another is the splash charge, especially it is applicable in the vessel filling application so you
are filling a vessel and the discharge point or the outlet of this pipe is at this point so whenever
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the fluid moves or it fills to this particular vessel the charge may accumulate or charge may
transfer to the various surfaces, sometimes at the upper part of the liquid and sometimes it may
get deposited at the wall of this vessel.
Sometimes this type of a problem when you are dumping the powder or bags to storage area or
anywhere else then you may experience this type of problem, the negative charge particle and
the positive charge particle so you have to take the due care while handling such type of
scenario.
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This is a very common aspect that is contact and frictional charging so you are moving across
any surface, may be floor, may be carpet, may be grass, etc based on the material of your sole
the charge may accumulate or charge may generate so when they find the favourable condition
the spark may be created and that is why and if the chances are on the higher side when your
shoe is equipped with iron shoe nails so be practical and be aware about such particular
scenario.
Sometimes you may experience that the charge may transfer from one surface to another
surface through induction. It is just like this, this particular gentleman may be previously he
was having the neutral charge, but since this is a bag filling operation and through which some
positive charge is generated in due course of time and this charge gets transferred to this
gentleman so sometimes he may experience the generation of a spark provided that sufficient
neutralization or sufficient source is available at this particular point of time.
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Sometimes the accumulation of charge may take place in static vessel where the charge in and
the charge out may be in the neutral side so sometimes you may experience the accumulation
of charge within the vessel without the reason unknown and sometimes it may pass on to some
other surface.
Now, this is again the electrostatic sometimes the electrostatic voltage drop may create a
problem especially when you are adopting the concept of vessel filling operation. Now, this is
the glass lined pipe with a certain fluid is flowing through this glass line pipe and this pipe is
connected to this vessel where this vessel is being filled by this particular pipe.
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Now, this is a glass lined or glass vessel and some positive charge being generated through the
flow of this particular fluid and it is being transferred to this glass line vessel. Now, if you have
taken the due care then this may be grounded or this may be bonded with some other for the
neutralization and indeed you need to ground this particular glass line vessel also.
So, fluid flows through the feed line and drops into the tank and streaming current that is
represented by Is builds up the charge and voltage in the feed line to the vessel and in the vessel
itself. So, voltage from the electrical ground in the metal line to the end of the glass pipe is
calculated through this formula:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
that is the common formula, so,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅
or resistance is calculated through this formula. So as the area of the conductor increases, the
resistance decreases and if the conductor length increases the resistance increases that is the
common physics phenomenon.
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Let us have a discussion about the capacitance that is the buildup of charge on surface related
to another surface produces a capacitor. The capacitance C of a body is denoted by:
𝐶 = 𝑄 ⁄𝑉
V is the voltage and Q is the charge, the capacitance of a spherical body is determined through
this formula:
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝑟
Now, for two parallel plates you can find out the capacitance with the help of this formula:
𝐶 = (𝜀𝑟 𝜀0 𝐴)/𝐿
where εr is the relative dielectric constant that is unitless, ε0 is the permittivity usually at around
(8.85X10-12 coulomb2 /Nm2, r is the sphere radius, A is the area of the surface which is in
question and C is the capacitance and L is the thickness of the dielectric.
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Now, we must discuss about controlling static electricity aspect. The charge build up, resulting
spark and the ignition of inflammable material is an unavoidable event. Now, if control
methods are not properly used then the results could be more destructive. However, these
problems were recognized by design engineers and hence special features were installed to
prevent sparks by eliminating the buildup and accumulation of static charge that is a key feature
of designing of equipment, then ignition by inerting the surroundings.
So, we have discussed the inerting methodology in the previous module, in case you cannot
avoid the generation of charge then you must adopt inerting methodology so that the LFL and
UFL limits cannot be reached. Now, inerting is the most effective and reliable methods for
preventing ignition because ultimately when you are walking, or you are flowing a fluid
through a pipe you cannot avoid the generation of static charge.
692
Now, how we can control the static electricity? This is one of the methodology and this rough
diagram depicts that how we can control. Now here, there are certain vessels, they are stored,
and you can connect these vessels through either grounding or a bonding, so you can see these
are connected like this. So, this is the method of bonding through which you can bond each
other and then adopt the grounding. This is the fasten ground cable to rack. Now this is, you
can see, here is a grounding so bonding and grounding these two are very effective
methodology to prevent the hazard of static electricity.
693
Now, there are certain important summary points which we have to look that ground and bond
prior to any transfer because you do not have any clue about how much static charge is being
accumulated over the surface. Non-conductive fluids are more likely for static generation.
Bottom filling or top filling using dip tube less static generation. Dip tube is just like that,
suppose you are filling any vessel so if you have a tube like this that may be just a few inche
above the bottom of the vessel. So, it may create a less problem of generation of static
electricity compared to this tube where you are having a tip at bit higher point, so the charge
may find more larger area for generation.
Slow filling will generate less static electricity than rapid filling, it is quite obvious, we have
discussed it in the previous slides. Magic number slow start velocity of 3 feet per second until
loading lance is submerged. Spray filling keeps nozzles from extending into the container to
avoid pulling in air and creating flammable vapor mixture.
Inerting eliminates the potential for combustion, but does not eliminate the static. So, you avoid
the formation of combustible zone because you cannot eliminate the generation of static
electricity charge. Padding with Nitrogen may not achieve the same full potential, sometimes
it is effective, sometimes it is not. So, in this particular module we have discussed the static
electricity generation, what are the theoretical aspects of this static electricity and how we can
avoid the destructiveness of the static electricity.
694
For more studies you can have a look of these references, thank you very much.
695
Lecture - 30
General Design Methods to Prevent Fire
Welcome to the next module of design to prevent the fire and explosion.
In this module we will discuss the general design methodology to prevent the electrostatic
ignition. We will discuss about the relaxation that how the charge is with the enhanced inlet
area we can reduce the impact of static charge. We will discuss the bonding and grounding.
What is the role of dip piping in the static electricity generation. Increasing the conductivity
with the additives, we will discuss about it, how we can increase the conductivity. Explosion
proof housing and designing or layouting, we will discuss about this.
696
So, let us have first aspect that is general design methodology to prevent the electrostatic
ignition. Usually methods generally used while handling the liquid that is the reducing the rate
of charge generation must reduce the flow rate so that the generation and accumulation of static
charge is minimized. Then increasing the rate of charge relaxation so relaxation tanks after
filters, enlarged section of pipe before entering the tank so once you enlarge the section then
the charge density will be on the lower side. So, the impact of destructiveness of that particular
charge would be on the lower side.
So methods generally used when we handle the powders especially in some industrial
establishments you need to handle the powders and during the previous module we have seen
that while we are handling the powder then there are prominent chances of generation of static
electricity. So, they include the charge reduction by means of a low energy discharge so when
dangerous discharges cannot be eliminated then prevent the possibility of an ignition by
maintaining oxidant levels below the combustible level or inerting or by maintaining the fuel
level below the LFL or above the UFL.
Now remember this above the UFL is again a very undesirable situation because at any point
of time there may be a chance that it may reach the range of LFL and UFL, so it can create a
dangerous problem. So, it is always advisable to maintain the low oxidant level, or you can
seek the knowledge of LFL so that it can be below the LFL range.
697
Now, there are certain special design features for the prevention of electrostatic ignition. Sparks
usually they are prevented by grounding and bonding so grounding and bonding they are very
useful and common phenomenon for elimination of the hazard of electrostatic ignition. Now,
they prevent two metallic objects from having the different potential, prevent the existence of
isolated metal parts or objects.
So, propagating brush discharge are prevented by keeping nonconductive surfaces or coatings
thin enough or conductive enough to have a breakdown voltage roughly below 4 kiloVolts.
They are also prevented by keeping the metallic backings grounded, to eliminate accumulation
of high-density charge on interface and counter charge on non-conductor surface.
698
Conical pile discharges they are prevented by increasing the conductivity, by addition of certain
additives, we will discuss in due course of time, by decreasing the chare rate below around they
say 0.5 kilogram per second or by using the containers with volume less than 1 meter cube.
Now the most effective, remember the most effective way is inerting. So, if your inerting is
efficient then definitely you can avoid the hazard of electrostatic ignition.
So, brush discharges they are prevented by keeping the nonconductive surface thin enough or
conductive enough to have a breakdown voltage that is usually less than 4 kilovolt.
Nonconductive coatings with the thickness greater than 2 millimetre, however, capable of
brush discharge even with a U, less than 4 kilovolt. Now to prevent the brush discharge a
thickness of around 2 millimetre is necessary again, repeating it again that the most effective
way is inerting.
Now relaxation. Sometimes relaxation because the charge density is a very crucial point, so
relaxation is one of the most effective or you can say the effective tool to minimize the effect
of electrostatic ignition. So, when you are pumping fluids into a vessel through a pipe on the
top of the vessel, like this, the separation process produces a streaming current, like this, which
is the basis of charge build up.
Now it is possible to substantially reduce this electrostatic hazard by adding an enlarged section
of pipe just before entering the tank. It is just like this. You can have this enlarged section and
you may have the piping like this. So, this is the enlarged section and if you compare with this,
699
this is the enlarged section. So, the residence time in this relaxation section of pipe should be
about twice the relaxation time, determined using:
𝜀𝑟 𝜀0
𝜏=
𝛾𝑐
Another important aspect is bonding and grounding. The voltage difference between two
conducting materials is reduced to zero by bonding together. Now, in other words, one end of
a conducting wire to one of the materials and bonding the other end to the second material. So,
when comparing the set of bonded materials, the set may have different voltages. The voltage
difference between the set is reduced to zero by bonding each set to ground and that is by
grounding. So, bonding and grounding reduces the voltage of an entire system to ground level
or a zero voltage.
700
Now this is the pictorial explanation of this bonding and grounding. Now here, we have a
container which is duly grounded. Now this is the container and these two, these Bolt clamp,
type A and type B both are joined together, and this is the best example of bonding and
grounding.
Now here the grounding, this is the container and you are discharging certain liquid to a small
open pail, now here you can ground it or you can build the static grounding bus through which
you can discharge or you can eliminate the charge, whatever charge being generated it can be
eliminated, now here there are 2, you can see, this is bonded with these 2 clamps, this one is
bonded and charge, this charge is connected to this bus wire so that you can eliminate the
hazard of electrostatic ignition.
701
Now this is again a very common phenomenon that is accumulated charge remain in non-
conductive and non-grounded vessel. If your filling any vessel with any fluid, if it is not
properly been grounded or bonded then the charge will remain to the surface of this particular
vessel and whenever this particular vessel will come into contact to certain favourable
conditions then spark may generated. So be careful and adopt the concept of grounding.
Sometimes you may experience there are certain zones, those who have the accumulation of
these electrostatic charges and sometimes they are unnoticed, like this, you are having a non-
conductive line, a pipeline where the charge is accumulated at the surface, similarly you are
having may be a conductive line or may be some non-conductive line, the charge is
702
accumulated at the surface of these flanges, so, whenever the favourable condition achieves,
then definitely they may be in a position to produce the spark.
This is again, the best example of streaming charge effect. Now this particular lorry contains a
flammable liquid. Let us have some practical example of petrol or motor spirit, this lorry carries
the motor spirit so during the transit or during the transportation from the depot to the petrol
pump, it may have certain accumulated charges, either at the inner part like this at the surface
or over the fluid surface.
Now, when it tends to discharge this particular flammable liquid to the storage arena of a petrol
pump then there are certain metal surfaces or metallic surfaces, then it may have a favourable
condition for the generation of spark. Now during the transfer, you cannot avoid the formation
of certain vapours because they are inherent property attributed to vapour pressure.
Then the spark may be generated, and this spark may have the sufficient amount of energy so
that it can blown up the entire petrol station of the petrol pump. That is why to neutralize this
extremely charged and to neutralize the things you must ground this particular filling station
or filling pump whenever you are having, either you pre-ground it or you during the process of
unloading this particular tanker you make grounding in a continuous fashion.
703
Now, another aspect is that dip pipe. Usually this is an extended line or sometimes called a dip
leg or dip pipe which reduces the electric charge that accumulates when liquid is allowed to
free fall. While using dip pipe care must be taken to prevent the siphoning back when the inlet
flow is stopped. The method is to place a hole in the dip pipe near the top of the vessel. Another
technique is to use an angle iron instead of a dip pipe and let the liquid flow down to an angle
iron.
Now here it is the best example that how dip legs prevent the free fall and accumulation of
static charges. So before we discuss this one let us have what happened at the start-up. Suppose
I am having this vessel to be filled with flammable liquid and one option is that I am flowing
704
the liquid from the top like this so what happens there may be a chance of generation of charge
at the inner lining and over the surface of this liquid because they are having the larger area.
Now with the concept of a dip leg here you can see that this particular dip leg is just a few inch
or few distance away from the bottom of this one. So, by this way whenever the liquid is coming
out, electrostatic charge generation, the possibilities are on the lower side. So, by this way you
can minimize the generation of electrostatic charge or static charge built up. Now one problem
is there, and that problem is attributed to the siphoning.
Because whenever this liquid is coming at this level and suppose this particular thing is
connected to some other vessel, which is may be the filling vessel then there may be a chance
of reverting it back to the, this particular vessel. To avoid this siphoning back aspect, you may
put a hole to break the siphon. Now remember whenever you are filling there may be a chance
that the liquid may come out from this hole and it may create again the problem of generation
of static charge.
So, whenever you are encountering such type of a problem then you may have another remedy
for this one. You may put an angle iron which may be suitably grounded or bonded and you
can put the flow in such a manner that it is having the reduced flow live and it will align to this
angle iron bar so that the generation of static charges may be minimized. So, these are the
couple of methodology through which you can prevent the free fall and accumulation of static
charge by dip leg concept.
705
Now there is another possibility of spark or spark charge transfer. This is the vessel filling
operation, now there are three aspects, one is this one, another one is that the outer periphery
you may generate the charge and third one is that how we can reduce the impact of this
generation of spark. So, this figure, particular figure depicts that how we can minimize this
charge transfer and how we can minimize the effect of spark generation.
Another methodology is to increase the conductivity by the addition of additives. So, the
conductivity of non-conducting organic materials can sometimes be increased using the
additives, they are called the antistatic additives. Examples of antistatic additives include water
and polar solvents such as alcohol, etc. Water is effective only when it is soluble in the
offending liquid because an insoluble phase gives an additional source of separation and charge
build up.
706
Sometimes you need to encounter the problem of handling solid without flammable vapours
so here again you need to adopt the proper bonding and grounding aspect like here you can see,
these two are bonded each other. Now here before we go into detail, this particular solid is
being filled with this funnel to this particular reactor so while transferring this solid material
through this hopper or a funnel to this reactor there may be a chance of generation of static
charge.
Now as an engineer you must find out that what are the possible danger zones. One zone is this
container itself, another zone is this funnel itself and third zone is this reactor itself. So, you
can see that this particular vessel is properly bonded with this funnel, like this and this adjoining
is properly grounded, so by this way you can minimize the hazard of both this and this.
In the next aspect while you are transferring this material to this reactor obviously there will
be generation of certain electrostatic charge then this vessel is again grounded to minimise the
effect of this is electrostatic charge. So, you must find out that what are the crucial area where
you need to pay a proper attention.
Now charging the solid with non-grounded conductive shoes, they can result in a build-up of
charge. That is why they have put this bonding and grounding. Now this charge can accumulate
and finally produce a spark this may ignite the dispersed dust to avoid this kind of thing you
must find out the crucial area.
707
Sometimes you may need to handle another scenario where you cannot perform this type of
activity which we have discussed in the previous slide. Then you need to adopt the concept of
inerting. Now here you are handling with the flammable vapours so when your continuously
filling solids to this particular reactor, this is a solid liquid reaction so in that particular case the
chances of generation of charge are on the higher side and sometimes you may not be in a
position to ground it properly.
In that particular case you may need to have a proper supply line for interting so that whatever
vapours are being generated or whatever combustible mixture is being generated at the surface
of this particular liquid it may be properly inerted so that it cannot ignite because remember if
you are not attempting this type of thing then vapour or dust whatever is there, they may form
a flammable mixture and you are having sufficient electrostatic charge built up within the
vessel and at any point of time the spark may generate and the entire vessel may explode.
To minimize this particular effect, you need to have certain supply lines for inerting. So, usually
there are certain advisories and you know that here you are also having the solid which is being
filled to this particular reactor, it is properly bounded and grounded who are you, so usually
these type of things are being used when you are not in a position to have the additives, you
are not in a position to have a proper grounding methodology then go for inerting.
708
When you are acclimatized or you are bound to work under such scenario then you cannot
overlook the importance of explosion proof equipment and instruments all so it is advisory that
all electrical devices, they are having inherent ignition sources, so keeping in view of this fact,
you must design the methodology through which you use those explosion proof equipments
and instruments.
So, special design features are required to prevent the ignition of flammable vapour and dust.
The fire and explosion hazard is directly proportional to the number and type of electrical
powered devices in a process area. So, process area are divided usually in two major type
environment, XP and non XP, that is explosion proof and non-explosion proof.
709
Now, if flammable materials might be present at time in an area, it is designated XP that is
explosion proof required and if not present even under abnormal condition it is designated as
non-explosion proof required area, so that means you can avoid the installation of such safety
devices. So, for non-explosion proof required designated area open flames, heated elements
and other sources of ignition may be present because you can work it upon.
The housings are not designed to prevent flammable vapours and gases from entering but
designed to withstand an internal explosion and prevent the combustion from spreading beyond
the inside of the enclosure.
Now, how we can classify this explosion proof housing? This slide will discuss the
classification are usually defined on the basis of national electrical code that is based on United
States federal law and this is a function of nature and degree of the process hazards within a
particular area.
So rating methods, this include, Class I, Class II, Class III groups and groups from A to G and
division 1 or 2. So class I includes the location where flammable gases or vapours at present,
Class II same for the combustible dusts, Class III hazard locations where combustible fibers or
dusts are present, but not likely to be in suspension so that you can designate the different area
of plant in different classes.
710
Now the groups, they are designated to presence of specific chemical type and the chemicals
that are grouped have equivalent hazards like Group A acetylene or equivalent; Group B
hydrogen, ethylene; Group C carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, Group D butane, ethane,
ethyl alcohol, Group E aluminium dust, Group F carbon black, Group G flour.
Now divisions because there are two types of divisions, division designations are categorised
in relationship to the probability of the material being within the flammable for explosive
region. Division I, probability of ignition is high; that is flammable concentrations are normally
present. Division II, the hazardous only abnormal conditions may be thermal run away
reactions or temperature based reactions, etc. Flammable materials are normally contained in
closed containers or systems.
711
Now, how we can design an explosion proof area? The first thing which comes into our picture
is ventilation. So proper ventilation, we have discussed this ventilation tool in industrial
hygiene, so proper ventilation is one of the methods used to prevent the fires and explosions.
The purpose of ventilation is to dilute the explosive vapours with air to prevent the explosion
and to confine the hazardous flammable mixtures. Both dilution and local ventilation applicable
for plants inside the building.
There are certain open-air plants so open-air plants are recommended because the average wind
velocities are high enough to safely dilute the volatile chemical leaks if any and that may exist
within a plant. Sometimes it may create a problem of unconfined vapour cloud explosion. So,
712
although safety precautions are always practiced to minimize leaks, accidental releases from
pump seals and other potential releases are the points under the consideration of this head.
There are certain plants inside building so local ventilation obviously purge boxes, elephant
trunks, etc you can use. Dilution ventilation when many small points of possible leaks they
exist, and you can use the dilution ventilation.
Usually need of ventilation is that aids in saving lives or assisting the saving life sometime,
sometimes assist in suppressing fire, assist in reducing the property damage so that is why
ventilation is extremely important.
713
Now while assisting in saving life this improves the visibility. Allows for the faster, sometimes
when there is a leak of any flammable or any kind of hazardous vapour the atmosphere or the
area may become little bit hazy, so ventilation may increase the visibility. Allows for faster
location of unconscious victims so that you can approach to them easily. Simplifies and
expedite the rescue operation because once the visibility is clear you can easily approach to
them. Makes conditions safer for firefighters and victims.
Now aids in suppressing fire in fire attack or extinguishment removes smoke, gases and heat
from building. Facilitates entry of firefighters because the visibility is on the higher side.
Reduces the obstacles that hinder the firefighters. Increases visibility for quicker location of
seat of fire.
714
In fire control they reduces the mushrooming, they reduces the flashover potential, they reduces
the backdraft potential and controls fire spreads etc.
They are helpful in reducing the property damage that permits the rapid extinguishment,
obviously the ventilation is very prominent in this aspect. Reduces water, heat and smoke
damage. Confines fire to an area. Allows salvage operation and fire control to take place
concurrently.
715
Now there are various factors those who determine the type of ventilation that is the building
type and design, confined building, unconfined building, etc. Number and size of wall opening,
how much you require. Number of stores and the floors. Number of staircases, shaft,
dumbwaiters, ducts, roof opening, etc. Because these are the certain guiding factors for this
one. Availability of exterior fire escapes and exposure involvement so these are the certain
factors those who determine what kind of or what type of ventilation you require.
Now ventilation opening location and size factors they depend on the availability of natural
opening because obviously for this opening you need not to pay any penny. Fire location, what
is the fire location. Building construction of what type. What is the wind direction although it
is not constant throughout. Fire phase, building Condition, what is the building condition,
716
sometimes building is quite old and because of the fire it may collapse down, or it may create
a problem sometimes when ventilation may initiate certain vibration which may be destructive
for building.
Building contents, what are the contents inside the building? What is the roof type, what is the
effect on fire, what is the effect on exposure, Attack crew's readiness, ability to protect
exposures, what is the size in the location, etc. So, these are the various things which you need
to look after.
So, in nutshell, in this particular module we summarise the things that ventilation removes
smoke, heat, toxic gases from burning building hence can save live and the reduced property
damage. Flashback or backdraft is caused by the addition of oxygen rich air to a smoke filled
and the fuel rich atmosphere.
Convection controls the spread of product of combustion. In convection, heated gas expands
and become less dense than the cooler gas, so you can minimize the problem. The proper
ventilation includes improved visibility, removal of heat and steam, reduction of backdraft.
717
Convection currents carry smoke, superheated gases to uninvolved areas so firefighter must be
able to recognise when ventilation is needed, and firefighter must evaluate all pertinent safety
issues and avoid unnecessary risks. So, when working on a roof, firefighters should have to
safe exit routes so that in case of problem at one roof, you can go for another one. Vertical
ventilation allows the product of combustion travel up and out.
So, in this particular module we have discussed different aspect of electrostatic electricity, dip
piping, relaxation, ventilation aspect, etc.
Again, you can have a look for further reading of these references, thank you very much.
718
Prof. Shishir Sinha
Lecture 31 – Sprinklers- I
Welcome to this module of this design to prevent the fire and explosion. Up till now we have
studied in different modules the general design consideration to prevent the electrostatic
ignition: Relaxation, bonding, grounding, dip pipe, increasing conductivity with additives,
explosion proof housing and different aspect of ventilation. In this module we will give a
proper deliberation to this sprinkler system because sprinklers are a integral part of any
system where the chances of fire and explosion hazards are on the higher side.
And you may find those sprinklers either in the house or different type of public places and
different areas where there is a need, to install such kind of activity to prevent the fire and
explosion hazard. So question arises that what is a sprinkler.
719
A fire sprinkler system is an active fire protection method consisting of a water supply
system, providing adequate pressure and flow rate to a water distribution piping system, onto
which fire sprinklers are connected. Now this system as you can see in this particular figure,
this system consists of an array of sprinkler heads connected to a water supply. So we will
discuss aspect in subsequent slide and we will discuss about the anatomy of a sprinkler head.
So let us have a look about the history of fire sprinklers. So officially developed and used by
Henry Parmalee in 1874 to protect his piano factory because piano, he used to manufacture
piano wood and there was a prominent chances of catching fire. So use clay and wood pipes
with holes drilled into them, and tank on the roof of the structure was drained during a fire
and released the water into pipe. So winter was a problem and making sure someone was
720
watching at all times. Now these four lines are very knowledgeable lines, the reason is that
this gives you an idea that under what condition you should use the sprinkler system, what
are the plus and minus point of a sprinkler and what are the shortcoming of the sprinkler
system.
So before we go into the detail let us have what kind of basic components a particular
sprinklers have. They are having the sprinklers, they are having the system piping, a
dependable water supply or a water source and most systems also require an alarm and
system control valves. So these are the four basic components which you require to install in
sprinkler facility.
721
Now this is the basic anatomy of a sprinkler head component. There are four major
component, one is a frame, another one is the deflector, the third one is the cap and fourth
one is the thermal linkage. Now, just because everything is having its own importance, the
reason is that first it should sense that there is a rise in temperature so that, the thermal
property of the material in question it can sense that there is a problem and it can provide the
adequate opening to the water so that the water may come out from the cap to the different
deflectors. And these deflectors may spread the water to the problematic zone.
Now remember, if the thermal linkage is not functioning properly, then there may be chance
that at the time of fire it may not actuate or sometimes you are working under the safe
environment it may be actuated, and the property or economic losses would be on site. So
that is why, the proper synchronization among four things; reflector, cap, frame should be
there. So style of each component may vary but the basic principle of each remain the same.
Now let us have the discussion about all four ingredients.
The first thing is the frame like you can see here. The frame provides the main structural
component which holds the sprinkler together. The water supply pipe connect to the sprinkler
at the base of the frame and the frame holds the thermal linkage, this one, and supports the
deflector during the discharge so that, that can focus towards the problematic zone.
722
Now this one is a thermal linkage, this component which controls the water, releases. Under
the normal condition the linkage holds the cap in place, this one is the cap in place, and
prevents the water flow because these are the normal conditions. Now common linkages style
include soldered metal lever, frangible glass bulb and solder pellets. Sometimes people may
use wax and 70-80 years ago people were using the wax as a thermal linkage.
Then the cap, this one, the cap provides the water tight seal which is located over the
sprinkler orifice. This one is the sprinkler orifice. Now this component is held in place by the
thermal linkage, so operation of the linkage causes the cap to fall from the position and
permits the water flow.
723
Now there is an Orifice, this is a machine opening at the base of the sprinkler frame and it is
from the opening which is extinguishing the water flow so that the small droplets may appear
and the excess amount of energy whatever being liberated during the course of fire may come
out and may be trapped.
There is a deflector like this in the previous, this one is the deflector. Deflector mounted on
the frame opposite to the orifice and the purpose is to break up the water stream discharging
from the orifice into more efficient extinguishing pattern. And sometimes based on the
requirement these deflectors are of different type. Now deflector style determine that how the
sprinkler is mounted.
724
Now there are various types of sprinkler heads as you can see in the figure. The pendant type,
the upright type, the sidewall type and there are certain special coverage type of sprinklers.
So we will take up one by one.
Now this is the pendant head and they are usually roof-mounted. Here the roof is there, so
they are roof-mounted. Now here is the anatomy of the pendant head: This is the water
supply line and usually the CPVC plastic pipe, nowadays we are using this CPVC plastic
pipe. Now here is the bulb. The bulb burst and when it burst then there is a release of water to
this one. They are the concealed fire sprinklers, the plate or you can say the deflector in the
725
previous slide, so the water may come out from…this place to extinguish the fire. This is the
figure or the picture of the roof-mounted pendant head sprinkler system.
So sprinklers are the water piping system and much like domestic water supplying homes,
faucet and toilets, etc. In many instances the sprinklers are part of the domestic piping
system. A fire sprinkle is much like a faucet but one that puts out an engineered water pattern
designed to control a fire. Because see, whenever you are having the excess water, then
unnecessarily there would be a property damage, so you need to be, the sprinkler need to be
focused in the problematic zone only.
The sprinkler opens when it feels the right amount of heat from the fire. Usually they are
designed for a specific type of heat or temperature zone, like in this case the temperature zone
is 135 to 165 degree Fahrenheit. The heat link will open allowing water to flow out and hit
the deflector for the firefighting water pattern.
726
There are certain upright head type of sprinklers. They sit on the piping system and sprays
water up towards the deflector like this and it cannot be used as a pendant, the reason is that
the flow pattern is just reverse to the pendant type of sprinkler system.
There are another type of sprinkler system, they are called a sidewall head and you can see in
these figures, they are the sidewalls. Here, there is a side wall or a plate situated over there.
They comes out of a wall to protect the Hallways or small rooms or you may put in the wall,
so in case of any fire they can extinguish that particular fire, and has a fan shaped deflector
like this and used in hallway or special area that are not big enough for the regular heads.
727
The upright head, the sprinkler head have been designed to protect everything from attics to
the window opening. The attic head have special bend in them to throw the water at a certain
angle. The coating for corrosive area and heads to match décor of a room even exist, that is
the foremost requirement. Dry pendants are used to protect the areas that freeze on wet
systems. So it is one of the remedy to avoid the freezing.
Now question arises, how does a fire sprinkler work? The head consist of a plug held in place
of a trigger mechanism. And most common type of trigger is a glass bulb filled with a liquid
that expands when heated. So less commonly used type of trigger consists of two metal plates
held together by a solder link so that the difference in the temperature can actuate the
728
sprinkler. So or sometimes when the solder melts, two spring arms pull the plate apart,
releasing the plug like this.
The liquid in the glass bulb is designed to expand and break up the tube, like this it is broken
over here. They break the tube at a certain temperature, the temperature is specified or the
most common ones are designed to break at 155 degree Fahrenheit. The plug is forced out by
the pressurized water like this, here coming out pressurized water behind it and deflected
away.
729
The water sprays over the deflector plate which is designed to distribute in an even pattern
directly over the source of the fire. Contrary to what sometimes shown on the television, like
shows, that all the sprinklers in the building do not operate simultaneously.
The other major component includes the control valves. The sprinkler system must be
capable to shut down after the fire has been controlled and for periodic maintenance and
modification. Control valves provide this function. Alarms, usually alarms alert building
occupants and emergency forces. When a sprinkler water flow occurs, alarms are also
provided to alert building management when a sprinkler valve is closed.
730
There are certain drain and test connections. Most sprinkler systems have provisions to drain
pipe during the system maintenance. The test connections are usually provided to simulate
the flow of a sprinkler flow, thereby verifying the working condition of alarms. There are
certain fire hose connections. The fire fighters will often supplement a sprinkler system with
hoses. The firefighting tasks are enhanced by installing hose connection to the sprinkler
system piping.
There are certain backflow preventers. The normal backflow requirement is a double check
valve assembly, usually like this. It prevents the backflow of polluted water into potable
water supply. So a reduced pressure type backflow preventer is required if the piping does or
can contain hazardous substance. So sometimes it is the common problem in various
chemical plants.
731
Now certain important points of fire sprinkler: The automatic sprinklers are widely
recognized as the number one tool of fire protection. In over one hundred years of use, there
has never been a multiple fatality of a building occupants from fire in a building with a
properly designed, installed and maintained sprinkler system. The sprinklers respond to a fire
while it is still small, preventing the fire from developing into a major threat. Remember we
are using the sprinkler when the fire is actuated. In the previous modules we have discussed
that to prevent the actuation of fire.
Now apart from this, the question arises that how reliable are these sprinklers. Records of fire
in buildings with supervised automatic fire sprinkler system have indicated successful
extinguishment or control in more than 99 percent of fire incidents. No other fire protection
732
system or feature has a comparable record of reliability. Most fires are contained by one or
two sprinklers.
Now since these sprinklers, they are using water, then again the question arises, what about
water damage. So because the sprinkler attack the fire while it is still small, the total amount
water needed for the fire separation is small, often sometimes it is less than 50 gallons per
minute and so on. So without a sprinkler protection a fire is permitted to grow or propagate
and the fire department will typically apply hundreds of gallons of water per minute during
their operation. So you can say that the sprinkler system, they are the first course of safety.
Total amount of water used in the sprinklered building is approximately one-tenth of the
amount used for non-sprinklered building. So you can see that the damages, water damage is
not much on the higher side.
733
The likelihood of a sprinkler discharging water in the absence of a fire is very small, small
amount of water. Each model of a sprinkler is subjected to rigorous laboratory test to
guarantee the long-term integrity and every single sprinkler is hydrostatically tested at twice
the maximum system water pressure prior to the leaving the factory or manufacturing
facilities. A sprinkler guard should be used in environments where sprinkler could be
damaged.
Now there are various type of sprinkler systems, like wet sprinkler, dry sprinkler, deluge type
of sprinkler, pre-action sprinklers, water mist sprinklers and so on.
734
So first, let us have a look of wet pipe sprinkler system. This consist of an array of automatic
sprinkler heads attached to a piping system filled with water, obviously it is wet pipe of
system, so it is to be filled with the water or any fluid and connected to a water supply so that
water discharges immediately from a sprinkler opened by heat from a fire. The heads,
mounted in a high location, usually near the ceiling etc, so pendant type of sprinkler can be
activated by a variety of methods.
A common approach of activation is by melting the fusible links which we have already
discussed. So once they are activated the sprinklers cannot be turned off unless the main
water supply is stopped. Thereby, they may cause a severe damage to the property also.
735
The quick to react as water under pressure is always in the pipework, so this is one of the plus
point. Most common and least expensive type of the system, again this is a plus point.
Require a least amount of maintenance, sometimes the corrosion, sometimes other debris may
get deposited at the opening. So that is, apart from this they require a least amount of
maintenance. Used for multi-story of high-rise building and for life safety, such as those
installed in the shopping centers, storage arenas, control rooms, laboratories and small pilot
areas. Also used for building where there is no risk of freezing.
Now this system should not be used in spaces designated for electrical equipment such as
computer, switch board, etc. The reason is that the chances of steaming electricity may be
high in case of a fire.
Now this is, you can see in this particular figure, this is the wet pipe sprinkler system. This is
the sprinkler head and you can see the different array of wet pipe sprinkler system. You will
find it in multi-storied car parking or parking where you find that pipes they are attached with
the sprinkler system. So these are the distribution pipes. This is the, we can see the fire
brigade inlet and these are the hose reels, etc. So this particular, and they are well supported
by stop valves and back-pressure valves. So this is the very simplest arrangement or simplest
array of wet pipe sprinkler system.
736
Now next in this category is the dry pipe sprinkler system. So usually they operate much like
wet sprinkler system, except that the pipes are filled with pressurized air instead of water. Air
pressure holds down a Clapper Valve, so that the water cannot introduce into the system
unless the air pressure is lost. This process includes once a fire caused and one or more
sprinklers starts operating. Once this happens, the air escapes and dry pipe valve releases. So
water then enters the pipe, flowing enough open sprinkler system onto the fire. Now there is a
statutory warning that frequent operation of compressor means trouble! So that means get
help immediately.
Now where to use this dry pipe sprinkler system? Used where the conditions are such that the
freezing may occur due to the weather conditions, sometimes sub zero conditions etc, or other
737
conditions such as cold stores where the temperature is artificially maintained close to or
below freezing. The disadvantage is that accidental damage to a sprinkler head or gas leakage
may falsely indicate the existence of fire and activate the system causing property damage.
So this is one of the serious disadvantage.
Now to avoid these unfavorable characteristics, a pre-action valve is used, resulting in what is
termed as the preaction system. These systems have a high maintenance cost, due to the
corrosion in the pipe with only air, and a little bit of water. That may be sometimes attributed
to the humidity too. Now it is quite similar to the wet pipe sprinkler system.
Here you can see that this array of a dry pipe, they are the automatic sprinkler. This is the dry
pipe valve; Gate valve to control the water supply of the system, there is a Check valve here.
And this is the water supply, so Heated pipe valve enclosure, so you can see the dark colored
lines, they are the water pressure lines. There is fire department connections because
sometimes they need to take the water supply in case of uncontrolled fire. This is the main
drain connection; the check valve and water motor. So this is the typical dry pipe sprinkler
system.
And here is the anatomy of dry pipe sprinkler system: This is the water supply line. And this
is actuated with the air pressure. The main water clapper and seat, so in case of losing
pressure then it automatically actuate and this valve open ups to fill the water inside the
sprinkler system.
738
Now the next sprinkler system which we are going to discuss is the deluge sprinkler system.
So water flows from all of the sprinkler head as soon as the system is activated through the
common control point. The control point is connected to an array of heat or smoke detectors
that starts the sprinkler when an abnormal condition is detected. Now if a fire detected, the
entire sprinkler array within an area is activated and possibly in areas not even affected by
fire. So it does not have closed head that open individually at the activation temperature and
all the heads in a deluge system are always open.
So the arrangement of the deluge system piping is similar to a wet or dry pipe system with
two major differences: One is that the standard sprinklers are used but they are all open. The
739
activating element, that is a fusible link or a glass bulb, have been removed so that when the
control valve is opened by heat, smoke, or flame sensitive sensors, water will flow from all of
the sprinklers. The second difference is that deluge valve is normally closed, the valve is
opened by the activation of a separate fire detection system.
So the deluge systems are used in places that are considered high hazard areas such as power
plant, aircraft hangars and chemical storage or processing facilities. So deluge systems are
needed where high velocity suppression is necessary to prevent fire spread.
Now this is typical photograph of deluge sprinkler system and this is the functioning of how
this deluge sprinkler system works, like this we can see.
740
Now the last segment in this category is the preaction sprinkler system. The preaction
sprinkler system is similar to the deluge sprinkler system, except that the sprinklers are not
open; they are closed sprinklers with fusible link or glass bulbs. For a single interlocked
system, the preaction valve is normally closed and operated by a separate fire detection
system.
Activation of a fire detector will open the preaction valve, allowing water to enter the system
piping. This system is a dry pipe system with a preaction valve activated by a separate fire
detection system and that is more sensitive to fire than the sprinkler head.
741
The fire detection system may consist of smoke or flame-sensitive detection sensors that
signal the actuator to open the preaction valve, allowing water to flow through the sprinkler
heads that are already opened by heat from fire. It is much safer than the dry-pipe system as
the water is allowed to enter the piping system only if the fire occurs. Water will not flow
from the sprinkler until heat from the fire activates the operating element in individual
sprinkler. So you can differentiate among all the sprinkler system.
They are used where it is not acceptable to have the pipes full of water until there is a fire,
that is like computer suites or etc. Double interlock only for the areas subjected to freezing,
so that we can minimize the hazard. They are similar to dry sprinkler system with one key
difference and that is the secondary device must be activated before water is released into the
sprinkler piping. So when the system is filled with water it functions as a wet sprinkler
system. So this is the only difference that a secondary device must be activated.
742
Now this is the figure which explains the preaction sprinkler system. There are the empty
pipes and this is the preaction valve over here. There are fire brigade inlets etc, and this is the
City mains. So this is a very small setup. Now in this particular module we have studied all
kind of sprinkler system, what is the anatomy of the different sprinkler system; we have
discussed all aspects, where to use and where not; advantages and disadvantages.
And for the further reading you can have a look of references listed over here. Thank you
very much.
743
Prof. Shishir Sinha
Lecture 32 – Sprinklers- II
So welcome to the last module of design to prevent fire and explosion. Up till now we have
studied in different modules about the design, general design consideration to prevent the
electrostatic ignition, what is the concept of relaxation, how it is beneficial to the process
industry. We have discussed about the bonding and grounding and how you can implement all
those things into the process industry.
The concept of dip pipe, advantage and disadvantages; we have discussed about the increase
in conductivity with different additives so that we can prevent the hazard of electrostatic spark.
We have discussed about the explosion proof housing so that we can prevent the hazard by
cordoning of the explosion prone equipments. We have discussed all aspects of ventilation and
in this particular module we will discuss about the different aspects of sprinklers. So let us have
a summary about the sprinkler system, what we have discussed in the previous module and
what we are going to discuss in this particular module.
744
We have discussed about the wet pipe sprinkler system which uses the water that discharges
through the opened sprinkler via heat. We have discussed about the dry pipe sprinkler system,
they use usually nitrogen or air under pressure. In this particular module we will discuss the
deluge type of sprinkler system and how to type to open the sprinkler with an unfilled water
line and only open when a fire or high temperature is detected. There are certain pre-actions of
these sprinkler system, this type of dry pipe system with specialized valve which got triggered
by a FDS, more sensitive to the fire than sprinkler heads.
Now there are certain water mist system, they are usually similar to the automatic sprinkler
system in all aspect except the application of water for a sprinkler. So you can see that as the
name suggest, use water mist which actually absorbs the heat, dislocates the air or oxygen or
745
hinders the radiation of heat. So by the formation because these mist, they are having the larger
surface area, so that they can easily absorb the heat and simultaneously when, because they are
having the large density, so they can cordon off the air supply and indirect way the oxygen
supply. And simultaneously they hinders the radiation of heat.
So they are used specifically for a small confined area such as inside the equipment enclosure
or cabinets. Because of certain operational difficulties we cannot use these water mist to the
larger area or entire the plant.
Now these are the typical systems of water mist system. This is the usual device of water mist
system and this is the operational one. So you can see that the water mist they are coming out
from this nozzle.
746
Now the question arises that, how to install the sprinkler system? Now you must identify that
what are the basic requirements for those sprinkler system. So usually there are four type of
requirement for the sprinkler system. One is the position, location, spacing and how to use the
sprinkler system. So first thing is that you need to determine that the protection area of
coverage, that how much area you need to cover in the sprinkler system. Because of certain
inherent limitations of those sprinkler system you need to classify that particular area in
question.
Then you must design and you must know that what is the maximum and minimum distance
between these two sprinkler. Because every sprinkler is having its own efficiency or its own
domain, so you need to find out so that you can cover the area in question properly. Then you
need to find out that maximum or minimum distance of the sprinkler from the valve. Because
you have to prevent certain dead zones, so that is why you need to find out this distance.
Now there are certain system protection area limitations because you cannot install certain
sprinklers in certain area where the things are more difficult to control. Then you need to find
out that what are the different applications which are applicable to various sprinkler types.
Because in the previous modules we have discussed different type of sprinklers, so which kind
of a sprinkler is applicable to what, so you need to find out all those things.
So these need may vary depending on the type of the system, what kind of system you are
using. So these are the need, whatever need like position, location etc. These needs may vary
747
depending on the type of the system. For any system pre-lubed grooved couplings are always
recommended.
Now there are certain requirements which are attributed to the wet pipe sprinkler system. They
must be reliably heated and proper heating control must be there so that they can work
efficiently. Overhangs and chases on the exterior walls cannot be trusted because of application
of heat or repeated use. Sometimes they are not reliable, so that is why you have to take care
all these aspects. Normal black steel piping is better for wet sprinkler but sometimes chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride CPVC pipes are generally used. But sometimes if the heat content is on the
higher side, then this particular thing is disadvantageous.
748
There are certain facts about the sprinkler. They are recognized as only effective method of fire
control. Obviously, because very much apart from the ventilation the sprinklers are recognized
a very effective methodology for the fire protection. Chances of accidental discharge are
remote because they are very sensitive towards their control methodology. Installation cost is
very small related to the building cost and usually approximately 1 percent attributed to the
sprinkler cost. So same as the cost of you can say, the new carpeting in a structure.
So nowadays, buildings are constructed with the preinstalled fire sprinkler system. Even you
can find all those sprinkler system in the parking arena, in the other arena which are open to
sky etc. So that you can have a proper protection because of the…I mean they are very good in
terms of cost factor.
There are dry pipe sprinkler system requirements which they are very, I mean we can say the
specific requirement are attributed to the dry pipe sprinkler system. They are gridded dry pipe
system, they are usually not allowed. Initially filled with nitrogen in pipes, now air should be
supplied directly from the, from a source which can be accessible all time, and pressure should
be maintained throughout the year. And a gradual check of this pressure is always advisable.
Dry systems should be drained completely to minimize the corrosion—no roll groove ends.
Galvanized black steel is used and use accelerator only when necessary. So these are the certain
requirements for the dry pipe sprinkler system.
749
So once you installed these sprinkler systems, there is a requirement of inspection, testing and
maintenance of those sprinkler system. And there is a regular protocol of this type of thing. So,
you need to go for periodic inspection, testing, maintenance which is essential to ensure
successful performance of the system when they are needed. Because sometimes it may happen
if you are not performing all these protocols regularly, then at the time of need they may fail.
So they may not be in a position to provide the adequate support which required and which is
for they are installed.
So maintaining adequate system is a critical as the original decision to install the system. It is
always advisable that when you are taking the original decision to install all this system, you
should follow the proper maintenance protocol. Now as these suppression, detection, and alarm
systems are generally not used on a routine basis, their state of readiness is not immediately
apparent.
Because always we people, always busy in the regular process protocols, process working. So
usually we do not have much time to pay attention of all these aspects. So that is why it is not
the part and parcel of the routine basis. But we must follow these protocols. Now let us have a
look about the inspection.
750
So, visual examination of the sprinkler system to verify that it appears to be in the operating
condition and free of physical damage. So you can visually verify, visually you can inspect all
these things that they are, whether they are physically okay or they are slightly damaged in
terms of physical inspection. So, visual inspection, examination of a storage and general
environment surrounding sprinkler system. So you have to be careful about while performing
this physical examination.
As far as the sprinklers are concerned, they must be inspected from floor level annually but it
is not necessary that you perform this exercise annually, sometimes six monthly, quarterly etc,
that is purely based on the requirement.
751
Installation should be as per the proper orientation of the building, that is mandatory
requirement because sometimes you may forget some dead zones where the vapor cloud
explosion or unconfined vapor login may there. Should be checked for any leakage in any
fitting, that is mandatory. Should be free from any type of corrosion, foreign material, paint,
physical damage because they may create a future problem during the operation. So you must
be, you must ensure yourself that they should be free any type of these difficult scenarios.
While considering the pipe and fittings, they should be in a very good condition. Obviously it
is prima facie requirement. They should be free from any kind of mechanical damage, leakage,
corrosion, misalignment etc, because sometimes all the physical aspect even may be the
pressure drop may create a problem, even the corrosion may cause the choking in the nozzles
etc. So all, they should be free from all kind of mechanical damage.
Now piping should not be subjected to the external loads by material either resting on the pipe
or hung from the pipe. So that is required, the reason is that sometimes because of the sagging
the piping system may get collapsed. So this should not be subjected to any kind of external
load.
While considering the maintenance, they require very little maintenance if from initial time
proper care was taken of, for a sprinkler. So if you have taken very good care during the
installation of a sprinkler, then you may require a very little maintenance cost. Replacement
shall have appropriate feature for the uses proposed and also should be of the similar kind as
of adjacent one.
752
Sometimes spare sprinklers, never fewer than 6, shall always be maintained on the premises so
that any sprinkler that have operated or been damaged in any way can be promptly replaced.
So this is again standby arrangement for the sprinkler system. Dry pipe systems shall be kept
dry at all time. This is the mandatory requirement and it is the part and parcel of your
maintenance protocol.
Now there are certain advantages associated with the sprinkler system over extinguisher
although extinguishers are more in effect if the fire is small and at any early stage. So they are
very much popular. In extinguisher public have to take risk of their lives to stop the fire from
spreading using the fire extinguisher. So you have already seen all these things in a different
pictorial diagrams in the previous modules.
This extinguisher requires high maintenance and sometimes you need to refill frequently etc,
there may be chances of injury while using or while they are redundant, then there may be
several chances of injury. So all these disadvantage are neutralized for fire sprinkler system
which are better automatic in a fire extinguishing methodology. So if you recall in the previous
modules and if you compare with this sprinkler system with extinguisher you can find that they
are more better compared to the fire extinguisher.
753
Again when we compare this sprinkler system over alarm system, again there are certain
advantages associated with one. The fire alarm system is a passive system, only warning will
be provided after exposure of fire at an infant stage or very nascent stage. Evacuation program
have to be done just after the warning. So only thing is that this is a passive system and you
need to follow a certain guidelines because it does not provide any kind of support system to
extinguish the fire or to remove any arm of a fire triangle. Whereas in the fire sprinkler system
no such procedures take place, so that is why they are having an edge over the alarm system.
754
Now in summary the fire separation system include a sprinkler system, standpipe system,
specialized extinguishing system and the most common fire suppression system is the
automatic sprinkler system. Because we have compared all these things with what are the
different tools available whether it is a fire extinguisher system, alarm system, etc, we have
compared with the sprinkler system. Then we find it that automatic sprinkler system are more
beneficial.
Now at the end we would like to discuss couple of numericals through which you can
understand this particular chapter well, although there are certain things are given in the
reference and you can have a look all those things.
755
So as far as the first numerical is concerned, the container consists of total percent air by volume
and also inerted with the nitrogen gas until total oxygen concentration becomes less than 1.25
percent by volume. So the container is 2000 feet, so you need to find out that how much pure
and contaminated nitrogen must be added assuming the nitrogen contains 0.01 percent oxygen.
So nitrogen is playing a role for inerting media.
So while we consider the solution, the volume of nitrogen required Qvt is determined by using
this particular formula Qvt which we have already discussed in the previous modules. So,
𝐶1 − 𝐶0
𝑄𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉 ln ( )
𝐶2 − 𝐶0
756
So, here if we substitute all the values, because if you go through the previous slide, the
container volume is 2000 feet, cubic feet, this is not, the question is it is cubic feet.
21.0 − 0.01
𝑄𝑣 𝑡 = 2000 ln ( ) = 5660
1.25 − 0.01
So it comes out to be Qvt is 5660 cubic feet, that is the quantity of contaminated nitrogen added.
Now if you consider this,
21.0
𝑄𝑣 𝑡 = 2000 ln ( ) = 5642
1.25
So by this way you can calculate that how much quantity of pure nitrogen is added to the
system.
757
Now, let us have a look of another numerical, that you need to estimate the capacitance of a
person which is 60, sorry, 6 feet 2 inches tall, standing on a dry wooden floor. εr is 1.0 for air,
that is this one. And ε0 is the permittivity and which is given that 8.85 X 10-12 Coulomb2 /Nm2
or 2.7 X 10-12 Coulomb/ volt ft.
Now while we are considering the solution, the person’s capacitance is estimated assuming the
person’s shape is spherical, that is purely an assumption, remember. And that is the sphere is
surrounded by air, so if you use this particular equation which we have studied in the previous
module,
C = 4 π εr ε0 r
758
C = 4 X 3.14 X 1.0 X 2.7 X 10-12 X (6.17/2)
So it comes out to be, C = 1.05 X 10-10 Coulomb/ volt.
So by this way you can calculate, I mean sometimes it is unavoidable scenario that you need
to go for this type of assumption that the person’s shape is spherical, then you can assume.
Although in our day-to-day affair or in day-to-day life, the things are bit different, so you need
to perform the things as per the requirement and as per the formula based. So let us take another
numerical example.
759
In this particular numerical example, we need to calculate the capacitance of a subject standing
on a surface which is conductive in nature. Assuming the separation of individual’s shoe soles
from the floor, that is the shoe sole is the dielectric capacitor, now you are given the shoe sole
area which is in square feet to choose 0.37 square feet each. Shoe sole thickness is 0.3 inches
and dielectric constant for shoe sole is 3.5.
Let us calculate the things. Now individual’s capacitance can be estimated assuming the subject
shoe sole, and the floor are parallel to each other, so considering the case of 2 parallel plates,
C = (εrε0A)/L
So if you substitute the values,
760
C = [3.5 X (2.7 X 10-12) X 0.74] / [0.3/12]
Now it is coming out to be,
C = 2.79 X 10-10 farad
So this is the, whatever you require in this problem. And we have taken certain values from the
previous numerical.
Let us take another example that is related to the vacuum purging technique. Now in using
vacuum purging technique to reduce the oxygen concentration within 1200 gallon container to
1 ppm, you need to determine the number of purges required and the total nitrogen gas used.
The temperature is 75 degree Fahrenheit and the container is originally charged with air under
ambient condition. So vacuum pump is used to reach 15 millimeter of mercury absolute, and
vacuum is subsequently relieved with pure nitrogen until the pressure return to 1 atmosphere
absolute.
761
So let us attempt this particular problem. Now here,
y0 = 0.21 lb mol O2/total mol,
yj, = 1 ppm = 1 lb mol O2/total mol.
So the required number of purges is
𝑦𝑗 = 𝑦0 ( ) = 𝑦0 ( )
𝑛𝐻 𝑃𝐻
𝑦𝑗 𝑃𝐿
ln ( ) = 𝑗 ln( )
𝑦𝑜 𝑃𝐻
10−6
ln( 0.21 )
𝑗= = 3.12
15
ln 760
So this is the number of purges. So roughly, 4 purge cycles are required.
762
Now total nitrogen used:
𝑉
∆𝑛𝑁2 = 𝑗 (𝑃𝐻 − 𝑃𝐿 )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇
So if we substitute the respective values, this come out to be
1200 𝑋1/7.48
∆𝑛𝑁2 = 4 (14.7 − 0.387) = 1.599
10.73 𝑋 (75 + 460)
Now this is if you calculate, it is comes out to be 1.599 pounds per mole. So if we consider in
terms of number of mass, so it is 44.77 lb of nitrogen. Now this is entire solution. In this way
we have calculated, we have carried out several examples.
763
Now if you wish for further reading and if you wish to carry out further numerical problems,
here we have been listed various references and you may go through all these references and
especially while considering the numerical problems you may consider the book by Crowl and
Louvar, Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications. So you may consider this
book. And by this way we are finishing up our chapter related to design of prevention of fire
and explosion. Thank you very much.
764
Lecture 33
Introduction to Reliefs
Welcome to the new chapter that is called Reliefs. Now, before we go into detail, let us have a
look at what is the importance of relief. So despite many safety precautions within chemical
plants, equipment failure or sometimes operator error can cause increase in pressure that is
attributed to the process beyond the safe level. So we are having different line of action for to
deal with such kind of scenario.
Now if pressure rise too high, they may exceed to the maximum strength of either pipeline or
a vessel, now this can result in the rupturing of the process equipment causing major release of
toxic or inflammable vapours. So, in this particular chapter we are going to deal that what are
the different things related to the relief, what is the concept of relief, what kind of different
sources of over pressure, what are the different lines of defence or defence mechanism.
We will understand the pressure-temperature curve for different runaway reactions. We will
discuss about the various guidelines for relief pressures. We will have discussion about the
methodology for the safe installation of various relief devices and where we can introduce those
relief devices or the location of relief. Now, let us have the discussion about that what are the
different safer mechanisms available to you.
765
So the defence against any kind of pressure rise or rupture and to prevent the accident, the first
place is the inherent apparent safety, which we have already discussed in different modules.
The second line of defence is the better process control, obviously we have discussed in
industrial hygiene where we can use this type of process control. A major effort in this
particular aspect is always directed towards controlling the process which is within the safe
operating region.
Now dangerous high-pressure exposure must be prevented or minimized. The third line of
defence against the excessive pressure is to install the various relief systems to relieve any kind
of liquids or gases before excessive pressures are developed. So usually these relief systems
are composed of relief devices and associated downstream process equipment to safely handle
the material ejected.
So in nutshell there is always a great chance of accidents within the process plants despite
taking several safety precautions. So sometimes, the rise in pressure may attributed to the
equipment malfunctioning, operator errors, sometimes ambience or third party inductions, et
cetera. So these discrepancies can cause increase in the process pressure beyond the safe level.
So, excessive pressure may lead towards the rupture of any kind of things which may be
catastrophic for process.
766
Now, this catastrophe not only affects the equipment but also interrupts the whole process
associated with resulting the major release of toxic or flammable chemicals, this may cause
serious damage to the outside periphery too. Change in the chemical reaction associated with
the process, this may lead to the fire and explosion, this may lead to loss of material ultimately
lead to economic losses and the plant shutdown in major cases.
So, let us have a discussion about that what are the different sources of overpressure. So the
excessive overpressure or under pressure in a process plant can be subjected due to the external
fire, sometimes maybe conduction, convection so this may lead to the catastrophe that is called
the plant fire. Connection to a high-pressure source, now valve is opened in error.
767
Sometimes disconnection from a low-pressure sink that is valve again may be attributed to the
valve opened in error. Increase the heat input that is malfunctioning of heating or cooling
equipment as desired within the chemical reactions and it is quite obvious because there are so
many reactions or major reactions those involved the endothermicity or exothermicity.
Others are that decreased heat input that is malfunctioning of heating/cooling equipment or
again the chemical reaction. The best example is the loss of reflux or of sub-cooled liquid in
distillation column. Sometimes vapour evolution that is admission of the water or high hydro,
light hydrocarbon to hot oil, then absorbent failure, failure attributed to the failure to remove
the sufficient gas due to the loss of flow from absorbent.
768
Sometimes it may lead to the heat exchanger tube failure, this may be attributed to low pressure
shell is exposed to the high-pressure tube. Expansion of blocked in liquid that is between the
two closed block valves, sometimes it is attributed to the reverse flow that is the failure of
pressure raiser, sometimes fluid transient that is hammering two phase flow or geysering.
Sometimes attributed to the process abnormality or miss-operation, equipment or service utility
failure, changes in ambient conditions, excess chemical reactions, so these are the various
sources of over pressure.
Now, question arises that what is the defence mechanism. Now, the first line of defence against
such incidents is to try to prevent such accidents at the origin. Now, how you can prevent those
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things? You may develop the better process control, you may control the process within the
safe operating region, and every process is having the safe operating region. Sometimes
perforce because of the production demand, because a variety of reasons you may be in a
position to violate all those things.
Now dangerous high-pressure exposure must be prevented or minimized. Now in this particular
figure you may have a defence against such accidents, you may have to install the relief
systems, you may have a better process control. And in the start we have discussed that every
process is having some inherent safety, so you may adopt that particular you must have
knowledge of all those things.
Now the second line of defence is which we have already discussed at the start of this particular
chapter that installation of relief systems, to relieve the liquid or gases before excessive
pressures are developed. So the relief system is composed of relief device and associated
downstream process equipment to safely handle the material ejected. So you may have
installation of these relief systems to relive liquid gases before excessive pressure builds up so
you are avoiding the rupturing or vessel failure scenario.
Now, what are the options to control? Now there are a few options available to you. First is
that emergency cooling, now you may have addition of a compatible cooling medium along
with the reactant for rapid heat transfer. Second is that there are so many reaction inhibitors
those who kills the reaction. Now you may add those killing materials for controlling the
reaction that is control rods sometimes they are inserted in the nuclear reactor to maintain the
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desired state of nuclear fission reaction, this is one of the best examples. There are certain
carbon monoxide gas induction, they may act as a killer material for various polymerisation
reaction especially in case of homopolarisation of propylene.
Other methods include the venting off some amount of material from the reactor for rapid
cooling. Now, these methods alone or in combination with other assemblies can be used as a
preventive measure for controlling the hazard. But these methods have various flaws such as
that if you require manual operation to eliminate the possibility of reaction upset and for smooth
functioning of the process. The early detection of hazard is primarily target for safe and
economical operation while these materials are used to minimise the consequences.
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So in nutshell, we must understand that what is the concept of relief, now if special relief
systems are required for the variety of reasons, some of them they are summarised as to protect
personnel from the dangers of over the over pressurizing equipment, to minimise the chemical
losses during the pressure upsets, to prevent the damage of equipment, to prevent the damage
to adjoining properties, and sometimes this may lead to the heavy economic losses, to reduce
the insurance premiums and to comply with the governmental regulations because nowadays
governmental regulations are strict, so you have to comply all these regulations to protect the
environment as well as nearby people.
Now, in this particular figure we have pressure versus time for different aspects like this is the
further relieving vapour, relieving froth this one that is the two-phase flow, and this is for the
closed reaction vessel, we will discuss this particular plot in the subsequent slides.
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Now, you may consider a case where a reactor temperature starts rising, maybe because of the
cooling is lost or loss of cooling water supply or failure of valve with the variety of reasons.
So heat inside the reactor will start increase due to the rise in temperature, now this self-
accelerating mechanism results in a runaway reaction.
Now the pressure within the reactor increases due to the increased vapour pressure, obviously
the vapours are intending to form over a period of time because of the rise in temperature, so
the vapour pressure of the liquid component is on the higher side and the gaseous
decomposition product as a result of high temperature.
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Now this runaway reaction for a large commercial reactor can occur in minutes with
temperature and pressure increase of the several hundred degrees per minute or several hundred
psi per minute respectively. So you can imagine the scenario because the temperature is on the
higher side and the vapour pressure is on the higher side so the temperature and pressure is on
the higher side.
Now for the curve shown this curve, the cooling is lost at times t is equal to 0. Now if reactor
has no relief system, the pressure and temperature continues to rise until the reactants are
completely consumed, this is as predicted in this particular curve. Now after the reactants are
consumed, the heat generation stops and subsequently the reactor cools, the pressure
subsequently drops like this. Now this particular curve assumes the reactor is capable of
withstanding the full pressure of the runaway.
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Now, if reactor has a relief device, the pressure response is dependent on the relief device
characteristics and the properties of the fluid discharged through the relief and that is
represented by the curve this curve A. Now pressure will increase inside the reactor until the
relief device activates at the pressure indicated. So when the froth has discharged this is
represented in the curve B, the pressure continues to rise as the relief valve opens.
Now, the incremental pressure increases over the initial relief pressure is called the
overpressure. Now, this curve A for vapour or gas discharged through the relief valve, this one.
The pressure drops immediately when the relief device opens because only small amount of
vapour discharge is required to decrease the pressure. Now you can see there is a rise in pressure
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and then it drops. The pressure drops until the relief valve closed and the pressure difference is
called the blow down.
Now, since the relief character of two phase of vapour liquid material is markedly different
from the vapour relief, the nature of relief material must be known in order to design a proper
relief. Now remember, there is one major accident took place in Italy in the Seveso just because
of the failure of these devices, so be careful and you must have this type of pressure, time and
temperature relationship with us.
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Now, before the go into details, we must look into several important definitions which may be
very useful in due course of time. Now the first and foremost important definition is the set
pressure, so this is the predetermined pressure at which the relief device under operating
condition begins to activate. Now there are various ways to detect; one is the start of opening,
this can be checked by measuring the valve lift or hearing the flow. Second is the opening
pressure, for the case of compressible fluid it can be easily determined by the sudden movement
of disc. Third is the start-to-leak pressure for valves having a perfect seal, it may be easily
detected as soon as the first bubble or drop appears.
Now second is the Maximum Allowable Working Pressure MAWP, sometimes it is designated
in abbreviated form. This maximum allowable gauge pressure based on the design codes that
the weakest component of pressure vessel can handle, it is also called the design pressure. Other
is the operating pressure, the gauge pressure inside the vessel during the normal service. It may
be equal to MAWP but cannot exceed the limit and usually taken 10 percent below MAWP.
Accumulation, the pressure above MAWP inside the vessel, now this term is used to mention
the exceeding pressure of vessel while overpressure talk about the pressure relief valve.
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There are certain things related to the overpressure, this pressure the pressure developed above
the set pressure of the relief valve during the relieving process and it is expressed in terms of
percentage of set pressure. So you can see now this is your set pressure, this is MAWP and this
one is the overpressure or this one is the accumulation. So overpressure is used to certify the
safety valve, now
Relieving Pressure = Set Pressure + Overpressure = MAWP + Accumulation
This is the standard equation for dealing such overpressure, temperature and MAWP.
778
Another one is the backpressure, the pressure at the outlet the discharge side of the safety relief
valve during the relief process due to the pressure existing in the downstream system. Now
usually it is expressed as percentage of relieving pressure, usually calculated as for the
compressible fluid that is in terms of absolute units and for incompressible fluid it is calculated
in terms of a gauge unit. The percentage of set pressure, this is calculated in gauge unit as per
API.
Blow-down; the pressure difference between the relief set pressure and the relief reseating
pressure, it is expressed as a percentage of the set pressure. Reseating means when the pressure
is relieved and the valve or disc may be re-seated to its original position. Now relieving
pressure, the pressure used for the sizing of the safety valve, it can be greater than or equal to
the sum of set pressure and overpressure. Lift; the actual travel of the valve disc from the initial
or the closed position, so whenever it acquires the original position it is called the reseating.
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The maximum allowable accumulated pressure, the sum of the maximum allowable working
pressure plus the allowable accumulation, you may refer to the previous plot. The relief system;
the network of components around the relief device including the pipe to the relief, the relief
device, the discharge pipelines, knockout drum, scrubber, flare, or other types of equipment
which assist in the safe relief process. The coefficient of discharge; this is the ratio of actual
flowing capacity that is decided either by the manufacturer or by testing to the theoretical
flowing capacity that is purely from the calculation.
Now here you can see, the guidelines for the relief pressure this is the two-step slide. Now here
you are having the pressure vessel requirement that is the maximum allowable accumulated
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pressure, and here you are having the vessel pressure which is having the numerical value. Now
this is the typical characteristics of safety relief valve, so maximum allowable accumulated
pressure say that is 121, the maximum relieving pressure for fire is this one.
So maximum allowable accumulated pressure for multiple valve installation other than the fire
exposure is given by this one. So every industry or every process they must have these types
of guidelines for the relief pressure. Now before we go for this guideline, you must be
acquainted with these types of definitions that is why we have taken these definitions a priory
before we go into the details.
Now there are certain things you must keep in your mind that while designing the relief system
for overpressure sometimes it is designated as OP or under pressure, the following questions
must be remembered to achieve more inherent safer and cost-effective design. You must ask
different questions and you must frame different questions. Now the sample questions are: Can
we design process plant by taking measures to control the overpressure or under pressure
hazard?
First thing, second, Can changing the process parameters or control mechanisms prevent the
overpressure or under pressure hazard? Again because sometimes maybe because of the variety
of reasons you are compelled to change the process parameters so you must ask this particular
question. Now can an equipment be designed to contain the load of overpressure or under
pressure to withstand the maximum feasible pressure?
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Now can alternative protection to a relief system be considered? Because it provides you
variety of options. Can we minimise the number of relief systems installed by using alternate
cost-effective devices? So these are the couple of things which you must keep in your mind.
Now in the next part we are discussing that methodology used for the safe installation of a
pressure relief device. Now this particular flow sheet gives you an idea about this particular
methodology, you must locate the various relief desired on the basis of your knowledge and on
the basis of the questions framed you must choose the proper relief pipes, then you develop the
relief protocols for that particular process.
You may acquire the desired data, and these data may be simple physical properties or
sophisticated calorimeter data or characterised two phase flow including the gassy systems or
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high viscosity or a laminar slow system so that is purely based on the variety and the quality
of the question being asked for the particular process.
Now this acquire data you may select the size relief for the single phase and size relief for two
phase that depends on your requirement. Then you adopt or you choose the worst scenario, and
on the basis of this particular information you may design the proper relief system for that
particular process. So this is the proper methodology for the safe installation of any kind of
pressure relief devices.
Now there are several steps involved in designing the emergency relief system. The first is that
determine the various scenarios that may lead to overpressure, identify those scenario which
may lead towards the highest rate of vapour formation this is one of the examples. Now through
this exercise we can determine the release rate from pressure relief device for worst-case
scenario it may lead to the rupture of vessel, et cetera.
Now second, that the location of installation of pressure relief devices we are going to discuss
in upcoming slides must be determined by taking vessel geometry, type of fluid, what are the
surroundings or surrounding environment and other effecting factors you have to take into
consideration. So location is again very important because if location is wrong then definitely
the relief device will not serve its desired purpose.
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Now, we had discussed earlier that the discharge through multiphase fluid relief system is
significantly different as compared to the discharge through all vapour or all gas system. Now
the third case is the design of pressure relief device must be such a way that it could provide
the sufficient discharge rate even at the worst-case scenario such that it can sustain the system
under maximum allowable pressure, this is again a very important point to note.
So keep in mind that if the relief device is designed much larger as desired, it not only lead to
the higher costing but also add to a loss of material and treatment costs for the relief fluid to be
handled so you must have an appropriate or an optimum relief device. The last step is to design
a treatment system for handling the relieved fluid discharged from the relief device, it is just
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like that the steam is discharged to the atmosphere at a very high temperature, so you must
know that what is the treatment protocol for the relieved fluid. Now this step is very important
as the fluid discharge if not treated properly can lead to bigger consequences than the rupture
of pressure vessel, so you must know all these things.
The knowledge of material to handle such as the behaviour while kept under overpressure and
other additional heat is essential in determining all the discussed steps effectively. Now design
of relief system for two phase fluid is significantly bigger that the design of relief system for
gas only fluid. Now, additionally there are sophisticated instruments requirement which need
to be installed while treating two phase fluids such as vapour liquid separators, condensers and
well-engineered storage tanks, so these are the need of time to have these sophisticated
instruments.
785
Now question arises, how to install the pressure relief devices. Again it is a multistep process,
first step is that you need to specify the location where the relief device is to be installed. Now
again we have discussed in the previous slides that the location is very important, relief location
is very important for installation. The reason is that if it is not at a proper place then the results
or the outcome would be extremely dangerous.
Now step 2 is to select the appropriate relief device type according to the requirement. So
nature of material to be handled primarily defines the type of device to be installed, which
includes the mass flow rate of the material, phase of the material and the characteristics of the
material because it should not be so reactive with the relief device otherwise it may cause the
choking, it may cause the following, et cetera.
Step 3, the carefully define the various ways that is the relief scenario through which the relief
can be occurred. This is again achieved by plotting various temperature, versus pressure plots
or pressure versus Time plots, et cetera so you can device or you can develop the systems
carefully.
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Step 5 is collection of data for ejected material including the physical characteristics, and
accordingly the relief sizing need to be performed. The last step is the design the relief system
for the worst-case scenario. Means extreme pressure, extreme scenario so that you must aware
that what are the consequences may take place in due course of time. So, special attention is
required in each step while designing relief devices as a minute error can cause, can result to a
catastrophic failure of the whole system entire system.
787
Now, next aspect is the location of relief, this is again a very important aspect which need to
be addressed. Now procedure for specifying the location of relief requires the review of every
unit operation in the process in question and every process operating step, so be careful about
this one. The engineer must anticipate the potential problems that may result in the increased
pressure. The pressure relief devices are installed at every point identified as potential hazard
that is at points where the upset condition create pressure that may exceed to the Maximum
allowable working pressure.
Then the type and the quality of the questions asked in the review process. Remember, you
may design, you may develop your own questions. Now, the sample questions are that what
happened with loss of cooling, heating or agitation? What happens if the process is
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contaminated or has a mischarge of catalyst or monomer? What happens if the operator makes
an error? What is the consequence of closing valve that is maybe block valve on vessel or in-
line that are filled with the liquid exposed to heat or refrigeration?
What happens if a line fails for example, a failure of a high-pressure gas line into a low-pressure
vessel? What happens if the unit operation is engulfed in fire? What conditions cause runaway
reaction and how are the relief systems designed to handle the discharge as a result of runaway
reactions? So these are the various sample questions which need to be asked before designing
any kind of relief system.
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Now where to install those reliefs? The all pressure vessels requires relief, including reactors,
storage tanks, towers, drums, et cetera, so you need to locate all those pressure vessels. All
low-pressure storage tanks require the pressure and vacuum relief for normal operation that is
pumping in-out, tank breathing vacuum generation due to condensation. Measures should also
be taken to sustain emergency events such as fire exposure, operational error, et cetera.
Blocked-in sections of cool liquid-filled lines such as lines that are exposed to heat such as the
sun or refrigeration, they needs the relief.
The positive displacement pumps, compressors, turbines, they need the relief on the discharge
side of dead head protection. Vessel steam jackets are often rated for low-pressure steam.
Reliefs are installed in jackets to prevent excessive steam pressures due to the operator error or
regulator failure. The piping that maybe over pressurised due to the operational error,
sometimes vessel jackets are also considered as a separate vessel and hence requires relief.
790
Now, in this particular module we have discussed a brief introduction about various relief
devices. We have discussed about various aspects of overpressure, and for your convenience
you may have a look of these references which are enlisted in this slide. Thank you very much.
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Lecture 34
Type of Reliefs
Now welcome to the new module of this Relief, in this particular module we will discuss the
various types of reliefs. Let us have a look that what we had studied previously. We have gone
through the relief concepts, what is the relief etc.
We discussed about the various sources of overpressure. We had a discussion about the defense
mechanism, we analyzed the pressure temperature curve for various runaway reactions. We have
discussed about the guidelines for the relief pressure along with the methodology of for the safe
installation of various relief devices. We had a brief discussion about the installation and a
location of various reliefs.
792
Now in this particular chapter, in this particular module, we will discuss the relief types and we
have will understand that various type of relief devices and various mechanisms.
Now a pressure relief valve is safely designed to protect the pressurized equipment or system
during an overpressure event or in the event of vacuum. Now an overpressure event is a
condition in which the pressure inside the system increased beyond the specified design pressure
or MAWP, Maximum Allowable Working Pressure. Now if not relieved this can damage the
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system property and personal. So similarly an unwanted vacuum or under pressure is also
dangerous for the system.
Now the type of relief devices chosen depends upon the material to be handled, this is very core
issue. The material can be liquid, gas, mixture of liquid and gases, solids and corrosive materials.
So you have to choose the appropriate relief device based on this particular material. The
material may be vented to the atmosphere and if it is not costly and does not possess any threat to
the atmosphere, it may be vented to containment system scrubber, flare, condenser, incinerator,
etc for further handling. So this is again a very crucial issue.
794
Now in engineering terms, the type of relief device is specified on the basis of the details of the
relief system, what are the process conditions involved in that particular process? What are the
physical properties of the relieved fluid? So these are the things which we need to be addressed
(in) while designing the proper relief device. Now based on this particular aspect, different type
of relief devices or a relief valves are designed. The reclosing type of pressure relief valve is one
of them.
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Now the relief valve is primarily for the liquid service. The relief valve is gradual lift pressure
relief device actuated by inlet static pressure. Now the relief valve liquid only that is the
specified now we are discussing the liquid only, the relief valve begins to operate at a set
pressure, the definition of set pressure we have already discussed in previous module. The
opening pressure can be adjusted by changing the load on the spring. This valve reaches the full
capacity within the pressure reaches 25 percent over pressure if it is set at 25 percent. The valve
closes at the pressure returns to the set pressure.
Now if we discuss about the safety valve for the gas service, a safety valve is a rapid opening or
pop-up action pressure relief valve actuated by inlet static pressure. A discharge nozzle is
sometimes used to direct the high-velocity fluid towards the valve seat. Now after the blowdown
of the excess pressure the wall reseats to the original position below the set pressure.
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So safety valves are classified according to the lift of disc and bore of the wall. So based on this
particular aspect, there are various type of safety valve, one is that low lift safety valve. Now in
this particular low lift safety valve disc lifts automatically such that the actual discharge area is
determined by the position of the disc. Second is the full lift safety valve, the disc lift
automatically such that the actual discharge area is not determined by the position of the disc.
Another one is the full bore safety valve, no protrusions in the bore that can restrict or work as a
controlling orifice or to reduce the flow from the valve.
797
The safety relief valve is used for liquid and gas service, the safety relief valve function as a
relief valve open in proportion to the overpressure for liquid and a safety valve that is open by
pop-up action for the gases system and the (safety revolve) safety relief valves they are classified
as the conventional one, the pilot operated, the balanced bellow, the power actuated, the
temperature actuated. So based on these two aspects like that liquid and a gas service we can
classify as for the following 5 different types.
798
Now here, you can have a look of about the classification stream, these are the relief devices they
are further divided into the spring operated one and the rupture disc one. Now spring operated
one again they are further classified in two aspect, the conventional and the balanced bellow.
So let us have a look of one by one, the conventional spring-operated valves. So if you look the
typical component of spring-operated valve. Now this is the best example is the spring operated
valve. Sometimes they are used in the boilers. Now the spring this control the position of the
disc. Now this is the spring, the inlet nozzle connected to the (node) connected to the nozzle to
be protected this one, the outlet one, the pressure adjustment screw that is the set pressure
adjusting screw which from which you can change the pressure or tension on the spring. The
movable disc, this is the movable or C-disc here, this controls the flow through the nozzle.
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Now while considering the operation, the inlet pressure exerts a lifting pressure on the spindle,
this one, the lifting force is reacted against the downward force of the spring because of based on
the spring constant, spring exerts this downward force. Now if the inlet pressure is increased to
the point where the total upward pressure overcomes the spring force like this, then the valve
opens and when the valve opens then the pressure or the fluid may come out from this zone to
this one. So we conclude that the set pressure is proportional to the pressure drop across the seat.
800
So these valves are appropriate when no back pressure exist on the discharge side or when the
back pressure does not alter the set pressure and the performance of the valve known as beyond
limit. Now with increase in the back pressure downstream of the valve, the set pressure will also
increase hence the valve may not open at a correct pressure.
Now additionally, the while discussing the conventional spring-operated valve additionally the
discharge is proportional to the pressure difference across the seat. So hence the increase in the
801
back pressure hinders the flow through the valve. Now practically they can be used without any
problem in case of atmospheric discharge. Now there are two type of conventional spring
operated valve, Open Spring Bonnet also, we used for the liquid or places where the fluid must
not be spread outside, the Closed Spring Bonnet the influence of back pressure is negligible.
Now leakage between the valve, seat and disc is called the simmer which typically occurs about
at about 95 percent of the set pressure. Now simmer free operation can also be possible with the
proper valve maintenance, selection of a better seating type and in better conditions. Now for
example, the remember when food is being prepared in pressure cooker at your home, you can
easily observe the simmer before the pressure relief device pops up, so you may experience that
there is leakage of steam around the gasket or around the vessel.
802
Now there are certain things related to the advantages of these conventional spring operated
valve. So it is most reliable type of relief device if properly sized and operated. Now these type
of devices are also suitable due to its versatility of use, it can be used in both vapor gas only as
well as multi-phase systems. When we are having the advantage, there are certain disadvantages
also associated with these conventional spring-operated valves.
The relieving pressure is affected by back pressure and susceptible to chatter, that is the rapid
opening and closing of valve. Now if built-up pressure is too high, now sometimes misalignment
of valve seat failure in worst-case mechanical failure of valve may result due to chattering. So
this is the disadvantage associated with the conventional spring operated valve.
803
Now there are various reasons because we have discussed about the chattering. So there are
possible reasons for the occurrence of chattering. So we you can have a look of those reasons.
The spring relief device requires at least 25 to 30 percent of maximum flow capacity to maintain
the valve seat in open position. Oversized valve or improper valve handling may also lead
towards the chattering. Sometimes excessive inlet pressure drop and excessive buildup of back
pressure in relief system may also result chattering.
804
Now second is, the Balanced-Bellow or BB valves. Now this is you can have a picture of this
balanced bellow valves bit similar to the spring operated or spring actuated valve. So when
variable or unpredictable back pressure exist inside the system, valve disc balancing become
necessary. So in conventional spring-operated valve if the spring bonnet is, this one is the
bonnet, now if spring bonnet is vented to discharge the back pressure add with the spring
pressure through the whole surface of the disc retainer. Now balanced bellows are used when
the total back pressure that is the superimposed plus built up. So the total back pressure does not
exceed the 50 percent of the set pressure.
Now the conditions where the superimposed back pressure is variable these balanced bellow
valves are suggested to be installed. So the balanced valves are designed in such a way to
exclude the unbalanced area from the effect of back pressure.
805
Now the bellows, these are the bellows you can see these are the bellows. Bellows situated on
the back side of the valve seat function in such a way to maintain the atmospheric pressure on the
side of the seat. So hence, balance bellow valve will always open at the desired set pressure. This
is the plus point of this balanced bellow valve. However, the flow through balance bellow valve
is also proportional to the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the wall. So this
result in the reduced flow of with increase in back pressure.
806
The area of bellows nearly equals the nozzle seat area, this one, the bonnet is vented to ensure
that the bellows are at the atmospheric pressure and it also provides an indicative sign that the
bellows or piston begin to leak. The bellows length is sized to allow the valve lift without being
compressed too much. The bellows also restricts the contact of process fluid from spring of the
valve. Now this is advantageous in case of handling the corrosive fluid which can be, which can
deteriorate the spring progressively.
So there are several advantages and disadvantages associated with this balanced bellow valve.
The advantage, let us have a look of advantages that relieve pressure is not affected by the back
pressure. Now it can handle high built-up back pressure and also can handle the corrosive fluids.
Now there are several disadvantages. Now this bellow is susceptible to fatigue or rupture, it may
cause a problem. It may release the flammable or toxic fluid to atmosphere if not, if ruptured
automatically. Now it requires a separate venting system, so these are the several disadvantages;
although these advantages may be corrected if it is being used in due course of time.
807
Now another relief device is called the rupture disc or bursting disc. Now these are the specially
designed to rupture at specified relief set pressure and most common is your domestic pressure
cooker safety valve. Now it is usually consists of calibrated sheet of metal usually less than 0.05
mm thickness. Now this is designed to rupture at a well specified pressure. Now here you can see
that this one, now here if pressure rises and if it crosses the set pressure then it ruptures and it
vent into the atmosphere. Now, usually this disc has its dome with the direction of bursting
pressure, this one you can see, they are used alone in series or in parallel to spring loaded safety
valve (())(16:07).
808
Now the ring holding the disc on the vent side is made thicker than the dome in order to protect it
later. Now here, there is a ring. Now this can be made from a variety of the material including
exotic corrosion-resistant material etc. Now some other type of disc used for the general
application include composite slotted disc, reverse bulking disc.
Now let us have a brief discussion about the composite slotted disc, this consists of a main disc
(where) which is slotted to burst. Now slotting allows the disc to made from thicker material
809
which made it less liable to fatigue a protective membrane made of plastic or polymer or metal is
also supported over it to give the protection against corrosion.
Now we have a reverse bulking disc. Now a reverse bulking disc has its dome in opposite
direction of the bursting pressure. At burst pressure the dome of the disc reverses and it cut by a
knife on the downstream side. Now these discs are 3-4 times thicker than the conventional one
which we have discussed earlier.
810
Now an important problem with the rupture disc is the flexing of metal as process pressure
changes. So if the process pressure fluctuating then there may be a problem of flexing of the
metal. So flexing could lead to the premature failure if the pressures below the set pressure. So
this is you may term as the disadvantage. For this reason some rupture disc systems are designed
to operate at pressure well below the set pressure. So this is the crucial aspect.
In addition, vacuum services may cause the rupture disc failure if the relief system is not
specifically designed for the service. Now another problem with the rupture disc system is that
once they open, they remain open. You need to replace those discs. So this may lead to the
complete discharge of the process material. So this particular aspect need to be addressed while
you are using or you are adopting this rupture discs. So sometimes because the all material or
everything is exposed to the atmosphere or a the volume in question, so it may also allow to
enter the process air or it may allow the air to enter the process leading to the possible fire and
explosion. So this is again a very important thing.
811
Now to sometimes to prevent this problem, rupture discs are available with embedded wires that
are cut when the disc ruptures and this can activate an alarm in the control room to alert the
operator, so that they may be aware about the emergency that or they may be aware that rupture
disc burst. Also when the rupture disc rupture, the pieces of the disc may become dislodged,
creating potential downstream plugging problem and sometimes if the metal is reactive it may
lead to the runaway reaction or it may catalyze the reaction which is under the process. So,
recent advances in the rupture disc design have minimized this particular problem.
812
Now these rupture discs are available in much larger size than the spring operated relief valve
with commercial sizes available up to several feet in diameter. These ruptured typically cost less
than the equivalently sized spring-operated relief valve and moreover the maintenance and other
things are on the lower side for these rupture discs compared to the spring operated relief valve
where you need to perform the regular maintenance.
813
Now there are certain combined assemblies. (The) these the rupture discs are frequently installed
in series in the spring loaded relief. Now to protect an expensive spring-loaded device from a
corrosive environment because, these spring-loaded devices are very much expensive. Now to
give the complete isolation, when handling extremely toxic chemicals and sometimes because
the spring-loaded relief may weep at the time when you are using those toxic chemicals. Now to
give the absolute isolation when handling the flammable gases. Again, this is very important.
Sometimes they used to protect the combined assemblies to protect the relatively complex part of
a spring-loaded device from reactive monomer that could cause plugging and sometimes the
combined assemblies reused to relieve the slurries that may plug the spring-loaded devices. So
they are having a variety of uses. So when rupture discs (disc) are used before a spring-loaded
relief device, a pressure gauge is usually installed between these two devices. The telltale gauge
is an indicator that shows when the disc ruptures. So they are having against (done by) proper
arrangement for indicating that when this particular disc ruptures.
814
Now let us have a discussion about the vacuum relief valve. These are the simple vent can also
provide protection against vacuum for home applications. So our home water storage tank
sometimes or sewage tanks they are fitted with the kind of simple vent. Now industrial tanks
which store various precious or toxic chemicals and hydrocarbons cannot use such vents. Now if
used the component compound released maybe odorous, toxic or potential hazardous. Now to
avoid such kind of a release, special vacuum valves are used.
815
Now the pressure vacuum relief valve they are designed to maintain a tight seals until system
pressure or vacuum exceeds the set pressure of the valve. So when the over pressure occurs the
pressure lifts the disc just like safety valve allowing the vapors to pass and the when vacuum
occurs the vacuum lifts the disc and let the air inside to break the vacuum. Now this is termed as
(the) breathing of tank.
Now let us have a discussion about the pilot operated pressure relief valve. So when back
pressure is more than 40 percent of the set pressure, the pilot-operated relief valve is used. This
is a very common practice. Now these valve consists a pilot valve or a control pilot, a main valve
or a diaphragm-operated disc, a pilot tube, the dome, a disc or piston and a seat. The volume
above the piston is called the dome. Now this type of valve is a self-contained system and they
do not require any external power or a pressure source. Now it operates using the system
pressure and a control, the actuator pressure to either open or close the main valve.
816
Now this is the typical figure of pilot-operated pressure relief valve in open and closed system.
Now this is the open condition, so when fluid passes through this way and this one is the closed
one. So you can see all the things which we have discussed in the previous slide, they are here.
So under normal operating conditions, the pilot allows the same pressure which is acting
downward against the actuator or upward against the seat pallet into the piston chamber. Now
since the actuator has a large area then the seat pallet, the net force is downward which will press
817
the pallet against the seat and thus keep the main valve closed. So while the pilot and the main
valve are closed there is no bleeding of fluid to the atmosphere.
So when the internal pressure of the system rises the pilots set point, the upward force in the pilot
sense the chamber will overcome and the downward spring force to lift the pilot is stem. So as
the stem lifts, it opens the pilot seat to allow the flow through the pilot and (out) to the
atmosphere. So if fluid is flammable or toxic then pilot discharge get mounted to the main valve
outlet for channeling the collection unit, so that it cannot go into the atmosphere for the creation
of further problem.
818
Now as the fluid passes through the pilot, it decreases the pressure downstream to the orifice
hence decreases the actuator pressure. Now this reduces the downward pressure on the seat pallet
which keeps the main valve closed. So hence after certain pilot, at certain point the main valve
start opening. So the amount of opening of main valve directly depends on the system over
pressure and it opens completely at the (approx) or you can say, the approximately 10 percent of
over pressure.
819
So, there are several advantages associated with this pilot operated pressure relief valve, the
system operating pressure can be adjusted up to 5 percent of the set pressure without danger of
increased seat leakage to the main valve. They reduced the cost for the larger valve size. Valves
can be set to open fully at set pressure and closed with a very short blow down. The pilot
operated valves they are used in clean, low pressure services.
So while we have several advantages there are several disadvantages for this pilot operated
pressure relief valves. They are not useful for dirty or a fouling services due to the plugging of
the pilot valve. The limited number of valve sizes are available and can be used up to 800 Kelvin
temperature even by using the modified versions. The vapor condensation can result to liquid
accumulation above the piston and that may cause the valve to malfunction. So these are the
several disadvantages of these valves.
820
Now there are several temperature activated relief valves. So these valve can be set open or a
closed as per the temperature data, which is readily available. The opening and closing is
achieved by using actuator and a control system. So these type of valve always control the
process variables that is temperature that directly effects the rate of reaction. The action can be
taken in early stage as compared to the pressure activated relief valve. So the lower release of
fluid is due to early detection.
821
Now these walls are very useful for handling two-phase fluids as (there) these are, these fluids
are directly depends upon the temperature. So use of highly engineered devices such as sensors,
processors and valves are required and care must be taken while using such designs. Online
functioning of data is also possible through such devices. The thermal relief valves are provided
on cooling services where the system can be locked in by isolating valves. So in this particular
module, we have discussed various classification of those relief devices.
822
The advantages and disadvantages associated with these devices and for further study you can
have a look of these references which we have already enlisted in this particular module. Thank
you very much.
823
Indian Institute of Technoloy, Roorkee
Lecture 35
Relief Scenario
Welcome to the next module of Relief. In this particular module which is as the name implies that
we will discuss about the Relief Scenario.
Now, have a look that what we had studied in the previous module. We had the discussion about
the concept of relief. What is the different subsets of this relief? We had a discussion about the
location of relief system to be employed and the previous module we have discussed the various
type of relief system applicable in the chemical process industry. Now, in this particular module,
we are going to discuss about the introduction to relief scenario. What kind of different scenario
are there? How we can handle all those things? So we will discuss about these relief scenario in
this particular module.
824
Will have a definition of overpressure scenario as an example, how to acquire the data for various
relief sizing, this is again a very core issue which we are going to discuss in this particular module.
How we can control the scenario? That is the controlling scenario aspect. We are going to discuss.
Will understand about the relief sizing through example. We will have a couple of example in this
particular module and a subsequent module. So, we will discuss about all those things in this
particular module. Now, first thing is that, what is a relief scenario? We must know because before
we address this particular problem.
825
So the standard definition of relief scenario is a description of one specific relief event. Now,
usually each relief event or each relief has more than one relief event and the worst-case scenario
is the scenario or event that requires the largest relief vent area. So this is the standard definition
of a relief scenario. Now, the worst case is because we will frequently use this worst-case
terminology and in the previous definition we have already discussed the worst case scenario. So
the worst cases are a subset of overall developed scenario for each relief. So you must remember
this particular line in subsequent study.
826
Now, question arises that how to define the overpressure scenario? So for each set of process
equipment, there can be multiple scenario which may result in various kind of over pressure and
sometimes because of the process requirement, sometimes because of the certain failures there
may be scenario of overpressure. So, a complete P&ID diagram is essential tool for identification
of these potential scenario. It provides you a very helpful tool.
Now, evaluation of relief scenario must be performed exhaustively for various mode of operation
rather than the normal operation of startup and shutdown. So the proper knowledge of P&ID
diagram is extremely important while you are evaluating the relief scenario. So after determining
the potential scenario, the next step is to determine the credible scenario.
827
Now, a scenario that involves a single failure is called the credible scenario. So while we are
considering different subsets this particular recordable scenario gives a very good impetus to the
analysis. Now a scenario having multiple independent failure are typically not considered for
sizing of individual relief device. So, therefore, the credibility is also the function of probability
and consequences. Now, we can do the risk assessment through a various modes, one is the layer
of protection analysis and sometimes it is referred as LOPA then we may have a hazard and
operability analysis referred as the HAZOP. We may have a fault-tree analysis sometimes referred
as a FTA then we may have a failure mode and effective analysis FMEA.
828
Now, it is possible that no cause for over pressure can be identified for a particular piece of
equipment installed in a given process. So, ASME boiler American Society for Mechanical
Engineers, so they have developed the various codes. So ASME boiler and pressure vessel code
section 8 suggests that all pressure vessels, all pressure vessels to have relief valve installed
regardless of whether there are any credible overpressure scenario or not? So, it is mandatory for
all boiler and that is why in Indian context we are having the separate boiler certification code.
829
Now, next aspect is that acquiring data for various relief device sizing. So, acquiring data needed
to determine the required relief flowrate and a required relief area for each scenario. So we have
developed a scenario, then we must know or we must acquire the relevant data for devising, for
relief device sizing. Now, there are a couple of examples like scenario 1 is the control valve failure.
Now for this the data required that is the flow coefficient, upstream pressure, etc. So once you
determine all these things then the flowrate calculation. So if over pressure is caused by centrifugal
pump just for the sake of an example then again the data required is the pump curve, impeller size
or other classification or statistical data for that centrifugal pump.
Then you need to require the calculation, perform the calculation of relief area and once you are
intended to go for this one, then the data required are heat capacity, what is the heat capacity of
the fluid in question, then the density, the vapor pressure, the heat of vaporization so various
(thermo) or other thermodynamic data?
830
Then we may have to look into the single phase or a two phase flow. Now, it is very essential to
determine whether the material entering to the relief device is under the single phase or a two phase
operation or it is a single phase or a two-phase fluid. Now, chances for getting two phase fluid
increases when there is a chemical reaction involved or something is going on which is in the
intermediate phase, there may be chances of fire exposure, superficial velocity in the narrow
diameter vessel, then there may be chances of phase transformation. Then, the foamy materials,
surfactant containing materials and highly viscous material they are more likely to have two phase
flow.
831
Then we have to discuss about the controlling scenario. Remember, whenever we are having the
larger area then the controlling scenario come into the picture. So in case of two phase (flow) fluid
vapor phase scenario is generally controlling rather than liquid phase scenario, even if liquid have
higher flow rate than the vapor one.
Now, let us have a couple of example for the relief event. Now, a pump is dead-headed, the pump
relief size to handle the full pump capacity at its rated pressure. Now the same pump relief is in
832
line with a nitrogen regulator, the relief sized to handle the nitrogen if the regulator fail, so this is
one of the example. Now if the same pump is connected to the heat exchanger with the live stream,
the relief is sized to handle steam injected into the exchanger under uncontrolled condition. So you
can analyze all these three things when the pump is same but the media is different. So, if the steam
regulator failure, then this is a list of scenario of one specific relief. Now remember the relief is
same, the pump is same but the media is different.
Another is the polymerization reactor with a safety relief. Now, here you are having a
polymerization reactor with monomer, the quantity is given that how much the flowrate, this is a
valve. Now steam injection, the cooling water out, the cooling water in, so you are having 1, 2, 3,
4 different media, there is an steam trap. Here the nitrogen purging is given to it and this particular
reactor is operating under vacuum.
So the cooling water outlet is this one, so and this one is the cooling water in. So it is quite simple,
you are having one polymerization reactor with the monomer specified quantity of the monomer,
this is the steam heated with the cooling water as a cooling media. Obviously, we are assuming
that this is an exothermic reaction. It is equipped with the different pumps and steam traps.
833
Now this is the relief scenario for this particular polymerization reactor. Now if you go for this
particular reactor, this is the PSV 1A and PSV 1B (V), these are the safety valves, different safety
valves. Now vessel full of liquid and pump p1 is accidentally actuated, this may be one scenario.
Sometimes it may happen that the cooling coil is broken and water enters at around this particular
specific quantity and this particular pressure.
Sometimes it may happen that the nitrogen regulator, this one, the nitrogen regulator fails giving
the critical flow through one in line. Sometimes it may happen that loss of cooling because we are
834
having two cooling jackets, two cooling devices. So sometimes it may happen that the loss of
cooling during the reaction then it may proceed towards the runaway reaction. Another scenario,
the relief identification is the PSV 2, now valve 1 is accidentally closed.
Now, the system needs relief for this particular quantity at this one because this is operating
requirement. Then another scenario that confined water line is heated with 125 PSIG steam here
you can see this is valve 1. Another PSV 4 is that nitrogen regulator fails giving the critical flow
through 0.5 inch line this one. Now the other reactor one scenario will be relieved via this PSV-1.
Another scenario is the PSV-5 that water blocked inside the coil, sorry, see these are the coils. So
water blocked inside the coil and heat of reaction causes the thermal expansion. So these are the
various relief scenario.
Now in this table only three relief have the multiple scenario. Now you can see, the three reliefs
have the multiple scenario that require the comparative calculation to establish the worst case, the
other three reliefs have only a single scenario. Therefore, they are again the worst case scenario.
835
So while we consider the relief sizing calculation using the engineering assumptions are usually
not accepted because we are having a practical scenario. So the manual provided usually by
American Petroleum Institute, API, recommended the practice for sizing. The selection and
installation of various pressure relieving system in various refineries. So we have given one
reference for this API part 1 and which is widely used for sizing relief devices in various chemical
process industries. Remember refineries they are working under the extreme conditions. Now
special deflagration or sometimes referred to as a subsonic combustion. This deflagration tools
they are utilized for acquiring data of relief sizing.
836
Now, next thing is that the calculation of a runaway reaction. So usually runaway reactions results
in two-phase flow, the collection of special data regarding runaway reactions are also required. So
the quality and the scope of these data depends on what kind of process you are using. Now various
calorimetric tools used for characterization of runaway reaction. Now, these are like Automatic
Pressure Tracking Adiabatic Calorimeter APTAC. Now, Reactive System Screening tools are
SST, Accelerating Rate Calorimeter ARC, Vent Size Package VSP.
837
Now there are several working principles involved in these sizing. Now, one is the heating mode
that is the fixed incremental heating at a specified specific temperature that is the step wise
procedure. So, the initiation of exothermic reaction is observed in each incremented temperature,
this is for the data collection. Now, if no reaction is initiated, then the temperature is increased to
the next step. So this is the heating mode methodology. Sometimes you may have a fixed
temperature rate, so the calorimeter observes the higher rate then identifies the initiation of
exothermic reaction. So for all, for nearly all type of listed calorimeters in the mode of operation
is almost similar.
Now, the result obtained under this, the maximum self-heat rate, you may have to discuss the
maximum pressure rate, the reaction on set temperature and the temperature pressure relation
usually as a function of time.
838
So, whenever we perform the sizing of liquid relief, we are required various set of data that the
volumetric discharged flow rate through the relief device that depends on the opening of the relief
device. What is the set pressure of that relief device? What is the due consideration of the
overpressure in question or were pressure in the process? And we need to consider back pressure
especially for BB valves.
839
So while performing the calculation for sizing of liquid relief, we have already discussed in the
previous lecture of various source model of liquid through different openings or holes or orifice.
The similar calculations have been performed for relief sizing of liquid. So the basic formula is
almost same. Now, here we have the average discharge velocity that is
2𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
𝑢 = 𝐾0 √
𝜌
and the mass flow rate, which we have already discussed in the separate modules earlier, that is
𝑄𝑚 = 𝜌𝑢𝐴 = 𝐴𝐾0 √2𝜌𝑔𝑐 𝑃𝑔
So the discharge area you can calculate by calculating the average velocity. It is a normal fluid
dynamics phenomena, the average velocity and substituting it to the mass flow rate equation. Now
this K naught is the discharge coefficient for the preliminary sizing, this can be assumed to be at
0.65. So adjustment for the back pressure and velocity correction can be done by replacing K0 with
K, where
K = K0 .Kw .Kv
840
So all in the multiplication factor where Kw is the correction factor for back pressure and Kv is the
correction factor for viscosity. So Kv is equal to 1 if your Reynolds number is greater than 16000.
841
Now this plot shows the back pressure correction factor relation. Now here in the X-axis we are
having the back pressure correction factor that is Kw and here the percentage gage back pressure
that is Pg in percentage. So you can calculate and you can have a look while you require the back
pressure correction factor over this particular equation.
Now, another is the viscosity correction factor relationship here this particular standard curve is
with respect to the Reynolds number and viscosity correction factor Kv, so here in the X-axis we
842
are having the Reynolds number and here it Y-axis we are having the viscosity correction factor.
So while calculating the (or if you wish to have the viscosity correction factor Kv) then you can
calculate provided that you are having the knowledge of Reynolds number.
Then we can go for the sizing of for Gas Relief. So this is for the conventional spring-operated
relief valve in gas or a vapor service. So choked flow through orifice is assumed which can be
determined by this equation. Remember we have already discussed this choked flow in the
previous modules. Now, this is defined as
𝛾𝑔𝑐 𝑀 2 (𝛾+1)/ (𝛾−1)

𝑊 = 𝐾𝑑 𝐴𝑃1 √ ( )
𝑅𝑔 𝑇 𝛾 + 1
843
Now, here W, this W is the mass flow rate having the unit of mass per time. P1, this P1 is the
upstream relieving pressure, gamma is the heat capacity ratio, Rg is the ideal gas constant, T is the
absolute temperature and M is the molecular mass of gas. So these are the standard denotations of
this particular formula.
844
Now, for simplification that we can introduce the term C. Now
𝛾𝑔𝑐 2 (𝛾+1)/ (𝛾−1)

𝐶= √ ( )
𝑅𝑔 𝛾 + 1
So, area A can be calculated as I mean by introducing the compressibility factor Z in the preceding
equation which we are using here and Z is the compressibility factor, it is well-known phenomena
of chemical in your thermodynamics. So, Kd and Kb are the correction factor for discharge and
back pressure respectively. So A can be calculated by this particular equation,
𝑊 𝑇∗𝑧
𝐴= √
𝐶𝐾𝑑 𝑃1 𝐾𝑏 𝑀
845
So, conventionally we can calculate C by this particular equation by substituting the various values
in the previous equation. Now,
2 (𝛾+1)/ (𝛾−1)
𝐶 = 519.6√𝛾( )
𝛾+1
We have to note that for using this formula, the unit of W is in the ponds upon hour and P in Psia
and T is in the Rankine and M is in the pounds per pound mol. They must be put correctly and
everywhere while having such calculation the consistency of the unit must be remember.
So Pchoked is equal to 0.51 (528) x P
and P (in Psia) is equal to Pmax (in Psig) + 14.7,
so this type of consistency must be remembered always. So,
Pmax = 1.1 Ps for unfired pressure vessel
Pmax = 1.2 Ps for vessel exposed to fire
Pmax = 1.33 Ps for piping
So these are the three different scenario.
846
Then we must have a relationship of Kb for spring operated and BB valves. So, here we are having
two different plots for the Pb and Kb. Now, Pb is the percentage absolute back pressure is equal to
back pressure in absolute divided by set pressure plus overpressure in absolute multiplied by 100
and the Kb is the capacity with the backpressure divided by rated capacity without back pressure.
So once you are having this gamma, then you can or you are having the knowledge of this Pb then
you can easily calculate the Kb.
Similarly, for this particular aspect when we are considering the overpressure then like 20 percent,
10 percent over pressure, then again, the Kb can be calculated with the help of Pg that is Pg is equal
to percentage gauge back pressure equal to gauge back pressure gauge divided by set pressure into
100. So, if you are having these two things you can easily calculate either Kb maybe with respect
to over pressure or if you having the knowledge of γ.
847
So in this particular aspect, we have discussed the various relief sizing and for the further study,
you can always feel free to look into the various references which are enlisted in this particular
module. Thank you very much.
848
Lecture 36: Relief Sizing
Welcome to this module of Relief Sizing. So earlier we have studied about what is the
relief. What different kind of relief methodology available? We did the classification
of relief and we have discussed the various relief scenarios. In this particular chapter
we are going to discuss with the relief sizing.
Now, basically relief valves, they are designed to allow the flow of fluid from the vessel
whenever the vessel reach the preset pressure that is the (MAWP). As we have
discussed already that is the maximum allowable working pressure. Now this allows
that the removal of excess energy in a particle span of time from the vessel to prevent
further pressure built up.
Now usually the valve are designed to close when the pressure inside the vessel reaches
is the safe limit. So we have already the set pressure etc but the first step is sizing relief
valve is to determine the corresponding required mass flow rate that would sufficient
to release the overpressure in a specific interval of time.
849
Now the required orifice area for a relief valve or a ruptured disk is determined by this
particular formula.
𝑚̇
𝐴=
𝐾𝑑 𝐺0
Where m0 is the required relief mass flow rate and usual units are in terms of mass per
time, Kd is the discharge coefficient that account for the difference between the
predicted and actual mass flux in the valve and usually provided by the manufacturer.
And G0 is the theoretical mass flux having the unit of mass per unit area time.
850
So, whenever there is a need to calculate the G0 it can be calculated by the Bernoulli's
equation for the fluid and that is the
𝑃𝑛
𝑑𝑃
𝐺0 = 𝜌𝑛 √−2 ∫
𝜌
𝑃1
Where P1 is the pressure at the entrance of the valve, and Pn is the pressure at the nozzle
exit. So whenever you are using the nozzle, ρ and ρn is the fluid density at the pressure
P and Pn respectively.
851
So only standard sizes of all nozzles are available commercially and calculated area
would not expected to match the sizes so practically 10 percent as a safety factor is
applied to the calculated area then the closest matching size is selected. So we have
discussed previously that the relief area must neither be too large nor too small to omit
the chances of excessive flow or chattering in case of large size nozzle and
compromised over protection in case of a small size nozzle respectively. So this is
prima facie requirement.
852
Now let us see the oversized valve is selected then the actual flow rate due to the large
area will be significantly greater the desired rate for which the system is designed. So,
when the fluid flow through the piping system, due to higher flow rate, there will be
greater pressure drop along the entrance and exit point of the piping system. So this
excessive pressure drop can pose a serious effect on the stability of the system. So
usually those calculations, which we have discussed they are performed by steady state
flow through relief valve and the flow rate is taken 110 percent of the relief set of
pressure.
853
Now, whenever we are discussing this particular aspect, we should give a due care to
the nozzle model so for a specific processes there can be various relief scenarios that
constitutes the limiting case. Lots of thermodynamics, physical, chemical and reaction
kinetic data are involved while we go for these relief devices. To simplify the analysis
part various other assumptions are required which is discussed separately in the given
reference; that is “Industrial Hazard and Plant Safety” by Sanjoy Banerjee and we are
going to discuss these things in sequential manner.
So, first let us take the frozen flow. Now frozen flow is one of the extreme condition
for chemically reacting hypersonic flows. Now the reaction rates are so low and the
time required to complete the chemical reaction is so large that the composition of the
mixture at every point in the medium is completely determined by the mass fluxes, both
the convective as well as diffusive mass fluxes. Now the time required to complete the
chemical reaction is to larger than the time required for the fluid to pass unit distance
with the hypersonic speed.
854
Then we have to consider the equilibrium flow. This type of flow arise in the just
opposite condition to the frozen flow and can be said as the other end of extreme
condition where the time required to complete the chemical reaction is too small and
the time required for the fluid to pass unit distance with hypersonic speed. So these
equilibrium models can be used for such type of flow.
There are certain non-equilibrium flow, now this type of flow is usually seen in the
practice where is the time scale and the flow of scale are found in the same order. So
855
the modeling of non-equilibrium flow is difficult as no direct mathematical equation is
available as on date for the calculation.
There is a flashing flow when the evaporation of liquid start occurring due to the
pressure drop, sometimes we may have the higher pressure and the fluid moves from
the higher pressure zone to all of sudden to a lower pressure zone so this result due to
the thermodynamic and mechanical non-equilibrium by virtue of the difference in
temperature and velocity of the both phases. The rate of evaporation is effected by
amount of nuclei present on the liquid surface and superheating.
856
There is a concept of subcooled liquid, this liquid below its normal boiling point is
called subcooled or undercooled liquid. This is a well-known thermodynamic
phenomenon. So the total heat is accepted by liquid when boiling is consume to increase
the temperature of the liquid. So subcooled state is very helpful in refrigeration as it
allows the refrigerant to come in same phase for the next cycle. So, the energy
efficiency in that particular case can be improvised.
Now saturated liquid for a given pressure when the liquid and vapor phases of the fluid
are in equilibrium with each other then that state is called a saturation state and
sometime it is quite evident in the steam table that you maybe encounter the saturated
liquid concept. In a small addition of energy after the point led to gain the liquid a new
state known as superheated stage of the liquid and it turns into the vapor at constant
temperature.
857
Now here this particular diagram clearly shows that the different aspects of all
thermodynamic stages. Here the axis is the pressure and the volume sometime you may
experience this is the solid and vapor phase. Call it phase and this reflects the
temperature effect. So you may have the critical state, critical temperature whereas the
several constant pressure line etc. So by slight variation in any of the parameter
pressure, volume and temperature you may have changed in different type of like from
sub-cooled to saturated, saturated to superheated etc.
Now remember this type of diagram they are extremely useful for the performing
thermodynamic calculation because the pressure volume and temperature, these are
only things which you can measure directly, which you can alter directly otherwise rest
other things like internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, these are available in terms of
correlation so you have a liberty to alter all these pressure, volume and temperature in
due course of time.
858
So while we calculate or while we go for any kind of thermodynamic calculation we

need to take several assumptions. Now, let us have a look at those assumptions that
fluid below the two phase level, if one exist, is when mixed as is the vapor above it.
Now, if level reaches the relieve device then the vessel will be treated as well mixed.
Now, the discharge of stream is usually somewhat richer in vapor that implied by the
homogenized vessel assumptions. Such vapor disengagement in turn lead to the sum
what you can say the smaller relief devices.
859
Discharge line will be treated as if two-phase flow if it occurs in them, is homogenous
and in equilibrium. So at high discharge rates that occur during the emergency relief
this is reasonable particularly in the vicinity of the pressure maximum. So, for lines or
nozzles less than 100 nano metres in length, this assumption is not made but a semi-
empirical correction applied. The homogenous equilibrium assumption allows the
analytical solution for discharge rate that is therefore useful.
Another assumption is that the relative volatility of the vessel content does not change
during the release. Now this assumes boil off of one pre-dominant component.
Correction will be introduced where necessary to account for gases that my form during
the reaction. Now another assumption is that vapor density is much smaller than the
liquid density. This is true only at the relative low pressure and should be reassessed
when liquid density ρ f is less than or equal to 5 to 10 ρ g, that is the gas density.
860
Now another assumption that vapor-liquid equilibria can be calculated using the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation and the vapor/gas mixture can be treated as ideal. Then
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is one of the most fundamental equations in
thermodynamics. Now, these assumptions are 0 essential but simplify the formula and
are consistent with the level of the order of assumptions.
Now, thermo-physical properties can be assumed approximately constant at their

average values between set and maximum pressure conditions, this is another
assumption. So various models have been discussed by Ron and Darby and you can
have a look at those model and the reference is given at this particular model module,
so the few, but few of them are discussed in the next slide.
861
Now the first methodology is the Omega method. This method was derived for a single
component fluid and assumes that the density of the two-phase mixture can be
represented by a linearized equation of state. Equation of a state they are much popular
in thermodynamic because they represent the correlation of measurable to non-
measurable quantity.
Now, there are some point needs to be remembered: One is that the care should be taken
while calculating data as equation developed are based on the analytical evaluation of
the mass flux integral using an approximate linearize two-phase equation of the state
for the fluid density.
862
Another is that accurate thermodynamic and physical data is required. As these data are
used only at initial step of calculation while further calculation are based on the result
obtained from the first step which we have discussed in the previous slide. Now as this
method assumes a single-phase calculation the linearized equation developed may 0
give accurate two-phased density versus pressure data for some conditions due to the
extra pollution of data. So this is again a very important point. Now the accuracy
depends on the nozzle condition and nature of the fluid as well as to the pressure range
where nozzle is functioning.
863
Now, this method is used for fluids in between low to medium pressure range. Now,
this method is not at all feasible in the region near to the critical point. With this
particular point we have discussed in the previous diagram. Now, this method is also 0
useful for dense gases that condense easily in constant pressure region so we have
discussed the pressure region in that particular diagram.
No it is also not appropriate for mixtures with light component gases such as hydrogen
etc. The slip conditions and non-equilibrium calculations are 0 accounted in that
particular model. So appropriate correction need to be incorporated while we go for
higher calculation. Now this, the modified version of this method, this particular
method that is the omega method, API method is used for the calculation of multiphase
fluids.
Now, let us have a discussion about the API, the API stands for American Petroleum
Institute, so API method. For flashing liquid having the boiling point at normal
atmospheric pressure greater than 340 kelvin, the omega parameter is determined for
two-phased density of the fluid at two pressure P0 and P9. Now where P9 is equal to
0.9P0 and the constant entropy. So entropy remains constant throughout.
Now, there are some point need to remember while we use this API method. So number
one is that the choke pressure is estimated through omega method and this could
announce some error in the calculation. So, while we go for the precision and then we
864
need to due consideration for those errors. Now, second point is that the density of two-
phase fluid is calculated at two point using single thermodynamic properties.
The third point is that an appropriate property database must be used to determine the
density and quality that is represented by X at two separate pressure at constant entropy.
The ultimate point is that accurate thermo physical data is required since small variation
in the thermodynamic properties can have large effect on the density value.
Now this is again very crucial the reason is that sometimes small value variation in any
of the thermodynamic property may have a large impact on the density. So we need to
be very careful while using this particular aspect. The last point is that non-equilibrium
effects are not included in this particular model. So, we have to give a due consideration
for all those points while calculating this particular aspect.
865
Now next is the two-phase homogeneous model referred as TPHEM. Now this two-
phase homogenous model is a computer based model and the mass flux is evaluated
numerically by inbuilt program using density of liquid and gas/vapor and the mixture
quality at two or three different points that is P0, P9 and P2.
There are some point which we need to be remember while using the TPHEM method.
Number one is that this model can applied for frozen or flashing flows, as well as for
the sub-cooled or saturated liquids. Now variety of conditions such as the nozzle flow
for in viscid or viscous fluid can be done in the program.
866
The third point is that it includes slip parameter or non-equilibrium parameter. Fourth
is that multicomponent system can be handled in this particular program and the last
one is that choke point may not be accurately determined because the calculation is
based on density pressure fitting equations. So, once we have this particular equation
then we have to give due consideration of this last point.
Another model is the homogeneous non-equilibrium model that is HNE model. Now
this particular model is based on energy balance of the flashing liquid. We have
encountered, we have discussed the flashing concept in the previous slides. Now the
rapid generation from flash is assumed to result in choked flow and the mass flux is
evaluated from the definition of the speed of sound using the Clausius-Clapeyron
equation to relate the vapor density to the vapor pressure of the flashing fluid and the
thermodynamic properties.
So whatever thermodynamic properties are required we can use this particular model.
For slightly sub-cool liquid it has been observed that the actual mass flux maybe
assumed as 300 percent greater than the predicted by any of the model which we have
discussed previously.
867
So it is applicable for single phase, sub-cooled or two–phase mixture. Now it is

applicable for flashing but non-condensing flow conditions so be particular about this,
the use of this particular model. Now, it predicts effects of non-equilibrium conditions.
Usually it minimizes the amount of input data required for calculations.
Usually calculations are extremely easy to perform. The choked pressure is assumed to
be the saturation pressure, but this is not always appropriate especially for low relief
pressure and low sub-cooling. So while using this particular model you must know that
what is the concept of low sub-cooling and low relief pressure.
868
Now another method is Homogeneous Direct Integration method sometimes referred
as HDI method. Now this method involves generating multiple data points, P, ρ, X that
is a dryness factor, over an isentropic range of pressure from P0 to Pn using a
thermodynamic property database for a pure fluid and a flash routine for a multiple
component mixture.
So these data are used to evaluate the mass flux integral by numerical integration of
this particular equation. Now,
𝑃𝑛
𝑃𝑛
𝑑𝑃 0.5 𝑃𝑖+1 − 𝑃𝑖 0.5
𝐺0 = 𝜌𝑛 (−2 ∫ ) ≅ 𝜌𝑛 [−2 ∑( )]
𝑃0 𝜌 𝜌̅𝑖
𝑃0
Now this method can be extended to account for non-equilibrium effect for flashing
flow in short nozzle, so for flashing flow we can take L is less than 10 cm that is length.
The effect of non-equilibrium is to delay the development of flashing to pressure below
the normal equilibrium saturation pressure, so when saturation pressure of flashing
liquid is not completely developed then the quality factor that if X is actually lower
than that at the equilibrium that is Xe.
So we can represent this aspect by the following equation that is
1 𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 )
= +
𝜌 𝜌𝐺 𝜌𝐿
869
So if you take that L is less than 10 then
𝐿
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + (𝑥𝑒 − 𝑥0 )
10
Where L is having the nozzle length in centimeters.
This model is rigorous within the assumption inherent in the ideal nozzle equation and
the HEM assumptions and the precision of the property data, which you can have from
various handbooks. Now, it is universally applicable for all fluids under any or all
870
conditions, which are applicable for which we are having the property data available.
Now, the procedure, this particular procedure does not depend on whether the entering
fluid is cold liquid, sub-cooled flashing liquid, or condensing vapor or a two-phase
mixture whether or not the flow is choked.
So it is simple to understand and apply, obviously which is evident from the previous
calculation. Now, it is easily applicable to multicomponent system provided the mixture
property data are available for performing the required flash calculation over the
pressure range of interest, whatever it is given.
Now a process simulator using the property database can be usually generate data. The
calculation method is usually a simple and direct and is ideally suited to the spreadsheet
solution, so the method is more accurate than those above because no model
approximation for the fluid properties is involved.
871
Let us have a look about the sizing calculations. Now, sizing calculation we use this
certain set of equations. We are going through all those equations, which are important.
Now, if maximum allowable pressure is reached inside the vessel the volumetric rate
of vapor generation must be equal to the volumetric outflow through the relief device;
that is the rule of thumb. Now the outlook could be vapor or a mixture of liquid and
vapor.
Now, if QT is the total heat input per unit time and Hlg and ρg are the latent heat of a
vaporization, lg stands from liquid to gaseous system and ρg is the gas density, x is the
quality and sometime it is referred as dryness factor. Now G is the discharge mass flux
and A is the area of the orifice that is attributed to the relief device. Then
𝑄𝑇̇ 𝑥𝐺𝐴
= + (1 − 𝑥 )𝐺𝐴/𝜌𝑙
ℎ𝑙𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
872
Now, if let us take that x is equal to 1 that is all vapor is this chat through the nose and
that is there is no liquid fraction etc. The heat input can be through chemical reaction
or external heating, this is again given or sometimes we have to take the assumption.
Now, if alpha is the volumetric fraction of the vapor in the discharge line then
𝛼𝜌𝑔
𝑥≅
𝜌𝑙 (1 − 𝛼 ) + 𝛼𝜌𝑔
So, therefore, if we combine both the equation we get
𝑄𝑇̇ 𝐺𝐴
=
ℎ𝑙𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝛼𝜌𝑔 + (1 − 𝛼)𝜌𝑓
873
So, upon simplification
𝑄𝑇̇ [𝛼𝜌𝑔 + (1 − 𝛼)𝜌𝑙 ]

𝐴=
𝐺ℎ𝑙𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Now if you take alpha is equal to 1 that is for all vapor discharge then
𝑄𝑇̇
𝐴𝑔 =
𝐺ℎ𝑙𝑔
that is enthalpy from liquid to gaseous phase. Now for two-phase discharge this
equation can be simplified and if we take up early one assumption that is ρ1 is greater
than greater than ρg, then αρg can be summarized to 0
then this equation comes out to be
𝑄𝑇̇ (1 − 𝛼)𝜌𝑙
𝐴𝑙𝑔 =
𝐺ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑔
So, if we take Vlg is equal to the volume of vapor liquid mixture per unit mass then it
can be approximated to 1/ρf for this particular case. So we get
𝑄𝑇̇ 𝑣𝑙𝑔 (1 − 𝛼)𝜌𝑙
𝐴𝑙𝑔 =
𝐺ℎ𝑙𝑔
874
Now, let us understand the concept of Zero Over Pressure. In this particular aspect of
the system can be set at zero over pressure if the pressure inside the vessel does not
cross the limit needed to the fully open valve. So at this condition all the calculation
will be performed at the set pressure and area of relief valve A0.
This can be calculated as if you take the condition of all vapor flow then
𝑄𝑇̇
𝐴0𝑔 =
𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑙𝑔
So we can calculate this one. Now, if you take the condition of two-phased discharge
then
𝑄𝑇̇ 𝑣𝑙𝑔 (1 − 𝛼0 )𝜌𝑙

𝐴0 =
𝐺𝑠𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑙𝑔
Where Gset is the discharge mas flux at set pressure.
875
α0 is the volumetric vapor fraction in the discharge at zero overpressure before

discharge and this is called as the freeboard volume fraction. Now, there is overpressure
number, it is the dimensional less number which can be defined as the ratio of the
energy that can be stored per unit volume of the vessel between set and maximum
pressure assuming no discharge. We may assume that there is no discharge at all.
So, it is
876
𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑚0 𝑣𝑙𝑔
𝑂∗ =
𝑉ℎ𝑙𝑔
So where this (𝑂∗ )is the overpressure number, V is the volume of the vessel, m0 is the
initial mass of the vessel, ΔT is the rise in the temperature inside the vessel and Cp is
the heat capacity of the liquid.
So if you take the relatively small pressure and temperature change then this equation
reduces to
∆𝑃 1 ℎ𝑙𝑔
≅
∆𝑇 𝑇 𝑣𝑙𝑔
Where T is the absolute temperature. It is in correlation with the Clausius-Clapeyron

equation.
877
Now, let us have a look about the Emptying Time Relationship. Now, the time required
to heat of the vessel to the maximum allowable temperature that is by ΔT will be
𝑚0 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
∆𝑡𝐻 =
𝑄𝑇̇
The time required, this is the time required for emptying the vessel would be
𝑚0
∆𝑡𝐸 =
𝐺𝐴
If we combine both the equations we get area in terms of temperature maximum.
878
And that is
𝑄𝑇̇
𝐴=
𝐺∆𝑇𝐶𝑝
So the ratio between this area and the area at zero pressure gives the value of
overpressure number. So we can redefine the overpressure number that is
𝐴0 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑚0 𝑣𝑙𝑔
𝑂∗ = 𝐴 ∗= =
𝐴 𝑉ℎ𝑙𝑔
Now, let us take the flow area of runaway reaction. Now, if q is the rate of heat
generation for runaway reaction then
(𝑞𝑚0 )𝑚0 𝑣𝑙𝑔

𝐴0 =
𝐺𝑉ℎ𝑙𝑔
𝑞𝑚0
𝐴= 0.5
ℎ𝑙𝑔 𝑉 0.5
𝐺[(𝑣 𝑚 ) + (𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇) ]2
𝑙𝑔 0
0.5
∗
𝐴0 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑚0 𝑣𝑙𝑔
𝐴 = = [1 + ( ) ]2
𝐴 𝑉ℎ𝑙𝑔
= [1 + 𝑂∗ 0.5 ]2
879
So these formula are very useful while relief sizing and care must be taken in terms of
unit consistency and use of proper data for given condition. Now little change in the
value can drastically change the calculated values and results to failure of the relief
work and this may be extremely catastrophic. So first thing must be in mind that we
must adhere with the consistency of the unit and we must use the proper data for
selection.
880
Now, in this particular module we had a discussion about the relief sizing. Different
type of model we have discussed and different type of equation we have developed for
the proper relief sizing. Now, if you wish to have a further reading there are references,
which are enlisted, in this particular slide. Thank you very much.
881
Prof. Shishir Sinha
Lecture 37: Hazard and Hazard Identification: Introduction
Welcome to this particular module which is related to the Process Hazard and Identification. In
the previous modules we have studied about the concept of Hazard, Risk and there are different
methodologies through which we can identify the process Hazard which is available at the
workplace. Now, in this particular module we are going to study with the various definitions
related to this hazard identification.
What is the hazard at workplace? How we can identify the specific hazard present at workplace
through a systematic methods? And we will study about the concept of Process Hazard checklist,
because checklist is extremely important while calculating the assessment or we are performing
the assessment of Hazard present at workplace.
882
So, let us discuss about some important definitions. Now, first thing is that what is safety?
Because ultimate aim is to have a process safe. The safety is the freedom of injury, damage or
loss of resources. Another is the hazard, although we have gone through the hazard definition in
the previous modules, but here is the more specific definition of hazard - The condition that can
result in or contribute to a mishap.
Now, it is the potential to cause harm, harm including ill health, injury or even fatality or damage
to the property, plant, product or the environment. Sometimes it may lead to the production loss
or increased liability. So, ultimately it will return, it will turn into the economic loss, whether we
consider all the aspect or an event.
Now risk, risk is the probability or a chance or occurrence of undesired event and the severity of
resulting consequences. Now, remember which we talked earlier that hazard is present
everywhere, even the wall may collapse, even the roof may collapse, even the chair on which
you are sitting and risk is the probability whether it will collapse or not. So in a simplified
manner you can analyze the hazard and risk.
883
Now, once we analyze this hazard and risk, there is a concept of Risk Assessment. That is the
process of Qualitative (analysis) risk categorization or Quantitative risk estimation. So that we
can analyze that what is the economic loss and what is the impact of that particular risk to the
plant and the environment associated. Now, Risk Management that is the process of risk
identification, risk assessment, risk disposition and risk tracking and control, the probability that
is the chance or the likelihood of occurrence of an event or a particular event.
The reliability that is the probability that an item will perform its intended function for a
specified mission or profile, so reliability may be attributed to the the different safety devices,
different process conditions etc. Mishap that is unintended event that can cause injuries, damage
or loss of resources.
884
So once we have gone through or we are acclimatized to all these definitions, let us have the look
about the hazard. This is not always identified until an accident occurs. So obviously when the
roof collapse, so you would not be able to identify the hazard unless it collapse. So essential to
identify the hazard and reduce the risk well in advance of an accident, that is the prima facie
requirement so that we can minimize the losses, you can minimize the loss in production and you
can minimize the economic aspect.
So, for each process in chemical plant you need to frame several set of questions and you must
have answer for all those questions. Now these sample set of questions are enlisted, that is what
are the hazards? What are the hazards present at your workplace? How you can identify those
hazards? Once the hazards are present then what can go wrong and how and what are the
chances that means you are calculating the risk and what are the consequences? Again, I am
giving back to the another example that if you are working in the plant or if you are working in a
particular room, maybe a chance of that the fan may collapse.
So it can go wrong because sometimes the pin which is holding that particular fan may may
corroded, maybe bended, anything else. So, what are the chances, it may fall down, it may fall
down on your head or it may fall down to an empty place. Then what are the consequences, the
885
consequences means you may get injury or not. So you have to you have to frame different set of
questions and you must give the answer of those questions.
Now, while categorizing the hazard, there are two (diff) type of basic category of hazard. One is
the Acute hazards; they are having an immediate and obvious impact that is for example risk of
falling or being wounded because of the slippery or wet floor that is acute hazard. There may be
chronic hazards having more hidden, cumulative or long-term impacts. For example workplace
bullying where the long-term impact result in the stress or other psychological injuries.
886
So, hazard generally fall into following six groups, so we have enlisted all those six groups. One
is the physical hazard that may be the slippery floor, object in the walkways, excessive noise, fire
etc. There may be certain chemical hazards that is gases, dust, fumes, vapors and liquid. There
may be some ergonomic hazards that may be attributed to the poor design of equipment,
workstation design sometimes postural or work floor problems, manual handling, repetitive
movement. Some hazards are attributed to the radiation that may be attributed to the microwave,
infrared, ultraviolet, laser, X-ray, gamma rays etc. sometimes while characterizing the various
chemical samples you may encounter these type of radioactive hazards.
And Psychological hazards maybe the shift work, stress, workload stress, dealing with the public
stress, harassment, threat of danger, discrimination. Sometimes constant low level noise, extreme
stress etc. There may be certain Biological hazards that may be the infection by a bacteria, virus,
fungi, parasites, through a cut, insect bite, or a contact with infected person or contaminated
object. Sometimes you may encounter with the contagious diseases etc.
887
Now, let us have some example of various hazards, so in the first aspect we are going to discuss
the some of the electrical hazards. So, they are attributed like shock, burns, overheating, ignition
of sometimes combustible, inadvertent activation, sometimes power outage, distribution of
backfeed etc. Sometimes it may be attributed for unsafe failure to operate, sometimes it may lead
to the explosion electrical, sometimes electrostatic charges built up etc. sometimes explosion of
electrical arc etc. So these are the certain hazards attributed to the electrical one.
888
Let us have a look of some Mechanical Hazards like sharp edge points maybe pinch points,
rotating equipment. Sometimes it may be attributed to the lifting weights, slide limit stops,
assembly sequencing, hinged access panel, how is the rated load enforced that is again a big
question, then reciprocating equipment etc.
There are certain examples of Pneumatic Hydraulic hazards like over pressurization, safe de-
pressurization, reverse installation, pipe vessel duct rupture, sometimes tank may burst because
of the overpressure. Then sometimes the pressurant leakage, sometimes implosion, mis-located
relief device that is why the location of relief devices are extremely important, the proper
location of relief devices are extremely important. Sometimes there may be chances of dynamic
pressure loading, the relief pressure may sometimes improperly set and it may be catastrophic.
Then back flow and across flow impact, accidental cross connection and so there are so many
Pneumatic Hydraulic hazards.
889
Now sometimes hazards maybe attributed to Acceleration Gravity hazards like loose object
translation, sometimes due to impact sometimes the falling objects may lead. Sometimes
inadvertent motion and fragmentation etc, so these are the hazards related to the Acceleration.
890
Then sometimes there may be certain examples of temperature related hazards that is the failure
of heat source or sink, sometimes hot and cold surface burns, pressure elevation that may
attributed to the temperature effect. Sometimes the vaporization of confined gas and liquid may
lead in the pressure enhancement, elevated flammability and velocity reactivity etc may cause
the Temperature hazard etc, sometimes freezing humidity, moisture etc. So these are the couple
of examples related to the Temperature hazards.
891
Now, we may look into the some Fire and the Flammability hazards like hazards attributed to
fuel, it may be one of the best examples that sometimes it is said do not play with petrol, do not
play with the diesel or any kind of thing because it may be extremely dangerous. Ignition source
sometimes it may lead to the certain oxidizers, there are certain propellants, radiation etc. So,
these are the certain things which are related to the Fire and Flammability Hazards.
There are certain examples related to the Radiation hazards. There are certain components like
laser, waveguide joints, different type of klystrons, then cavity resonators, antenna horns,
892
antenna farms etc. Because in past there are certain accidents they are attributed to these lasers.
Sometimes they are categorized in terms of Non-Ionizing and Ionizing one.
Non-Ionizing they are like laser, infrared, microwave, high frequency ultraviolet and Ionizing
one alpha, beta, neutron, gamma, x-ray etc. So specifically when you are using these types of
radiative assisted reactions or sometimes you are performing any kind of characterization
streams like UV spectro-photometry or laser guided spectro-photometry then definitely you have
to look into these type of hazards.
893
So, Workplace hazard also include the practices or conditions that release uncontrolled energy
like object that would fall from height that is potential or gravitational energy. Run-away
chemical reactions attributed to the Chemical energy, release of compressed gas or steam,
pressure, high temperature. Entanglement of hair or clothing in rotating equipment like kinetic
energy or sometimes contact with electrodes of battery or capacitor that is the electrical energy.
894
Now, let us have a look about the Process Hazard factors. There are so many factors involved in
the Process hazard; one is one or the you can say that foremost is Exothermic chemical reaction,
because the continuous release of the heat from the reactions. So in this case there is strong
possibility of reaction getting out of control that is sometimes attributed to the thermal run-away
reaction.
There may there are certain reactions those involve the Endothermicity that is clubbed under the
head of Endothermic reactions. So that could react due to an external heat source such as fire or
combustion or a fuel. That external heat source may be of any type of heat transfer mode. Next is
the Material handling and transfer, this accounts for the hazard involving the handling, transfer,
pumping, warehousing of the material.
Other is the enclosed or indoor process units, this accounts for the additional hazard where the
process unit preventing dispersion of the escaped vapors. Now sometimes you may have a
limited access for emergency equipment, this is again one of the factor because sometimes these
these emergency equipments may lead to the safer operation but you do not have any access to
approach of those emergency equipments and so this may be a process hazard factor.
Then drainage and spill, sometimes the inadequate design of drainage could cause a large spill of
flammable material adjacent to process equipment not only the flammable material sometimes
the toxic material may also gone through that drainage so better house-keeping is very essential
and if you are not keeping a better house-keeping then it means that it is contributing to the
process hazard factor.
895
Now, her there are various adverse consequences are listed and they are divided into three
different aspects like Human impact, Environmental impact and Economic impact. So Human
impact is listed the consumer injuries, the community injuries, sometimes the toxic or flammable
material may escape to the atmosphere and it may have a severe impact to the person those were
living in the vicinity of that particular plant.
Sometimes on-site personnel injury, sometimes unit personnel injury, sometimes it may lead to
the loss of employment because of the permanent disability etc. There may be certain
psychological effect because sometimes the accident or hazard may have impact on their
subconscious mind. So these are several human impacts.
Now, next is the environmental impact, now there may be chances of off-site (contain)
contamination, maybe attributed to the air, water and soil. Then on-site contamination where it is
again attributed to the air, water and soil, that means that they may have the adverse impact on
environment whether it is on-site or off-site. Then there are certain economic impacts like
property damage, fire may lead to the property damage.
Then inventory losses, there are several incidence where there is a huge impact on inventory
losses so this may create the (environment) sorry economic impact. Then production outage, the
896
reason is that whenever you lose your machinery, you lose the inventory, you lose the property
then definitely there will be a production outage. Then lost market share because when you are
out of production then definitely your product will not come out to the market, then you will lose
your market share.
The legal liability, the legal liability is attributed to equally attributed to the human impact as
well as the environmental impact because something if it releases to the atmosphere, worker or
any nearby person will get contaminated, then definitely you need to pay the legal compensation
or legal impact.
Then in the negative image, the negative image is again very important because when you (are)
you fail in your goal or you fail to provide the safer environment or fail to provide the safe
product to the market then definitely you may enjoy the negative image in the society as well as
your consumer as well as the workers.
Now, there are several examples of hazards and their effect, it is again listed in terms of three
aspect such as workplace hazard, example of hazard and example of harm caused. Like things,
knife cut it may lead to the cut, if you have a substance like benzene then it may produce the
leukemia or it may be create the carcinoma. Then material, there may be some mycobacterium
tuberculosis then it may lead to the health hazard. Source of energy, sometimes electricity it may
897
have electrical shock and sometime it may lead to death and the condition sometimes the
workplace conditions are not up to the mark.
One example is that wet floor, then you may slip or fall down. There may be a process like
welding, then metal fume fever and sometimes it the spark may create the flammability aspect.
Then again the practice sometimes the hard rock mining in that may create the problem of
silicosis, then behavioral problem like bullying, example the anxiety, fear, depression. So these
are the certain examples of hazard and their effects.
Now, let us have a look that what is the purpose of Hazard Identification and Control policy. In
the previous slides, we had the discussion that what kind of different hazards present at your
workplace and what is the impact to the society. So, the purpose of this particular procedure,
because there are so many variables in workplace and in and around, on-site or off-site. Then we
have to go for systematic process hazard identification and we must have a systematic control
policy.
So, the purpose of this procedure is to provide the procedure that so far as is reasonable,
practicable, integrates different type of identification, reporting and investigation of foreseeable
hazard related to the work activities and in consideration with the workers, the timely elimination
or minimization of risk to health and safety using the hierarchy of risk control. So you must
898
adopt the proper identification and control policy. Another objective or purpose is to ensure there
is a formal process of hazard identification and risk assessment which will effectively manage
the hazard that occur within the workplace.
Now, let us discuss about the Hazard Identification Protocol. Now hazard identification and risk
assessment are something combined into a general category that is called the hazard evaluation.
Now, risk assessment is sometimes called the hazard analysis, and this risk assessment procedure
that determines the probability which is frequently called the Probabilistic Risk Assessment
PRA. Whereas a procedure that determines the probability and consequences is called the
Quantitative Risk Analysis. So, Hazard identification can be performed independent of Risk
Assessment. So these two things are altogether independent.
899
Now, let us have a look of the Probabilistic Risk Assessment that is PRA. So this requires a
rigorous technical discipline, now the rigorous technical discipline that has been used in the
countless complex technological applications such as airline industry or nuclear power plant
because they are having string hazards.
Now this technological application to reveal design, operation and maintenance aspect, this will
lead to the safety and reduce the cost. So risk in PRA is feasible detrimental outcome of an
activity or action. Now the risk is characterized by two quantities that is the magnitude that is the
severity of the possible adverse consequences and second is the likelihood that is the probability
of occurrence of each consequences.
900
So the Probabilistic Risk Assessment usually answers three basic questions. One is the, what can
go wrong with the studied technological application or what are the undesirable starting event
leading to adverse consequences. Second is that what and how severe are the consequences,
impairments or the adverse consequences that the technological entity may be eventually
subjected to as a result of occurrence of the initiative. And third and the last basic question is that
how likely to occur these undesirable consequences or what are their probabilities or frequencies.
So you must answer all three basic questions in order to get the proper risk assessment.
901
So this, now question arises how can we formulize this process? So the PRA process is usually
as follows, first is the objective of risk assessment must be well defined, we must well define that
what is the objective of that particular risk assessment. Now associated with the objective there
may be certain unwanted consequences. So unwanted consequences of interest must be identified
and selected including items like degrees of harm to human that may be injuries, sometimes
illness, sometimes to the fatality or degrees of losses of a mission.
Then second is the familiarization with the system under analysis covering all relevant design
and operation and formation including the engineering and process drawing as well as the
operating and emergency procedures. Now, next to complete the set of important initiation event
that is the triggering of event or trigger event. For each series of mishaps leading to the end state
that must be identified.
902
There may be you need to perform certain uncertainty analyses, so these uncertainty analyses are
performed which then evaluates the degree, which evaluates the degree of knowledge or
confidence in the calculated numerical risk result. Sometimes Monte Carlo simulations are used
for this particular purpose. Now (sensivity) sensitivity analyses are performed which indicates
with that input changes are the analysis more sensitive to.
So after completion of this PRA, special techniques are often used to identify what let what lead
contributed to in that particular accident consequences. Last but not least it must be mentioned
that various type of data must be collected and processed for the use throughout the PRA
process.
903
Now next is the quantitative risk analysis that is the second part the formal and systematic
approach to estimate the likelihood and consequences of the harmful procedures and expressing
the results quantitatively as to risk to people, environment or in business. So this is the basic
aspect of this QRA. This assesses the robustness and validity of quantitative results by
identifying critical assumptions and risk driving elements.
Now usually studies are typically required for the construction and processing facilities, high-
pressure pipelines and storage facilities at important sites including LPG, LNG, etc. Now, this
contributes to improved decision making by highlighting the accident scenarios that contributes
most to overall risk.
904
Now, this the objective of Quantitative Risk Analysis study is to identify the hazard associated
with facility, to determine the potential frequencies and consequences of the identified hazard.
To determine the system availability of the protection system, to quantify the risk associated with
a facility that is the Risk Contours, Individual Risk per annum, potential loss of life (PLL) and
maybe by F-N plots. Now to suggest the recommendation, in order to reduce the risk of to
human life, assets, environment or business interruptions to as low as reasonably practicable.
905
So, let us adopt certain strategy for Hazard Identification, so before applying any strategy one
should ask the different questions, that is when is one required and how do I conduct one? The
process material characterization must be performed, identify the process hazards and hazardous
conditions, must understand the consequences and the extreme aspect, reduce, eliminate
substitute, prevent, or mitigate the hazard. Proper documentation, training and managerial
change must be performed.
906
Now there are certain information required for the Process Safety related information pertaining
to the hazard identification. You must be much aware about the materials, those who are present
at the workplace, potential chemical interaction or probable chemical reactions that may occur in
the due course of time. You must know the chemistry of the that desired chemical reaction so
you must aware about the conversion factor, you must aware about the yield, you must about,
you must know about the production of any side product, waste product, byproduct etc.
You must be much aware about the process variable and operating conditions like temperature,
desired reaction and possibility of any side or decomposition reactions or decomposition
products etc, pressure with respect to the gas gaseous and the vapor conditions. You must have a
composition of all material in question, you must have a composition of all product in question,
and you must have the recipe at your fingertips, what is the pH of your system.
You must identify any kind of upset condition present in the workplace. You must know the or
you must evaluate the thermal stability of your process, you must know that what kind of the raw
materials present at your workplace, what are the different additives required, what is the purity
etc.
You must know the catalyst available on site, what are the intermediates, intermediate products,
what are the waste streams and as a far as possible you must know the MSDS of all those
907
materials in question. So once you know that you have a knowledge about the MSDS then
obviously you will be aware about the material compatibility with other things. You must have
an incident review or you must be aware or you must learn about the incident reviews.
908
Now, once you have collected all these things, then question arises how to identify the hazards?
So, there are few things enlisted in this particular aspect that is you examine the similar existing
systems so you must have a review with you, review the previous hazard analysis for similar
systems. You must have a review of hazard, process hazard checklist and standards applicable to
global scenario and applicable to your country in question. You must have a review of operation
specifications and consider all kind of environmental factors. You must consider the human
machine interface and usage mode changes.
Then consider, you must consider the energy flow through the system, you must consider the
inherent hazardous materials obviously you may get the information through the MSDS. Then
consider the interaction between the system components and use and always use the
brainstorming in teams, because sometimes you may find couple of people who are well versed
in such type of system. They may give the proper information and they may give the useful
information. Now try to get the small scale testing theoretical analysis.
909
Now once you have gone through all these things you must identify the common sources of
hazards like sources and propagation path of stored energy in electrical, chemical or mechanical
form which we have already discussed. Sometimes mechanical moving parts may give a proper
information, the material and system incompatibilities, the useful information you may have
from MSDS. The nuclear radiation and the electromagnetic radiation that is infrared, ultraviolet,
laser frequencies, etc. The collision or subsequent problems of survival and escape, we must
have a fire and explosion data.
The toxic and corrosive liquid and gases escaping from containers or being generated as a result
of other incidents, you must know the deterioration in long term storage; you must have
knowledge about the noise and the biological hazards. Sometimes human error may play very
vital role so you must aware about those kind of human error in operating of the system.
Sometimes software errors they may cause severe accidents so you must aware to all those kind
of common sources of hazards.
910
Now, there are frequency classes in hazard identification, there are several frequent sometimes
with respect to the different levels so like frequent a level A, the specific individual item likely to
occur in the life of an item with a probability of occurrence greater than 10 to the power minus 1
in that life and inventory sometimes continuously experienced. Similarly, probable that is B will
occur several times in the life of an item with a probability of occurrence that is less than 10 to
the power minus 1 but greater than the power 10 to the power minus 2 in life, that will occur
frequently so that is the thing.
911
Occasional that is likely to occur sometimes in the life of an item with the probability of
occurrence less that 10 to the power minus 2 but greater that 10 to the power minus 3 in that
particular life. So the chance is that may that will occur several times. The remote that is D, the
unlikely to possible to occur in the life with the probability of occurrence less than 10 to the
power minus 3 but greater than 10 to the power minus 6 in that life.
So unlikely but can reasonably expected to occur. Then improbable, that is E, so unlikely, it may
be assumed occurrence, may not be experienced but with the probability of occurrence less that
10 to the power minus 6 in that life, that is unlikely to occur but there is a possibility.
912
(Refer Slide time: 34:57)
So, question arise that how we can control the hazard? Now the hazard you can control through
the through various methodology. First thing is that you must identify the hazard, then you go for
evaluation of risk and cost, go for the substitution, modification and sometimes it may happen
that you may go for the redesigning of that process, go for the application of remedy, have a
continuous monitory and then you evaluate the effectiveness of that particular hazard control
methodology. So this is the basic objective and the basic methodology of hazard control.
913
So in this particular module we have discussed about the basic definitions of the hazard
identification because ultimately (we) our main motive is to go for development of Process
hazard checklist, we have discussed different hazard control methodologies, different process of
hazard identification etc. In the subsequent modules we are going to discuss that how to evaluate
the process hazard checklist. Thank you very much!
914
Chemical Engineering
Professir Shishir Sinha
Lecture 38: Hazard Identification Methods & HAZOP
Welcome to this module of Hazard Identification & HAZOP study.
In the previous modules we have studied about the hazard the basic definition of hazard and
risks what are the basics of hazards. We had the discussion about the probabilistic risk
assessment and the quantitative risk analysis and a brief about the strategies of hazard
identification.
915
So, in continuation to that particular aspect the hazard identification methods this may
include the following aspect like preliminary hazard analysis, then we have to construct the
process hazard check list on the basis of the different hazard analysis and identification
protocol. Then we need to perform the hazards surveys, go for the hazard and operability
studies that is called the HAZOP studies and we need to perform the safety reviews.
So, let us have a look about the first task right that is the preliminary hazard analysis this is
some sort of a semi quantitative analysis that is performed to identify all potential hazards
916
and accidental events that may lead to an accident. So, you need to identify all those things,
then basis of your, on the basis of your identification you need to 1rank the identify the
accidental event according to their severity. And then identify the required hazard control and
follow up actions.
So, sometimes they are used to to evaluate the hazard early in the life of a process and
generally applied during the conceptual design or R & D phase of a process plant so that once
you go far the implementation then you must know that what kind of the probable hazard
represent at the work place. They are commonly used as a design review tool before a process
P&ID developed so the piping an instrumentation diagram is a schematic illustration of
functional relationship of a piping instrumentation and our system equipment components.
917
So the benefit of this preliminary hazard analysis they are in the states as below. The final
product your basic motto is that your final product must be safe so PHA help in that
particular aspect. PHA helps designer to identify and deal with the various kind of the hazard.
This benefits the modification that are made in the earlier design stages.
They are less costly and easier to implement then the modification that are made in the later
design stage. So this helps the designer to anticipate the hazards thereby reducing the number
of surprises that occur during the design process.
918
Let, us have a look about the scope of the preliminary hazard analysis. This shall consider the
different factors like hazardous plant equipment and materials like fuel, highly reactive
chemical, toxic substances, explosives, high pressure systems, etc. Then the safety related
interfaces between the plant equipment and material again the examples are the fire explosion
initiation, propagation and control shut down systems.
Then the safety related equipments that is mitigating the system like, like fire suppression
protective equipments, etc. The environmental factors like earthquake, vibration, flooding,
extreme temperatures, electrostatic discharge and humidity, operating test and maintenance,
built in test diagnostic and emergency protocols etc. Then the facilities support like storage,
testing equipment, utilities, etc.
Now, there are various steps involved in this preliminary hazard analysis one is so we are
going to in detail, that what has the PHA prerequisites. You must have a proper hazard
identification list with you, you must have a frequency and a consequences estimation, then
you must have a risk ranking and a follow up action. So by this way you can go for this to do
list.
919
So, let us have a look about the prerequisites, now, first thing is that you need to develop the
preliminary hazard analysis team. Now, this team may include those who are very much
aware about the process, those who are very much about the safety reviews of that particular
process, etc. Then define and describe the system to be analysed like what are the system
boundaries, you may go give the system description, layout drawing process pro diagram,
block diagram and flowsheets etc.
Use and storage of energy and hazardous material in the system, you must have a proper
MSDS, etc. The operational and environmental conditions to be considered, it is a well-
documented, system for detection and control of hazards and accidental event, emergency
system and a mitigation actions. Now, collect all information from the previous and similar
system, so you may get all those information from the accidental database.
920
Now, let us have an example of a fired heater. This gives you a good clue about this PHA.
There are various subsystems and item like operating mode sometimes fired heater normal
operation hazardous element may present like that is called the fuel supply. The triggered
event which is which causes the hazardous condition that may be no flame on the burners or a
fuel valve open.
Sometimes Hazardous conditions like fuel enters into the heater accumulates, so triggered
events they are also enlisted like potential accident sometimes it may lead to the, to the
explosion or fire. Now, measures to prevent that is a provision of a flame failure detectors
and alarm and trip systems must be used. So, this gives you the brief outline about this these
fired heaters.
921
Now, next step is that the process hazard checklist now this is attempt to compensate for the
potential limit of hazard recognition, human memory and attention to specific details. This
helps to ensure the consistency and completeness in carrying out a task from an individual
within a workgroup or across an institution.
Now, there are 2 basic type of checklist one is that process based another one is the behaviour
based. Now, let us have a look about the process based checklist, this addresses the safety
hazard associated with a specific well defined work task. Now usually they establish a set of
922
the steps for the checklist user to implement. Now, to be successful checklist developer one
must be able to identify the critical work flow for which the hazard assessment is based. And
you must have a relevant safety protocols then established an explicitly the, integrate all those
protocols in to the checklist.
Second is the behaviour based they are designed to assess new and undefined task or
scenarios. The cause and effect this concept identifies the potential high hazard high risk
work practice. To be successful checklist developer or engineer must have a knowledge of
the spectrum of hazard and activities conducted in the category of work area. An appropriate
set of hazard assessment criteria they are established for evaluation in the checklist.
923
Now, sometimes we may need to have a combine process and behaviour based system. Now
checklist do not have to be strictly processed based or a behaviour based. Sometimes, a
process based checklist may incorporate behaviour based checklist or vice versa that depends
on the need of the system. So often behaviour based checklist may be conducted for a higher
level risk assessment. Now, if activities are then identified as higher risk a process based
checklist can be developed to mitigate those kind of risk present at the work place.
924
Now, a we may have certain things in our mind that list of the possible problem and region to
be examined that is extremely important by this way you can identify those regions which are
problematic. Now, questions are usually answered in terms of yes or no whether the hazard is
present yes or no.
Now reminds the reviewer or operator or the potential problem area this is again in the good
practice sometimes you may adopt a loop that whether this particular system operates, yes ok
then go ahead and then again you may ask the reviewer that whether this particular thing is
good or not, reassure the things. Now, use during the design of a process to identify the
design hazard or can be used before the process operation.
There are several examples of process hazard checklist one example is that an automobile
checklist that one might review before driving away on a vacation the checklist might contain
the following item – check oil in engine - yes or no. Now if it is no then go ahead then again
relook that whether the oil in the engine is at the proper level or not check air pressure in the
tier - yes or no, check fluid level in the radiator if it is not if it is not then try to go for
replenishment.
Then check fluid level in the windshield washer tank – yes or no, if it is not up to the mark
then refill it. Check headlight and tail light if it is not working properly then go for the
correction, check exhaust system for the leak if it is not functioning properly then go for
repair, check fluid level in the break system if it is not up to the mark then refill it up to the
925
desired level, check gasoline level in the tank so you have to assure yourself that the petrol or
fuel in the level in the tank is up to the mark.
So design of this checklist depends on the intent. What kind of intent you are having? So
based on your intent you may design the checklist as per your requirement. Now different for
users in course of initial design of the process and for a process change so they apply it only
in preliminary stages of hazard identification, it should not be used as the replacement at later
stage of hazard identification. First of all so most effective in identifying hazard arising from
process design, plant layout, storage of chemicals, electrical systems and so on.
926
Now, now what are the advantages associated with process hazard checklist? Some of them
some of advantages are listed over here, now they can be used as a non-system safety
engineering experts. They are useful for the practiced technologies and standard designs.
They capture a wide range of previous knowledge and experience and they ensure that the
common or obvious problem are not overlooked because you are reaffirming that whether
you have checked or not.
Then we are having so many advantages of these process hazard checklist there are certain
disadvantages. Now, these disadvantages are they are limited use of unprecedented
technologies or unique design. They can frame the process leading to, failing to recognize the
hazard also exist in the list and a failure to explore what is not on the checklist, sometimes
you may overlook any kind of things which need to be listed in checklist.
927
According to definition they will miss hazard that have not been previously seen. So that is
again a very crucial issue. So based on these particular things you need to perform the
hazards survey. Now, these hazards surveys they should be guided by the, the facilities safety
committee in conjunction with the facility safety coordinators. So you need to perform all
those things in consideration with these 2 bodies. The inspections can be scheduled on a daily
weekly, monthly or yearly basis, usually yearly basis it is performed in case of safety audit.
Now, daily hazards surveys are normally completed by the operator or shift leaders. Weekly
hazards surveys are normally completed by the manager or supervisors. Monthly hazards
surveys are normally completed by the area safety inspector or safety coordinators. And
above all the quarterly safety hazard survey are typically completed by the facilities safety
committee.
928
Now, these should be completed by including as many individual view point as possible, so
that you must have a number of n number of resources because if you are having the large
number of resources the quality of those survey will be on the higher side. So each person on
the hazard survey team should be familiar with the process or operation and should have
acquired the insights concerning problems fault and situation that could cause the accidents.
Now, before completing the hazard surveys the inspection team should review the past near
misses because this may give a proper clue. Accidents, employee complaints and return
policies that pertain to the area of inspection because these return policies may give a clue
and sometimes these return policies may include the local rules or the rules and regulations
those who are applicable to the area in question.
929
Now, as far the example of this sight survey or hazard survey one example which we have
enlisted is the fire safety survey. Now, this is you can see we have asked these things in
responses in terms of yes or no. Now, these are the general things like home has this smoke
alarm on every level, suppose you put ‘no’ then again you need to go for the collective
measures.
Home has a smoke alarm in every bedroom, smoke alarms are located outside at each
separate sleeping area, smoke alarms are located at least 10 feet from a stationary or fixed
cooking appliances. Sometimes you put yes no, yes no so if yes then you are relatively safe
and if no then you need to go for the corrective measures.
Again that home has ionization smoke alarms, home has a photoelectric smoke alarms, so
home has a combination of photoelectric ionization smoke alarms, so all now the crucial
question is that all smoke alarms are working if they are no, if you put no then definitely it
will look into the previous aspects.
It gives you an opportunity that you can relook the different responses. Now, family has a
home fire escape plan, if it is not then definitely you have to work upon. So this particular
survey gives you a proper information about the problems associated in the particular facility.
930
Now, these hazards surveys are very simple process as we have shown in the, this particular
slide. These are the simple questions which you need to ask, then formal systematized
approach using a rating form similar to an income tax form. Now final rating number
provides a relative ranking to the hazard. Now, there are 2 popular forms of hazard surveys
they are, one is the Dow Fire and Explosion Index that is F&EI another one is the Dow
Chemical Exposure Index that is CEI.
931
So let us have a look of the one by one, the first one is the Dow fire and explosion index,
F&EI that is a method developed by the Dow chemical company for ranking the relative fire
and explosion risk associated with the process. Now, analysis, the analyst calculate the
various hazard and explosion indexes using the material characteristics and process data
available.
Now, they are designed for rating the relative hazard with the storage handling and the
processing of explosive and the flammable materials. Now, the basic idea is to provide a
purely systematic approach mostly independent of judgement factors for determining the
relative magnitude of flammable hazard in the chemical plant.
Now, this is a multistep process and the first step in this to perform the hazard survey
pertaining to the Dow fire and the explosion indexes the material factor, function of type of
material used, is adjusted for the general and special process hazard. Now, these adjustment
or penalties are based on the conditions such as storage above the flash or a boiling point,
endo or exothermic reactions and fired heaters.
Now, credits for various safety systems and procedures are used for estimating the
consequences of hazard and after the fire and explosion index has been determined. So one
must note that higher the value of MF the more flammable and explosive the material.
932
The second step is that determination of general process hazard. Now, penalties are applied
for different factors like exothermic reactions that might self-heat or endothermic ones that
could react because of an external heat source, such as fire, etc. The material handling and
transfer the enclosed process units preventing dispersion of escaped vapours, the limited
access for emergency equipment that is a very serious issue and poor drainage of flammable
material away from the process units. So penalties may be Imposed for if the process
facilities having such type of system.
933
The next step is the determination of a penalties for special process hazards that is less than
atmospheric pressure operation with risk of outside air entering, so that there may be a chance
of flammability. Low temperature operation with the potential embrittlement of carbon steel
vessel. Hot oil heat exchange system where the hot oil is above its ignition temperatures
sometimes it may lead to the auto ignition scenario.
The toxic material or the flammable material which could impede the firefighting
equipments. Corrosion and erosion of process unit structures. Operation in or near the
flammable limits like UFL and LFL. Dust explosion risks. Leakage around joints and
packing. Use of fired heater, providing the ready ignition sources, etc. So these are the, these
were the, the things which need to be addressed.
Now, next is you Dow chemical exposure index, this is again method developed by the Dow
chemical company used to identify and rank the relative acute health hazard associated with
the chemical releases. So this chemical exposure index is calculated from a 5 broad factors
that is a measure of toxicity, the quantity of volatile material available for release, the
distance to each area in question, the molecular weight of the material being evaluated and
the process variables that can affect the conditions of release such as temperature, pressure,
reactivity, etc.
934
Now, this simple method of rating the relative acute health hazard potential for people in
neighbouring plants or communities arising from the possible chemical release incidents.
Now, the use of this chemical exposure index you need the following items, one is that
accurate plot plant of the plant and the surrounding area, the simplified process flow sheet
showing the containment vessels, measure piping, you must have a proper chemical inventory
data with you, the physical and chemical properties of material investigated and chemical
exposure index guide and chemical exposure index form.
935
Now, the process for this hazard survey pertaining to CEI is this relatively simple that this
begins with a definition of possible release incidents including releases from pipes, hoses,
pressure relief devices relieving directly to the atmosphere, vessels, tank overflows and spills.
Now, sometimes incidents are used with the number of simplified source models to estimate
the release rate of material. We have already discussed these source models. Now, emergency
respond planning guidelines (ERPGs) that are used with the simplified dispersion model to
determine the, the chemical exposure index value and downwind hazard distances resulting
from the release.
The hazards survey is they are suitable for identifying the hazard associated with equipment
design, layout, material storage, etc. They are not suitable for identifying the hazard resulting
from improper operation or upset conditions. And they require little experience easy to apply
and provides a quick result.
936
Now, next is the Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP). The basic definition of this
HAZOP is that this is structured and systematic examination of plant or existing process or
operation, in order to identify and evaluate problem. That may represent risk to personal or
equipment or prevent efficient operation. This is the qualitative technique based guidewords
carried out by multidisciplinary team that is called the HAZOP team during the set of
meeting.
937
They are used for many years as a formal procedure to identify hazard in chemical process
facility, the systematic search for hazard which are defined as deviation within these
parameters that may have a dangerous consequences. Now, the basic idea is to let the mind
go free in a controlled fashion in order to consider all the possibilities that process and the
failure can occur. Now, before studies started detailed information on the process must be
available which includes up to date process flow diagram, process and instrumentation
diagram, detailed equipment specification, material of construction, mass and energy
balances may be in terms of equations.
Now, in the process industry these deviation concerned process parameters such as flow,
temperature, pressure etc. Now, HAZOP analysis is a team approach having a team of people
representing all different functions of a plant. They identify all deviation by the brainstorming
among themselves to a set of guide, words which are applied to all parts of the system.
938
Now, there are set of objectives carrying out for the HAZOP study. One is to check the
design whether it is proper or improper. To decide whether and where to build the things to
decide whether to buy a piece of equipment or not, to obtain a list of a questions to put to a
supplier, to check running instruction that may be imposed to a worker, to improve the safety
of any existing facilities.
Now, the team composition of HAZOP studies it still have a team leader that is an expert in
the HAZOP technique. There are several technical members, like, for, if you are having the,
939
the new design, then design or project engineer, the process engineer usually a chemical
engineer, the commissioning manager, the instrument design engineer, a chemist because
sometimes you may have go through for a chemistry reaction. Now, if you are performing
this thing for the existing plant then you must have a plant superintended, the process
supervisor that is sometimes called the foreman, the maintenance engineer, the instrument
engineer, the technical engineer, etc.
Now, as far as the process is in question this is as follows that the system is divided into
suitable parts or subsystems which are analysed one at a time. Now, for each sub-system each
parameter like flow temperature, pressure, volume, viscosity, etc. Has an influence on it if it
is then it should be noted. The guidewords are applied to each parameter to each sub-system
the intention is to prompt creative discussion of deviation and possible consequences and for
each significant deviation the possible causes and they are usually identified so that you can
look in to the remedial measures.
940
Now, this process is systematic and it is helpful to define the terms that are used like study
notes the location for example on piping and instrumentation drawing and procedure. The
location at which the process parameters are investigated for deviation. Then the intention,
the intention defines that how the plant is expected to operate in absence of deviation at the
study nodes.
Now, this can take number of forms and can either be descriptive or diagrammatic like
flowsheet, line diagram, P&IDs, etc. Then you may look in to the deviations and these are the
departure from the intentions which are discovered by systematically applying the
guidewords like more pressure, high pressure, etc.
941
Then the causes the reason why the deviation might occur, once a deviation has been shown
to have a credible cause it can be treated as a meaningful deviation. Now these causes can be
hardware failure, human error, unanticipated process states, etc. or sometime external
disruptions like loss of power, etc. which is not in your control. Then consequences, these are
the result of deviation and should they occur like release of toxic materials etc. You may have
certain guidewords like simple words which are used to qualify or quantify the intention in
order to guide and stimulate the brainstorming process and discovered the deviations.
942
So whenever you perform these HAZOP studies there are few guidewords like no or not and
the definition is no part of the design intent occurs such as no flow in the pipeline due to
blockage. More or less a quantitative increase or decrease of some parameters such as flow
temperature etc. As well as all the design intentions are fulfilled and something happen in
addition. Part of only part of the design intention is fulfilled the reverse that is a logical
opposite to the design intention occurs other than something completely different than
attended occurs.
Now, one example is that consider a simple process diagram this figure it represents a plant
where a substance A and B reacts with each other to form a new substance that is called C.
There is if there is more B then A there may be an explosive, so this is the chance of
explosive.
943
Now, let us have an analysis of this HAZOP analysis, no or not that is no A so tank
containing A is empty this one.
944
And V1 and V2, this V1 and V2 is closed so pump does not work that is pipe broken the
consequences is not enough A this may lead to the explosion. Now the proposed measures are
indicator for low level, monitoring of flow.
Now more that is too much A, the pump too high capacity opening of V1 and V2 is too large.
This one V1 and V2 is too large. The consequences are C contaminated by A so tanks are
overfilled this is indicator of high level. And the monitoring of flow is needed.
Less not enough A that is means V1 or V2 that the valve V1 & V2 the pipe are partially block
and pump gives off low flow. So not enough A, this may lead to an explosion.
945
As well as the deviation is other substances may present. Sometimes V3 is open the air
sucked in, so not enough A that is a consequence and it may lead up to the explosion. The
proposed measures are flow monitoring based on weight.
Reverse liquid pump backward that is wrong connector to the motor, so not enough A may
lead to explosion and A is contaminated so you must go for the flow monitoring,
other than the A boils in pump the temperature is too high that is not enough A in the system
then it may lead to explosion. Then temperature and flow monitoring is essential.
So, since it is a very systematic approach let us have a look about the history of this HAZOP
study this is developed by Lawley in 1974 by ICI that is Imperial Chemical Industry of UK.
Based on earlier account of Elliot & Owen 1968 which was developed in 1968. The
technique originated in the heavy organic chemical division of ICI which was then a major
British & International chemical company. So history this has been described by Trevor Kletz
who was a company safety advisor from 1968 to 1982.
946
The process of this HAZOP study is the system divided into the functional blocks. So every
part of process is examined for the possible deviation from the design function. Now can the
deviation caused any hazard or inconvenience to the system, must analyse. Each deviation is
considered to decide that how it could be caused and what the consequences would be. Now,
every phase of the process must be well defined each system and person must be well defined
the question formulated around the guideword this is extremely important because you are
having the set guidewords for this one.
947
Now, for the hazard and preventive remedying action they are must be they are well defined
and they must be well defined this is the primarily requirement.
The next aspect is to go for a review. Now, here you are having a diagram where you are
having a HAZOP review which was given by the team. This may lead to the preparation
based on a knowledge experience teams of HAZOP experience they may have attitude
meeting leadership. They give the proper documentation. Now, these documentation may
lead to the various tables sometimes enlisted with the deviation various causes consequences
948
methodology for safeguard action and you must go for the follow up that whether your
recommendation and whether the study has something so that it must be follow up.
Now, sometimes certain mistakes may take place that may be attributed to the failing to
establish a safe environment for the team members. Consequences of events that not carried
out to conclusion taking unwanted credit of for safeguard too little credit given for safeguard
failure to make the recommendation as specific as possible. Poor record keeping of all those
HAZOPs failure to HAZOP a start-up and shutdown procedure. P&IDs are not up to dated,
updated or poorly constructed.
949
Now, there are certain benefits associated with these HAZOP studies. They are having the
built in brainstorming and systematic and comprehensive methodologies you may develop all
those things they are more simple and intuitive then other commonly used risk management
tools. It is methodical approach ensures that deviation from design intent are detected and
acted upon they are very much creative and open ended. They gives the completeness and
identifies all kind of process hazards, they are rigorous, structured and yet very versatile. It
identifies the safety and operability issues, they are helpful when confronting hazards that are
difficult to quantify.
The methodologies does not force to explicitly rate or measured deviation probability of
occurrence severity of impact or ability to detect. The hazards that are difficult to detect,
analyse, isolate, count, predict etc. These hazards are rooted in human performance and
behaviour.
950
There are certain limitations attributed to these HAZOP studies, they are enlisted in these
particular slides. Now they can be time consuming this because they have included the
operability. No means to assess the hazards involving the interaction between the different
parts of system or a process, there is no mean to assess the effectiveness of existing or
proposed controls. HAZOP utilizes a team approach and hence cannot be conducted by a
single analyst so you must have a well formulated team. They relies on having right people in
the room. No risk ranking or prioritization capabilities.
951
And one more requirement is that the team should be skilled and multi-disciplinary with good
knowledge of plant, now, its intended design and operations so all thing all the team members
should have well acquainted with the all aspect of the plant. And they does not distinguish
between the low probability high consequences event or vice versa. So in this particular
module we have discussed about the hazard identification tool we have performed the, we
have discussed the various kind of HAZOP studies, given one example for this one.
And in case if you wish to have further reading there are lot of references enlisted. Thank
you.
952
Indian Institute of Technolgy, Roorkee
Lecture-39
Safety Reviews & Risk Assessment-1
Now welcome to this module of Risk Assessment. Now, let us have a look about that what
we have studied in the last module. We had a discussion about the different definitions of risk
and hazard. We have gone through the process protocol of hazard identification.
Identified that what are the basics ingredients in list, which should be enlisted in the process
hazard check list. We have gone through about the importance of hazard service and gone
through the basic concept of hazard and operability studies and in the last module we started
about the brief review about the safety review that what is the importance of those safety
reviews and how we can go ahead. So in this particular module let us start with the remaining
part of the safety review.
953
Now, this is as we had a discussion that these are the very vital part of the working safety
system in various large companies they are built right into the corporate safety strategies and
they are these safety reviews they usually come in different forms based on the specialized
one and based on the need of that particular company.
So ultimate aim is to reduce the hazard to reduce the economy loss towards the company.
Now let us have a look that what is the difference between safety review and the safety audit.
Now some will equate that a regulatory audit company with a safety review but it is not true
because the safety audit is partially different thing with the safety review.
The purpose of audit may be to make the safer by ensuring it complies with all kind of
regulations it is not a safety review. Now it is a regulatory compliance that is an audit and
nothing more. So the regulatory compliance or through regulation being put down by the
several competent authorities like government, local government, federal governments,
central government, etc. based on the need of the society. So safety audit ensures that there is
a regulatory compliance in that particular paraphernalia.
954
Now this safety review they used to recognized the various safety issues in either laboratory
or process plant areas or any kind of situation or environment that may be thereof. Now this
safety reviews develop the various solutions if any kind of challenge arises due to any
malfunctioning or due to any regulatory requirement. Now these safety reviews are
categorized into 2 types one is the informal one and second one is the formal one.
955
So, let us have a look that what is the informal safety review. Now this is used for small
changes to existing processes and for the bench scale or a laboratory process or a quality
assurance etc. Now to perform these kind of informal safety review a committee should be
formed, the committee may consist of only 2 - 3 people and generally individual those who
are responsible for the process 1 or 2 others not directly attributed or associated with the
process but they are well acquainted or well experience with the proper safer safety protocols
or a procedures. Now the idea is to provide a lively dialogue where the ideas can be
exchanged and safety improvement can be achieved or developed in due course of time.
Now, the reviewers they simply meet in a casual fashion to inspect the process equipment and
operating procedures and to offer ideas and how the safety of the process might be upgraded,
that means by changing their ideas, by sharing their views, they can approve or they can
upgrade the safety protocols. The important development should be summarized in a memo
for others to reference in the upcoming time. The improvement must be employed before the
process is operated. So, that any kind of short comings, etc. can be removed in the course of
time.
956
Now the formal safety review this is used for a new processes substantial changes in any kind
of existing processes and the process that need to be an updated or they need an updated
review, so usually this consist of 3 steps. One is that preparing a detailed formal safety review
report you must have all these things with you. The committee is to review the report which
is being prepared and inspect the process and they implement to whatever recommendations
being given by the safety review committee they ensures that those recommendations are
properly implemented.
So the committee participants they must be experienced in identifying the safety problems
whereas for the less experienced one more formal HAZOP study may be more effective in
identifying the various kind of hazards those were applicable to the work place. Now, this
they used almost immediately or relatively easy to apply and is known to provide the good
result.
957
Now this includes various sections so those important sections are enlisted in this particular
slide. The first section deals with the introduction that is the general overview of the process,
the plant, the process overview, the complete process that what kind of such things are
involved? What kind of reaction involved? What are the different perimeters involved?
Stoichiometric conditions and all the relevant engineering data that includes a
thermodynamic data etc. whatever being required for that particular process.
The second is the raw material and the products. Now the starting point at this juncture
should be the material safety data sheet because raw information of the material is extremely
important whether there is any contamination, what is the minimum SA of the particular raw
material because sometimes any kind of contamination any kind of adulteration any kind of
undesired product may lead to any thermal or a chemical.
So you must aware about the hazard associated with these kind of scenario and what are the
handling problems may arise in due course online shopping time while handling such a raw
material or a product. So this type of information must be available further ready reference,
then you must have a knowledge about the equipment setup the proper complete description
is essential with all kind of specification what is the length? What is the height? And what is
the operating protocol, etc.
Then the fourth point is the procedure that is what is the normal operating procedure
remember thermodynamically there are only 3 things which you can control that is pressure
958
volume and temperature. So you must know that what are the normal operating procedures
are inherent in that particular process. Then safety, the waste disposal protocol and the
cleanup procedure because sometimes it you may experience may be a generation of waste
then how to clean that particular thing. Suppose a solvent is being produced or a solvent is
being in access than you cannot drain it as such then what is the cleanup protocol.
On the basis of the all the 4 point which are enlisted above you may prepare a safety checklist
this includes all the critical area, all the crucial areas. Now, to supplement all those things you
must know that what is the material safety data sheet. We have gone through the material
safety data sheet in the earlier modules so this material safety data sheet provides a very vital
information, that may be useful for the point number 2 that is the raw material product that
may be useful for the procedure even it is related to the handling hazards problem. Now, let
us have look that what is risk assessment.
Now risk assessment that is the process of quantifying the probability of harmful effect to
individual from a certain human activities, this is the broad spectrum of assessment, this
includes the incident identification and Consequence Analysis. Now this incident
identification this describes how an incident occurs, it frequently includes an analysis of
various kind of probabilities sometimes the chair may be broken on which you are sitting.
So, you need to enlist all kind of probabilities that may happen. Then the Consequence
Analysis, this describes the expected damage, this includes the loss of life, damage to the
959
environment or the capital investment or the capital equipment and the days outage means in
terms of somebody is having occupational injury, occupational illness. etc. So it includes all
these consequences that may happen due to that particular incident.
Now why there is a need of this risk assessment the first thing is that to protect our self
because the risk assessment is the key to prevention of accident .So everyone deserve to go
home safely at the end of the day at the end of the shift and if he or she is not then that means
something is wrong with respect to the process, so you need to protect yourself or our self.
Then elevate safety aware ness and ownership. So you must aware about the various kind of
hazards, risk and control and practicing safe science because unhealthy practice, hazardous
practice may not only create a problem to yourself but to the environment or nearby vicinity.
Then university and faculty procedures they also play a very vital role through their research
protocols, through their research outcomes they may guide, they may assist their regulatory
bodies as well as the users that there is an up most need of risk assessment.
Then based on all kind of safety reviews based on all kind of guide lines there is a provision
of a different regulations as led down by the different regulatory bodies, remember all those
regulations are for to protect yourself as well as to protect the environment. So this you must
ensure that based on your knowledge on risk assessment you must comply with the all the
regulations as led down by the local body as well as the central body.
960
So based on this particular aspect, let us have a proper definition of risk that is the
combination of likely hood of an occurrence of a hazard event or exposure and the severity of
injury or ill health or fatality that may be caused by the event or exposure that is the likely
hood that hazard will cause a specific harm or injury to person or a damage properties. So this
is you can say broad spectrum of the definition of risk.
Now, whenever we discuss about the concept of risk then we must know or we must aware
about this type of flowsheet you must know that what can go wrong and if something goes
wrong then what are the impacts that wrong happening. Now if you annualize this then what
961
is the level of risk. How much it will imparts or what is the consequences of that particular
risk. Another aspect is that how likely it is how much what the frequency is.
Then again non the basis of that particular you analyze that what is the risk level now if it is
acceptable then go ahead if it is not then you need to manage that particular risk. So risk
management this also includes the control and monitoring of risk as well as the
communicating those risk to the nearby people or those who may get affected with that
particular type of risk.
Now there is a brief history of risk assessment remember like hazard risk is always there, you
cannot avoid the risk. We have already discussed that sometimes in a room where you are
sitting right now the roof may collapse, the chair may destroyed, so risk is always there. So,
concept of this risk assessment was introduced with the health and Safety at Work act in
1974. This was the first time when a synchronized risk assessment protocol was introduced
and that was in United Kingdom then the concept expended upon the Management of Health
and Safety Regulations in 1992.
Then there was a protocol related to the Ionization Regulation in 1999. Then the Workplace
Safety Health act was introduced in 2006. Remember these by enlarge all these act or all
these regulation are applicable globally. So integral to all other appropriate legislation that is
CoSHH that is the control of substances hazardous to health, personal protective equipment
PPE Noise etc.
962
Now, let us have a brief look about the Health and Safety at Work ACT 1974 applicable in
United Kingdom. Now it shall be the duty of every employee to ensure so far as it reasonably
practical the health safety and fell ware at work of all it is employees. This is extremely
important because ultimately the employer who is basic sufferer of any kind of economic
loss.
Now the section also places a requirement on the employee to cooperate with their employer
in ensuring the company complies with all kind of requirement under that particular Act. So it
is not the employer responsibility alone it is simultaneously it is the responsibility of the
employee that he or she should help the employer to work upon under the paraphernalia of
these particular Act.
963
Another act that is the management of Health and Safety at Work Regulation 1992. This
introduced to reinforce the Health and Safety at Work 1974 because there may be some short
coming or because of the technological advancement from 1974 to 1992 there may be a
chance that something may be missed due to course of time.
So places duties on employers and employees including those who are clients designers
principle contractors and other things so they expended their horizon. Now employees also
have their duties under this act to report any kind of short coming in the health and safety
arrangement of that particular industry. So it is a responsibility of employees that something
if malfunctioning or something is missing so they must report they should report.
Use all those equipments in accordance with the training and instructions so you must use
because the training and instructions they are the integral part of any kind of safety protocol
so they are bond to use the equipment use of the equipment in accordance with what for
which they are trained and they are given the instructions. So it gives, in another words they
have the full right to refuse to use that particular equipment for which they are not trained.
Now take reasonable care of their own health and safety and those of others who may be
affected by their acts or omissions that is again very important thing. Now they are
responsibility to report the any kind of dangerous situation sometimes it may happen the
temperature may be on the higher side that means that may lead to the thermal run away
964
reactions or even there may be a chance that pressure may be built up and the safety devices
may fail. So any kind of dangerous situation they should report to the competent authority.
Now, because of the day by day using of different ionized radiative equipments like UV, IR
etc. So UK government they propose the ionizing radiation regulation 1999 act the main aim
of the regulation is to define by 1999 official code of practice was to establish frame work for
ensuring that exposal to ionizing radiation arising from the work activities whether man made
or natural radiation and from the external radiation or internal radiation that is kept as low as
reasonable practicable.
Sometimes laser may create a problem, so it is the duty of the employee that the internal
radiation should be kept as low as reasonable practicable that is ALARP and does not exceed
close dose limit specified for that particular individual so the dose versus response prevails so
this should not exceed as per the beyond specified limit.
965
So in this particular protocol an employee shall not carry on work with ionizing radiation
unless he has made an assessment of the radiation hazard to employees or other person in the
event of any reasonably forcible accident occurrence or incident that is say very crucial thing.
Now before a radiation employer commences a new activity, in respect which no risk
assessment has been made by him.
He or she shall make all suitable and sufficient assessment of the risk to any employee at
other persons. That is the responsibility of the employer and all hazard which could cause a
radiation accident to be identified and evaluated. So and apart from this a proper information
should be given to all employees weather this type of hazard is present at the work place.
966
Now there are certain legal requirements. So the first and for most legal requirement that is
based on the Workplace Safety and Health that is Risk Management Regulation 2006. This is
effective from 1st March 2006. Now, this Workplace Safety and Health Act is an essential
part of new occupational safety and health framework to cultivate good safety habits in all
individual at the work place. Remember this is the habit not the trained things. So the safety
habit is a crucial part. Now this requires every person at the work place to take reasonable
practicable step to ensure the safety and health of every work place and worker. Remember
the safety is everyone’s responsibility.
967
Now what is this Reasonable Practicable? Now reasonably usually takes into account the
severity of harm and degree of risk or maybe sometimes likelihood of that injury or harm
occurring. Now, the greater the risk reasonable to go to a very considerable expense and
effort to reduce it.
So how much is known about the hazard and the ways of elimination that is the reducing or
controlling it what are the other practicing and what are the standard recommendation. So we
must know all kind of this thing before applying this risk assessment. Now, whenever there is
a legal requirement then definitely those who violate all those legal requirement there is a
concept of penalties.
So, any person who fails to comply may be fined up to say 10,000 dollars or it depends on
country to country for first offence and for the second or subsequent offence a person may be
fined up to 20,000 or she may be jailed up to 6month or both. So, penalties this particular
slide is for reference, in Indian context we do have such kind of severe penalties including the
monitory penalty as well as the imprisonment penalties. So, we have gone through this brief
assessment of risk.
968
Now, why we are intended, why do it? Now obviously based on the previous discussion it is
a very good practice. Now a good risk assessment can identify the step to prevent the
radiative accident occurring limit the effect of any kind of radiation accident. They prepare
the employee for coping up with any kind of radiating accident.
They drop the contingency plan. Now if you replace the radiation aspect with all kind
generalize things then they identify any kind of hazardous things then they limit the effect of
those hazardous things then prepare or train the employees for coping up with the such kind
of any untoward incident and then they draw based on their knowledge competency they
draw any kind of emergency or contingency plan.
969
So in nutshell the risk management can be defined as eradication or minimization of the

adverse effect of risk to which an organization is exposed.
Now, the question arises that why there is a need of proper risk management regulations. The
one thing is that to hold the stake holder accountable for managing the risk they create and
second thing is that to reduce the risk at source. Remember everywhere whenever we are
regulating or we are framing these risk management or risk assessment then definitely our
basic moto is to reduce the economic loses because in case you fail in the risk management
fatality may happen than you need to pay the compensation if there is an illness or injury than
970
again you need to pay the compensation if there is an illness or injury than again you need to
pay the compensation or you need to add for the medical treatment which may again cost.
Simultaneously it is equally true for any kind of property loss within the plant periphery than
again you may suffer a production loss again you may have to go for the modification
repairing etc. Then ultimately it may lead to the economic losses. So that is why these two
points are extremely beneficial not only for the employee but also for the employer.
So the risk assessment can be very straight forward process based on judgement requiring no
specialist skill or complicated techniques. Now this approach is commonly known as the
qualitative or subjective risk assessment.
971
Now there is a concept of record of risk assessment. So first thing before we go into detail
how often must the risk assessment may be reviewed the question must be asked. Maybe at
least once in every three years maybe within six years maybe within six months maybe
monthly maybe weakly etc. Sometimes it may happen after an accident so that we can
analyze that what went wrong. Another thing is that when there is a significant change in the
work process introduction of a new machinery or a chemical sometimes it may happen that
industry may go ahead with process modification modernization etc.
Then again there is a need to go for this risk assessment than information of safety
technology or requirement made known sometimes it may happen because of the safety
development safety technological development sometimes it may happen that new tool for
safer technology new tool for environmental technology may be developed. Than if your
industry is willing to adopt that particular technology than definitely go for the risk
assessment.
972
So, there are 5 step process for the risk assessment need to identify. Identify who might be
harmed you need to evaluate the risk we have already done all these five aspects in the
previous module so in summary you need to record the finding because these recordings may
be useful for further safety review and safety auditing and then you review what kind of the
assessment you had carried out whether it is good or wrong weather it is ok. So this type of
things you need to perform So first step that we are carrying out that you need to identify the
hazards.
973
One hazard identification we have already covered determine the nature of the potential
adverse consequences maybe using radiation maybe using any kind of fire and explosion etc.
Go ahead with the literature available because literature may have various safety reviews
literature may have the different type of safety auditing reports etc. and don’t forget other
hazard associated with the experiment or process because in past several accidents in the
history they took place just because of omission this particular aspect. That is the other
hazard associated with the experimental or protocol.
So how we can identify the things that is first is you have to be well acquainted with all kind
of health and safety audits you go through the academic journals because there are so many
journals because there are so many journals as on date they are attributed to the hazard and
safety. You must be aware of the various kind of research papers available as on date because
it is a key interest issue of various researcher that how to improvise the process and by the
improvisation of the process they develop various safety protocol.
So you go and you must read all those research papers you must have a consultation with
other coworkers because they are on sight they feel that what may go wrong what went
wrong and what are the deficiencies in that particular system. You must go for all kind of
accident report so that you must aware that what may be wrong in that particular process,
how you can deal it upon.
You go for the various reports being published by various kind of trade organization because
these trade organization provides a very vital road that what is the requirement of the society?
974
What is the requirement of the consumer? So sometimes you may need to incorporate all
those type of requirement to the process and once you are incorporating those type of thing in
your process then definitely process modification may take place based on the process
modification protocol requirement.
You need to review those safety protocols which had earlier been applicable in your plant. So
these trade organizational reports they play very vital role in that kind of safety hazard and
some trade organization they are very particular to ensure that weather you have followed the
safety protocol or not if you are not following that safety protocol as lead down by their
governmental organization or regulatory body then definitely they may refuse to purchase or
they may refuse to have any kind of trade arrangement with your industry.
Then health safety environment statistics because this gives you a proper information that
what kind of a emission what kind of radiative problems what kind of fire and explosion data
may take place in your plant maybe facilities. So you must aware about these type of methods
for identifying the hazard.
Now this type of things are very similar for various kind of institutions sometimes the outside
advice that is manufacturer of the equipment and material is very useful for performing this
type of assessment because whenever you are procuring any raw material from any kind of
supplier they used to supply the proper information either handling storage etc.
975
Sometimes the equipment because just for the sake of an example if you are using the
pressure vessel the manufacturer they supply an information that what is the bursting pressure
what is the design pressure so what should be the operating condition. So this type of
information is sometimes is extremely crucial.
Sometimes internal advice maybe by any university or institution because they are
continuously working on the process development they are continuously working on the
chemical kinetically aspect etc. So they may provide sometimes of it useful information for
the safer process.
So in this particular module we have studied about the various tools for hazards we have
discussed various regulations applicable for different type of hazards. We have gone through
about the history of hazards. We are in the process of discussing the various protocols for risk
assessment risk management etc. In the subsequent module we are going to discuss this risk
management protocol further. Thank you very much.
976
Lecture 40
Risk Assessment
Welcome to this module related to the risk assessment steps. So in the previous module we had
a discussion about the various tools available for risk assessment.
We have gone through different steps to determine the risk or analyse the risk assessment. So
while discussing the various steps available for risk assessment or risk management tool we
had completed the step number 1 in the previous module. So in this particular module we are
going to discuss the other steps involved in the risk assessment or risk management.
977
So this is again starting of this that how we have identified the hazard, now let us take the
second step we need to identify who might be harmed in case of any eventuality, in case of any
accident. So first thing that we must analyse the scenario and then decide who might be harmed
and how, because unless and otherwise we do not have any clue that how they may get harmed
then we would not be able to device the proper safety devices and we cannot analyse the risk
assessment.
So do not forget, young persons, trainees or new expectant mothers, cleaners, sometimes the
casual visitors to the plant, various contractors those who are involved within the periphery of
the plant, the maintenance workers, members of the public, people who share your workplace,
978
they may be harmed in case of any eventuality, in case of any accidents that might occur in the
plant periphery. Remember, we have not included those who are living at outside or those who
are having their residences or workplace at the vicinity of the plant.
So in the broader spectrum we may enlist all those employees, visitors, contractors, general
public, children, people who shared the workplace they must be people specific, or do not
forget the vulnerable groups such as the people with disabilities, pregnant staff, those with the
little experience or training. So you must analyse and you must enlist those who might be at
the risk. Then once you analyse this aspect that those who are involved in that particular risk
then you evaluate the risk that is what is the quantum of the risk.
979
So, whenever you are evaluating the risk you determine dose threshold, etc. So while you are
analysing the dose threshold then definitely you must look into other aspect of dose response,
what are the different threshold limit values, etc. Then you go for ALARP, then you analyse
what is the exposure assessment, decide how likely it is to cause harm, sometimes it may be at
the regular frequency, may be gradual limits and sometimes within acceptable limits, etc.
Then you determine what are the different methodologies available for this control because
there may be several other risk control methodologies or protocols are available within the
plant then decide under suitable measures that which one you need to adopt, which one you
need to apply in case of any risk. You need to follow the various precautions or even with the
precaution you need to analyse is then any remaining high risk things or sometimes it may be
medium or it may be low. So you must analyse all those things while evaluating the risk.
980
Now, based on your analysis, you just identify that what are the different hazardous and
hazardous situations, they are systematically present at your workplace. That means sometimes
it may happen that because a variety of reasons the temperature of a vessel may go on the
higher side, it may lead to the pressure build-up. Once the pressure is built-up then it may be
chance that the safety valve or the relief valve may get be actuated.
Then the substance may get released into the atmosphere or nearby people may get affected,
nearby means within the plant and outside the plant. So you just analyse the systematically
approach of those hazards or hazardous situations that may happen in that particular plant. Then
you analyse the level of risk associated with each hazard that is the situation, you need to
estimate, you need to quantify that particular risk or hazard. Reason is that on the basis of this
particular hazard you can analyse or you can adopt the applicable protocol.
981
Now usually you need to perform a judgement or a judgement is to be made as to whether the
level of risk is acceptable or tolerable. Now remember, there is a threshold limit values or LD
values, etc just to guide you whether this particular risk is acceptable or not because based on
various kinds of dose, various kinds of responses, these types of limits being prescribed by
various regulatory bodies which we had discussed in the previous module. So based on your
evaluation we just analyse whether this is under the acceptable range or tolerable range, and if
it is beyond then you need to go ahead with the proper protocols.
Now, this includes judgement on corrective or preventive measures because whether if they
are acceptable then definitely you need to take preventive measure or corrective measures so
that they cannot expose to or they cannot go beyond the tolerable limit, so a prior estimation
or prior corrective measures or prior preventive measures are always advisable for these kinds
of approaches.
982
The likelihood that a specified undesired event will occur due to the realisation of a hazard by
or during work activities or buy the products or services created by the work activities, this is
the accessing of the risk.
Now, let us have look about quantitative risk assessment. These are commonly used in the
high-technology industries. Now, this quantitative risk assessment tends to deal with the
avoidance of low probability events with the serious consequences to the plant and the
surrounding environment, so that is why they are very important. Now this involves making
formal judgement on the consequences and the probability using the formula, risk is equal to
severity into likelihood, likelihood deals with the probability.
983
So this in simple computation gives a risk value between 1 and 9 and enabling a rough and
ready comparison of the risk. So the lower the number the greater the risk, and also that
prioritises the hazards so that the control action can be targeted at higher risk. It is just like that
you are having an H2SO4 concentrated H2SO4, it might spill or may not so what is the severity
then you need to analyse and if this is within your range then you need to adopt a control action.
Another example is that the likely effect of hazard may for example for rated like major dead
or major injury or illness causing long-term disability, maybe serious injuries or illness causing
short-term disability. There may be slight aspects like all other injuries or illnesses, remember
984
every injury or every illness or every fatality must be recorded and they may be liable for the
compensation.
Now the likelihood of harm may be rated as high that is when it is certain that harm will occur
like spillage of H2SO4, leak of LPG, etc. Then the medium, where the harm will often occur,
and the low where the harm will seldom occur. So sometimes the situation may happen where
you cannot avoid the release of any kind of toxic or any kind of vapour. Then you may term if
it is within the acceptable limits then you may term under the head of medium or a low one.
Now, all things required in a law done that is a big question, do not stop there-is the remaining
risk small? If not, then how to make it small? These kinds of questions must be asked by you.
Now think about other possible occurrences; moving sources within the site, new staff those
who may not be technically competent, risk of other lost sources sometimes you may have
certain other things those who are lost during the course of use, and all of a sudden that may
create a problem. Certain human factors because several accidents in past they took happen
just because of the human negligence, so you can factor may also play a vital role.
985
Then go for the completion of the risk assessment, so organising action and responsibilities to
reduce the hazards and risks to acceptable levels, this is called the completion of the risk
assessment. Now how you can achieve, by elimination of hazard, do I have to do this? This
type of question must be framed and asked. Then go for the substitution like materials,
equipment, etc.
You must adopt the protocols related to the physical safeguards of machinery guarding,
extraction, etc. Sometimes you may experience if you go to an industry all kinds of police they
are guarded by the covers, etc, these are called physical safeguards. You must go for personal
protective equipment like head gears, goggles, gloves, splash suits, etc.
You must adopt and device safe working protocol, this is extremely essential, it is not necessary
that you always follow ball by ball guiding factor laid down by the different regulatory
agencies. Sometimes you need to develop your own safe working protocols based on your
requirements. Sometimes it may be more stringent than the regulation, so the safe working
procedure must be adopted. Or any combination, you may go ahead with any combination of
whatever protocols listed just above.
986
Now, based on various discussions you may evaluate the risks based on the various industry
standards because similar types of industries may be there in global scenario so what is the
industry standard. What are the legal requirements both global and national? You must be
aware of those requirements and you must adopt those protocols within your industry. Then
precautions already taken because some precautions may be inherently be taken by either
employees or employer, etc.
Do not forget to go for the cost estimation because whenever you are adopting those kinds of
risk protocols then definitely you are implying certain amount of money towards this. Then
you must know about the different working conditions for example, the weather, weather may
be critical. Sometimes in the northern belt of India you may experience the temperature
atmosphere temperature ranges from 2 degrees Celsius to 47 degrees Celsius.
So do not overlook the impact of that particular weather maybe you made, maybe higher
temperature, maybe fluctuating temperatures zone to either the material or the process,
machinery, etc because this type of changeover may impact the storage condition of your
industry, may impact the handling condition of your industry. Then you must analyse that how
many people are at risk, analyse the severity of injury, go ahead with the probability
calculations so that you can analyse that how much risk is there in your plant or equipment or
layout plants, etc.
Then do not forget to analyse or record the length of exposure or frequency sometimes
intermittent frequency. And we had a discussion about this in totality in industrial hygiene
987
module when we discussed about the length of exposure, sometimes intermittent frequency,
sometimes the continuous aspect, so do not forget all these steps while evaluating the risk.
Then go for this ALARP that is the legislation required employers to reduce risk to a level that
is as low as reasonably practicable, sometimes it is always referred as ALARP. To carry out a
duty so far as reasonably practicable manner, that the degree of risk in a particular activity or
environment can be balanced against the time. Trouble cost and physical difficulty of taking
measure to avoid the risk, so you can go ahead with this ALARP.
988
Then question arises how to control the risk, one aspect is that risk avoidance. This involves
regular decision on the part of organisation to avoid completely a particular risk by
discontinuing the operation producing the risk that means either you are having a substitution
or you are in a position to compromise with the certain aspect. One example is that replacing
the hazardous chemical by one with the less or no risk potential.
Sometimes you need to perform certain optimisation because if you are using the lesser
hazardous chemicals that means sometimes you are compromising with the yield, sometimes
you may compromising with the conversion, reaction kinetics, etc, so you need to optimise,
you need to calculate that whether if you are having the lower yield then how much economic
losses are there.
And sometimes if you are using higher hazardous chemicals with a proper protocol, proper
safety protocols sometimes you may save certain quantum of money so you need to go for this
optimization. Then the risk retention, now the risk is retained in the organisation where any
consequent loss is financed by the company. There are 2 aspects to consider, one is the risk
retention with knowledge and second is the risk retention without knowledge.
Another aspect is the risk transfer, this refers to the legal assignment of the cost of certain
potential losses from one party to another that is insurance. Now remember, insurance again
when you are going ahead with the insurance then again they are having certain set of rules. So
if by any chance there is any violation of those roles, so sometimes the insurance company they
may refuse to pay off the compensation.
989
So be particular about this particular risk transfer protocol. Then the risk reduction, the risk are
systematically reduced through control measures according to the hierarchy of risk control. So
we have gone through all the risk reduction aspects in the industrial hygiene segment, so by
substitution, by other change protocols we can reduce the risk at workplace.
Now since we had a discussion about the hierarchy, so let us have a look at the hierarchy of
risk control measures. You may eliminate or substitute the hazardous substance that is again
subjected to the chemical kinetics or yield or conversion, etc. Then you may go ahead with
different type of engineering controls, since these two things are supplemented then to
implement all these things you must have administrative measures.
Apart from these administrative measures you must have administrative willingness to adopt
all these types of protocols. You may have personal protective equipment or gears, etc. You
may put various types of play card at the workplace like warning at work area sometimes fire
and hazards, etc.
So, if you go to all those aspects, you may designate the hierarchy in terms of like these are the
most preferred one and these are the least preferred one. The reason is that the personal
protective equipment should be used as a last resort like for display of warning play card is the
last resort because you are unable to eliminate, you are unable to substitute the things and you
are unable to manage those things through your engineering control practices.
990
Now in this particular slide we have enlisted various kinds of control measures like elimination,
substitution, engineering, administrative so a broad spectrum or abroad example we can learn
from this particular table. Like sub-out task of suitable party that is the elimination then
substitution, replace the noisy conditions with quite conditions, you may install a fix guard,
auto guard, cover, limit switch, etc.
And administrative protocol says that you must have a proper staff selection for a job.
Similarly, you can develop like in personal protective equipments like helmet, hair-net, etc.
covers, splash suits, etc, glasses, goggles, etc, earplugs, muffs, sound attenuators, etc, so these
are the certain personal protective equipment. Now how to use those PPEs again is a question,
and those control measures and personal protective equipment they need to be properly
educated. Managerial aspect, they must ensure that through enforcement that everybody should
use all kind of this protocol.
Then the managerial aspect or administrative protocol suggests that they must encourage to use
all kind of these things with the help of quiz, contest, different types of signage, posters, etc.
Then based on the safety reviews and based on past practices how your system is prepared for
emergency then you must train all those workers for this type of things like first aid box, first
aid room, fire-fighting, etc so in the broad spectrum you can design, you can learn from this
type of tables.
991
Now another step is that you record your findings, record keeping is extremely essential while
calculating the risk assessment. The important elements are description of area or task, hazards
that personnel may be exposed to, so you must record all those areas, categorise those areas.
Details of the personnel who may be exposed to the hazard obviously those persons who are
working in that particular arena may be exposed to that particular hazard.
You must have records or details which hazards are significant and those which are acceptable
and why. Now, remember whenever you are discussing this, do not forget to refer the protocols
as laid down by the various regulatory bodies. Then the precautions to be put in place or reduce
the significant hazards to acceptable levels this must be recorded. How the precautions are to
992
be maintained or management of those systems, inspection of physical precautions, etc these
things should be well recorded.
Then in addition to these recordings other points like details of additional risk assessment like
control of substances, etc. Then what are the different emergency protocols or procedures, the
details of person completing the risk assessment, details of person counter signing the risk
assessment, it should be well-publicised and everybody those who are working in that arena
must aware that those persons who are responsible for this type of risk assessment. Then date,
school or group, location, etc all these things because these are the groups or schools or
locations, etc may be vulnerable, so you must record all those things that may be within the
plant location or maybe outside the plant location.
993
Then evaluation of risk, use the risk matrix on the form, estimate the risk before you adopt any
kind of control measures because ultimately economic will involve. Then identify the control
measure to lower the risk, estimate the risk after control measures that is the residual risk, then
again you may ask a question, can you lower the risk further ideally all low? Should be, but in
case if it is not there then you go ahead with the previous question being asked. Not all risk or
injury, what about the financial losses because remember everywhere there are financial
aspects involved in every aspect.
Then while recording the risk assessment you may adopt this type of a table. Like one part may
include the consequences including minor injury or not apparent injury, injury requiring first
994
aid, injury requiring medical treatment or with the possible long-term negative health effects,
etc. So you may ask that likelihood will the probability not occur in most circumstances if it is
low, then the last aspect is medium then definitely you need to pay severe attention.
Sometimes it may occur in some circumstances minor injury may be low, the consequences
may be on the medium side, then injury require medical treatment, etc if it is high then you
need to pay severe attention. So you must record all those things based on your knowledge and
based on your requirement. Then you must go ahead with various kinds of signature because
the signatures always authenticate the things that those who are other signing authority or those
who are the approving authority, they ensures that they have gone through all the protocols,
etc.
So all low risk, the principal investigator obviously it is you while as an engineer, if not the
competent to do so, then also the competent person who will sign it. Then the medium risk, the
principal investigator and competent person not the same, maybe some other different person
they will sign it. Any risk like principal investigator, the competent person then referred head
of any kind of may be head of the school, safety manager or it is related to the plant for the
formal authorization. So this is only a legal requirement if 5 or employees they are working
within the plant then you need to go for this kind of risk assessment.
995
The minimum record to include the date, hazard, maybe isotope activities, etc. The external
internal, contamination, spill, personal contamination, waste disposal, lost material, etc.
Sometimes you may experience if you are passing through any plant, sometimes you may
experience any off smell then you record this so that the person who is in charge of that
particular arena may find that what is the reason for off smell.
Then you record that personnel at risk with the name because sometimes the insurance
company may require this. Then you go for the special risk that is one team member is pregnant,
need to work between two laboratories, control measures, etc. So you need to identify for those
persons those may have some special risk and then you give proper attention to those special
risk involved persons.
996
The last steps says to review the assessment, now this involves various points like management
staff or principal investigator they will need to approve the implementation of various control
measures based on the discussion. Then the monitoring of the process or activity has to be
carried out to ensure that there is no residual risk or additional risk arising from the control
measures.
The risk assessors have to check or monitor the new implementation of control measures and
to communicate with respective lab or operational person whether they are working in the plant.
The review on the risk assessment to be carried out on the various bases, one of the basis is that
at least once every 3 years based on legislative requirement, sometimes after an accident or
incident occurrence, any change in the process or activity this we had discussion previously.
So in this particular module we had a broad discussion about the risk assessment protocol, we
have discussed about the different steps involved in detail. We have discussed about how we
can develop the chart or table for likelihood of any incident, we have discussed about that who
is the responsible person for what.
997
998
Now if you wish to have further look, then we have enlisted different references for further
reading further analysis, thank you very much.
999
Lecture 41
Review of Probability Theory
Now welcome to this module of Review of Probability Theory, now as far as the reassessment our
safety aspects are concerned we cannot overlook the importance of probability and how this
particular theory is applicable for any kind of risk analysis we are going to discuss in this particular
module.
While discussing this risk analysis aspect related to the probability theory. We will discuss about
the essential elements those who are involved in the probability theory remember we are not going
to deep of this probability theory we will discuss only things which are applicable for the risk
analysis. Then, what is the various aspects associative with respect to risk assessment we will go
for various mathematical approach of probability theory, discuss about the uncertainty in the
probability theory related to the risk assessment oblique analysis. Then we will go for various
expert opinion. So, let us have look that how this probability is important in risk analysis.
1000
So, let us have a chart of this quantitative risk analysis, so while calculating the risk analysis we
define the scope and objectives of our risk analysis approaches, then we find out that what are the
hazards present in the work place or the area in question which is applicable then we calculated
two aspect, one is the calculated that what is the probability of those hazards at workplace?
So we perform the probability analysis we need to perform other we need to perform the
probability analysis and we need to perform the consequence analysis that is the what is the impact
of those hazards on two different species those who are applicable at the workplace? So based on
these two analysis we perform the risk determination analysis or we determine the risk. Now then
we analyze the risk acceptability whether this risk is acceptable?
Now if this is not acceptable then again we need to go for this aspect to develop the control
measures because the probability analysis and the consequences analysis these two approaches
gives you an opportunity to modify your process based on the knowledge available to you or phase
modify the process conditions etc.
Now if it is acceptable (though) the risk acceptable within the limit of the regulatory body
guidelines or within the level of the approaches as suggested by the administrative persons then if
it is acceptable then operate and again you need to go for the control and review. Remember do
not overlook the importance of safety review so again in case any failure then again you need to
1001
perform the acceptability analysis of risk. So while going through this quantitative risk analysis
flow sheet we are now concentrating towards this probability analysis.
So probability the purpose of probability theory is to provide a conceptual foundation for the use
of qualified probabilities in risk analysis now it gives you a idea it gives you an analytical approach
to the plant person or the process modifiers or engineers that what is the problems in the particular
system and how this problems may get populated in due course of time?
So this probability theory gives you an information about that what are the chances of any kind of
failure or what are the chances of any kind of hazard population? You may draw a particular figure
through which you can analyze that chances are on the say 52 percent you are say for on 28 percent
approach you are in under the moderate conditions at 20 percent so it gives them measure impetus
about the probability approach.
1002
Now, today probability and statistical approaches they are the default way to measure the
uncertainty is in science and engineering. Now probability theory usually a logical construction
based on a small number of axioms, now, if one accepts those axioms then the result of
mathematical probability theory hold necessarily and they can be deducted from those axioms. So
we are not going into detail that what is the chances and other things we are just concentrating
towards our approach for the analyzing the risk.
1003
Now sometimes probability as a frequency much of engineering the probabilities interpreted to be
the frequency of occurrence of some event in a longer series of similar trails. Now, frequency
definition of probability are the ones that non-statisticians approach usually think of first.
Now, the classical definition this defines probability if there are n possible alternatives, for m of
which q is true then the probability of q is m by n. now this is a very small or simpler approach.
Now, if an event occurs a large number of times the probability of q is the limit of the ratio of the
number of trials on which q is true to whole number of trials as a number of trial tends to infinity.
1004
So you can apply that particular approach to the risk assessment. Sometimes there are four different
severities one is catastrophic, critical, moderate and negligible, so you need to analyze that whether
the probability of any system is frequent, likely, occasional, seldom or unlikely so based on your
probability approach or based on your knowledge you may experience that sometimes the
frequency of that the probability of particular incident may be extremely high in term with respect
to the, the frequent or a likely.
Sometimes it may be on the higher side sometimes it may be at lower side and sometimes it is on
the extremely lower so these are the risk levels. So while performing all kind of this probability
approach for the risk assessment you need to find out or you need to construct this type of chart so
that you can analyze the things more in a more proper way.
1005
Now, sometimes we may encounter several definitions in this particular approach like frequent
this occurs often in carrier oblique equipment service life everyone exposed this is continuously
experienced approach etc. then likely occurs several times in the equipment service life and
sometimes all members are exposed and occurs frequently. Occasional, this occur sometimes in
carrier or equipment service life so all members they are usually exposed occurs seldomly or
several times in the inventory service life.
Seldom, is possible to occur in the equipment service life all members they are exposed, remote
chances of occurrence expected to occur sometimes in inventory service life, unlikely this can
assume will not occur in the equipment service life all members maybe exposed to in case of any
eventuality possible but improbable occurs only very rarely, so sometimes (())(09:08) feels so they
are unlikely.
1006
So based on this particular knowledge you can put all this risk event probability under one head
then you go for the interpretation of those probability and then you give the rating. So because
based on this particular approach or a knowledge you can devise or you can adopt or you can
discuss the flowsheet which had discussed in the first couple of slides like probabilities within say
0.5 then extremely sure but not to occur the rating is very low, if the probability is in between 0.15
to say 0.25 not likely to occur then it is very low, sometimes if the probability lies from say between
0.65 to 0.75 likely to occur then the rating is very high.
So you can go for this risk protocol that is very high or risk meter that is very high so it goes from
low to high. Now, if you go on increasing the probability, risk event probability then it goes from
low, medium to higher one. So sometimes you may interpret like if it is per say 0.55 to 0.65
somewhat greater than an even chance so the risk is on the medium side etc. Now if it is say 0.95
to say 1 then extremely sure to occur then the risk is on the higher sides so you need to analyze the
things mathematically.
1007
Then you may need to construct the risk impact probability chart and it is as depicted in this
particular cartoon like you need to avoid the things then sometimes when you are compelled to go
for this one then there may be chances that you may be in a position to mitigate the things like this
the support is there so once if it is intend to fall then there is a mitigation that means you are having
the safety relief system with you. Then sometimes you need to transfer the things if accordingly
then again you are having various alternatives like substitute, attenuation, isolation etc.
Now, if you are not in a position to adopt all these things then definitely you need to accept that
the accident will occur. So based on this particular aspect you need to construct the chart that is
the impact of risk, what is the impact of risk and then what is the probability of occurrence? So
based on this thing low then you may adopt the low level risk go for the medium level risk and last
one is the critical risk. So like this you are moving form avoidance to the acceptance level.
1008
So when we are considering the low impact or low probability risk in the bottom left corner like
this, this one are low level and you can often ignore them because if you are giving much attention
to those scenarios then definitely you may lose precious time and you may lose the proper attention
to other important activities. Then there are certain things like low impact and high impact
probability the risk on the top corner this one are the moderate importance and these are happen
you can cope up with them and move on however you should try to reduce the likelihood that they
will occur.
1009
Another one is that high impact or a low probability the risk this one high impact and sometimes
low probability then risk in the this particular right hand corner are the high importance and they
do occur but they are very unlikely to happen. For these however you should do what you can do
to reduce the impact and they will have if they do occur and you should have a contingency plan
in just you should have a contingency plan in place just in case of they do. So you need to be
practically aware about this risk analysis it is likely it is shown in this particular cartoon.
Now there are certain possibilities of high impact and high probability that is this high impact
somewhere here in this zone, there risk towards the top right corner this is the critical importance
these are this should be or this are your top priorities and are risk that you may pay close attention
to that means you must devise the things in a accordance with this aspect. So we had discussion
that the probability plays a vital role while deciding the risk assessment methodology, so let us
have the look about the basic approach of a probability. Let us do for one experiment toss a coin
twice.
1010
Now there are two things in sample space the possible outcome of an experiments are either you
may have twice head, you may have a head and tail, you may have a tail and head and you may
have a tail-tail. Now, event that is a subset of four all possible outcome like A, A may have a both
the heads, B head and tail, tail and head and C that is both the tails, so probability of an event that
is number assigned to an event is say Pr(A) that axiom that Pr(A) is greater than equal to 0, and
the second is that Pr(S) that is equal to 1 and third one is for every sequence of disjoint event. You
are having this one or example Pr(A) is equal to n(A) upon capital N.
1011
There may be certain independent events now to test whether two events A and B are independent
this two events A and B are independent now you calculate the probability of A and a probability
of B and probability of A subset B, now check whether P probability of A subset B is equals to
probability of AB if they are equal then A and B are independent if not they are dependent. So a
set of event Ai is independent case. So, for example independent event they are not affected by the
previous events so like a coin does not know it came up heads before and each toss of a coin is a
perfect isolated things. So it does not have any impact of the previous event.
1012
Now, (example) another example; now there are four aces in a deck of 52 cards so on your first
draw the probability of getting an ace is given by the probability of ace 4 by 52 is equal to 1 by 13
now if we do not return this card into the deck the probability of the drawing of an ace on the
second pick is given by 3 by 51. Now as the above two probabilities are different so the two events
are dependent like because this event is dependent whether you are putting this card into the deck
or not. So the likelihood of the second event depends on what happened in the first event.
1013
So summarize now whenever we are going for the mathematics of a probability theory the
summarizes a selection of result of importance to risk analysis. So we use the probabilities to
quantify the frequencies and degree of believe because probabilities provide consistencies and also
because the probabilities allow complex calculations to be made about uncertainties.
Now the probability functions they are introduced for describing uncertainties with respect to event
or propositions and discrete and continuous variables. Now in risk analysis if one desires not only
1014
to quantify basic uncertainties but also to derive the implications of those basic uncertainties on
calculated results. Now this is usually accomplished using a derive distributions which result from
propagating uncertainties through mathematical models.
So probability theory is a branch of a mathematics logically consistent in sense that the

mathematics of probability theory can all be derived from a set of axioms. Axioms specify
properties that probability must have but do not say what probability is. So as a result many
interpretations of probabilities, probability are possible. Now this are more than one set of axioms
that probability theory can be based on.
1015
Like one axioms the probability of A event has a value between 0 and 1 so this is may be
probability of A occurrence of probability A is greater than equal to 0 or less than equal to 1.
Another axiom says that the sum of the respective probabilities of each of set of mutually exclusive
and collective exhaustive event like Ai is 1.0 that is the summation i P and all the probabilities A
i is equal to 1.
1016
Third one the probability that two independent defined below that is event (A y) A i and A j both
occurs equals the product of their respective probabilities that is probability of A i and A j equal
to probability A i and the probability of A j. So, all the mathematical relationship of probability
theory derive from these simple axioms.
Now, there are certain random events like the mathematical theory of probability deals with the
experiments and their outcomes. An experiment is a random process generating specific and a
priori an unknown result of an outcome. So the set of all possible outcome of an experiment is
called the sample space S and a individual outcome that is point within the spaces space are called
the sample points like this.
1017
So these are the sample space showing sample points and an event A.
Now this is the Venn diagram of event A and B in the sample space and this is where both the
event A and B both are occurs this is exclusively A and B so this is the set of A and B.
1018
There are certain conditional probability. The conditional probability this deals with defining
dependence of event by looking at probability of an event given that some other event first occurs.
So the conditional probability is denoted by the probability of B A. Now, if A and B are event with
the probability of A is greater than 0 the conditional probability of B given A is by this equation.
1019
A random variable x is numerical outcome of a random experiment and the distribution of a
random variable is the collection of a possible outcome along with their probabilities. So there are
couple of cases like discrete case that is this one
Pr(𝑋 = 𝑥 ) = 𝑃𝜃 (𝑥)
and the continuous case that is this one
𝑏
Pr(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = ∫ 𝑃𝜃 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎
There are certain binomial distribution so these are the just two (possibilities out) possible outcome
with the fixed probabilities summing to 1. Now this distributions are called the binomial
distributions like n draws of a Bernoulli distribution is given by this particular equation
𝑛
( ) 𝑃 𝑥 (1 − 𝑃)𝑛−𝑥 , 𝑥 = 1,2, … . . , 𝑛
Pr(𝑋 = 𝑥 ) = 𝑃𝜃 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥
0, 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1020
and the random variable X, this stands for the number of times that experiments are successful. So
it can be represented by this mathematical expression.
1021
Now, once you have this binomial distribution you plot this binomial distribution with respect to
probability and different type of events and sometimes this plots gives you very useful information
about the critical zones.
Now, this discrete probability distribution of this Bernoulli trial the random experiments that has
only two outcome success or failure. So the special case of, you may consider the special case of
1022
binomial distribution where n is equal to 1 so these are the certain special cases of binomial
distribution.
Pr(𝑋 = 1) = 𝑝
Pr(𝑋 = 0) = 1 − 𝑝
P𝜃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑃 𝑥 (1 − 𝑃)1−𝑥
Let us have a look about the Poisson Distribution, this is used to calculate the probabilities of
various numbers of success based on the mean number of success. So this coming from the
binomial distribution you need to fix the expectations that is lambda np and now let the number of
trials say n tends to infinity so a binomial distribution will become the Poisson Distribution and it
is represented by this mathematical expression. So again you need to plot the Poisson Distribution
with respect to the probability and you will get this plots for various lambda values like lambda 5,
15, 25, 35 etc. so you can identify that what are the critical zones for your process.
𝜆𝑥 −𝜆
Pr(𝑋 = 𝑥 ) = 𝑃𝜃 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑥! 𝑒 , 𝑥≥0
0, 𝑂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
1023
1024
Then go for the normal or a Gaussian Distribution so when we repeat an experiment numerous
times and average our result the random variable representing the average of mean tends to have
a normal distribution as a number of experiment become very large. So the normal distribution has
two parameters associated with it that is the Mu (mean) that is represented by Mu and standard
deviation by this one.
So the probability density function is given by this particular mathematical relationship
1025
1 (𝑥 − 𝜇)2
𝑃𝜃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {− }
√2𝜋𝜎 2 2𝜎 2
𝑏 𝑏
1 (𝑥 − 𝜇)2
Pr(𝑎 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 𝑏) = ∫ 𝑃𝜃 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {− } 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 √2𝜋𝜎 2 2𝜎 2
and the expected value is E [X]= μ for normal random variable X and a variance is given by this
particular expression.
V(X)= 2
Another thing is that the Baye’s Rule this is given the two events A and B and suppose or you may
assume that probability of A is greater than 0 then the
Pr (B| A) = Pr(AB/Pr(A) = Pr(A|B)Pr(B)/Pr(A)
Let us have a an example that bag 1 contains 4 white and a 6 black balls while another bag 2
contains 4 white and 3 black balls. One ball is drawn at random from one of the bag and it is found
to be the black, find the probability that it was drawn from bag 1. So you can calculate easily by a
1026
certain assumption let have the look that which bag is it one? How many total number of balls are
there?
So based on this particular corollary you can have the solution like E1 with the event of choosing
the bag 1 and E2 is the event of choosing the bag 2 and A be the event of drawing a black ball. So
probability of E1 is equal to probability of E2 is equal to half that is 0.5. Then the probability of A
being picked from bag 1 is 6 /10 because it is having the 6 black balls and total number of balls
are 10 so the probability of A being picked from bag 2 that is 3 /7 because it has the 3 black balls
and total number of balls are 7, so by using the Baye’s theorem the probability of drawing a black
ball from the bag 1 out of two bags is 7 by 12, by this particular mathematical representation.
Now the hypothesis once you analyze all this things you must have an hypothesis and you must
have an evidence so based on this things you can calculate or you can adopt this Baye's Rule.
1027
Now, suppose that the B1 B2 B k from the partition of s over here then you may have this
representation
𝐵𝑖 ⋂ 𝐵𝑗 = ∅; ⋃ 𝐵𝑖 = 𝑆
𝑖
and if the probability of Bi greater than 0 and the probability of A is again 0 then you can analyze
this one by this mathematical equation.
Pr(𝐴|𝐵𝑖 ) Pr(𝐵𝑖 )
Pr(𝐵𝑖 |𝐴) =
Pr(𝐴)
=
∑𝑘𝑗=1 Pr(𝐴𝐵𝑗 )
= 𝑘
∑𝑗=1 Pr(𝐵𝑗 )Pr(𝐴|𝐵𝑗 )
1028
Now there is a concept of uncertainty now the lack of certainty state of limited knowledge where
it is impossible to exactly describe so you must have the existing state you must have a knowledge
about future outcome and the possibility of for more than one outcome this is very crucial aspect
while calculating the risk analysis.
Now there are categories of uncertainty entering into the risk analysis like risk analysis, you are
having three aspect decision model uncertainty then knowledge uncertainty then the natural
variability. Now this are the subdivided into three aspect the decision of decision model uncertainty
1029
may be having the various objectives must be fit in with the values they are given the time
preferences and the knowledge based is the model and different parameters. The natural variability
is the temporal and special. So if you wish to have proper analysis or detail analysis you can look
into this particular reference.
Now there are certain expert opinion many important uncertainty is in the risk analysis are not
amenable to quantitative estimation from the data. In some cases there are no (())(28:41) at all only
for only the judgment of experts. Now these uncertainties have traditionally being treated using
the expert opinion. So the knowledge of those expert is based on the intuition, the un-enumerated
past experience the subjective theory and other important but the qualitative benefits. So there is
question that how do people estimates subjective probabilities?
1030
While it is evident that the subjective probability requires integration of integrating information of
various kind of within a consistent framework it is less clear how people do this. Now the
subjective probabilities they should be concordant with the probabilities theory they should have
a sum of 1.0 and 1 would prefer they be calibrated to observe frequencies in the physical world
and they should be they should have a predictive values.
1031
So let us have a review of this probability theory the equipment failure on fault in a process occur
as result of complex interaction of individual components so there are variety of components
involve in such kind of an incident. The overall probability of a failure in a process depends highly
on the nature of the interaction.
It is just like that you are having two process 1 and 2, so what is the interaction between these two
processes? So sometimes this depends on this interactive parameters now data are collected on the
failure rate of a particular hardware component with adequate data it can be shown that on average
the component fails after a certain period of time and this is called the average failure rate.
Now there are certain revealed and unrevealed failures in many chemical process it is possible for
a piece of an equipment to fail without the operator being aware about the situation and that is
called the unrevealed failures. Now without regular and reliable equipment testing the equipment
can fail without notice the failure that are immediately obvious they are called the revealed failures.
1032
So we must know this type of approaches. Now redundancy the systems they are designed to
function normally even when a single instrument or control function fails this is achieved with the
redundant control including two or more measurements, processing paths, actuators that ensure
that the system operates safely and reliably. Now the degree of redundancy depends on the hazards
of the process and on the potential of the economic losses that is why this particular aspect should
be kept always in your mind.
1033
There are certain common mode failures occasionally and incident occurs their result in a common
mode failure. Now this is a single event that affects a number of pieces of hardware simultaneously.
For example consider several flow control loops a common mode failure is loss of electrical power
or a loss of instrument air etc. Now a utility failure of such type can cause all control loops to fail
at the same time. Now the utility is connected to those systems via OR-gate now this increases the
failure rate substantially.
When working with control system one needs to deliberately design the system to minimize the
common cause failure and sometimes it may lead because if temperature sensor fails then it may
got to the thermal (())(32:44) reaction. So all things this increases the failure rate then with n
number of times. So in this particular module we had a discussion about the basic approach of a
probability theory, how it can apply how this particular probability theory knowledge we can apply
for the risk assessment.
1034
Now if you wish to have some other related the readings we have enlisted various references for
your convenience you can go through you can gain more and more knowledge about the
probability approach on the risk assessment, thank you.
1035
Lecture 42
Event Tress
(Qualitative Risk Analysis)
Welcome to the new module pertaining to event trees that is the Quantitative Risk Analysis of
any hazard or hazard process. Now it is in extremely important aspect for any kind of safety
analysis because it relatively deals with the quantitative analysis that what are the probability and
what are the different consequences for any kind of hazard that may happen during the process
area. So let us have an overview about the event trees. In this particular module we will discuss
about the various definitions related to event tree we will go for various steps or the procedures
or the guidelines they are related to event tree analysis.
We will discuss about the occurrence frequency of nay incident then we will discuss the mean
time between the shutdown mean time between the runaway with the help of certain examples.
So let us have a look about the various definitions related to event tree.
1036
So when an accident or a process deviation that is an event sometimes it is referred as an event

occurs in a plant the various safety systems both mechanical, human come into play to prevent
the accident from propagating. Now, we must understand that whenever an there is a chance of
an accident or accident takes place then there is some deviation of the process properties or the
process scenarios because your process is customize for the safe operation with the help of
certain safety devices etc. so you need to look into these deviations and these system these safety
systems either fail or succeeds.
So whenever you have any kind of safety system then either it may fail or sometimes it may
succeed with respect to its objective it is just like that you are having a pressure cooker that is the
pressurized vessel it is equipped with two type of vents one is the safety wall another one is the
safety vent. So frequently you may experience that steam is coming out or issuing from the
safety vent and sometimes if anything fails or excessive build up then safety wall may rupture
and by this way it can release excessive pressure whatever build in with respect to steam.
So in that particular case it succeeded but if it fails then there may be a chance that, that pressure
vessel or a pressure cooker may collapse. So sometimes if it collapse then definitely it will attack
to the weaker point. So that is why this safety system they have only two options either they fail
or succeed. Now event trees they are used to follow the potential course of events as the event
moves through various safety system.
1037
So, let us have a look of this particular figure here you are having an accident now as a part of
safety this particular system may have alarms so it may be actuated there may be certain control
devices to prevent the accident so those control devices may fail or succeed then in case the of
accident there may be certain manual involvement or the human factor which we have already
discuss. So manual control may fail and sometimes the human error may involve so 1 or all 3
may contribute towards an accident.
So the probability of success or failure of each safety intervention is used to determine the
overall probability of each final outcome that is extremely important. So event tree analysis
evaluates the potential accident outcome that might result following an equipment failure or a
process upset known as initiating events.
So you must identify that initiating event. This may be in terms of this particular formula that is
control you may have a different control the things C1, C2, C3 upto C n plus the probability of
success of control that means you need to calculate the probability of each and every aspect that
is P1, P2, P3 to P n that gives you the overall probability of that event control. So in case of
accident you need to calculate the overall probability of those event and control.
1038
Now this analysis is a forward thinking process so analyst usually begins with an initiating event
which we had discussed in the previous slide they developed the possible sequences of events
that describes the potential accident the analysis the sequence considering for both successes and
the failures of the safety function as the accident progresses.
Remember we sometimes in a common fashion we used to analyze the process with respect to
the safety. We rarely or seldom we discuss about the failure of those safety devices. So event tree
analysis or event tree the quantitative analysis argument all those aspects. So an event tree used
to determine the frequency of occurrence of the process shutdowns or any kind of runaway
systems.
1039
Now there are certain guidelines they are attributed to this event tree analysis now we have
enlisted all those guidelines in various slides. Now first guidelines is the define the system or
area of interest, so you need to specify mist have a clarity or a clearly define the boundaries of
the system or area for which event tree analysis will be performed so you need to year mark that
particular area then second aspect is that to identify an initiating event of interest like sometimes
the component may failure component failure.
Sometimes it may happen that there is an increase in temperature or a pressure because various
in past various accident took place just because of the temperature and pressure increment. There
may be a chance of release of any kind of hazardous substance there may be a chance of
involvement of nay foreign component that may be through raw material contamination or may
be due to the process outcome may be a bi-product or side product or a base product.
1040
So based on this particular knowledge you conduct screening label risk assessment to identify the
event of interest or categories of event that the analysis will address. So you must be very
focused about it. Now this categories may include such things like as grounding, collision, fire,
explosion or toxic releases. So we have enlisted all those things because they are the outcome
like toxic release, fire grounding, explosions etc.
1041
So on the basis of this particular aspect you identify the safety functions designed to mitigate the
consequences of initiating event you need to identify the lines of assurance and a physical
phenomena. Now this lines of assurance include both engineered system and the human attention
because you cannot overlook the importance of this human actions also identify the physical
phenomena like ignition some sort of meteorological conditions that will affect the outcome of
initiating event in past there are several incidents like if they were the meteorological conditions
plays a vital role sometimes the atmosphere is heavy sometimes the humidity is on the higher
side, sometimes the wind direction may play a vital role.
Suppose there is a toxic release then if the wind direction is towards the populated area then the
consequences would be on the higher side compared to the wind direction towards the low
populated area or rare area. So you need to identify all those physical phenomena then you need
to construct the event tree and on the basis of this you describe the resulting accident event
sequences.
So there are certain points you need to remember and those points are that event tree analysis is
based on binary logic in which an event either has or has not happened or compared has or has
not failed. So there are only two option either this work or will not work. So it is a valuable in
analyzing the consequences arising from a failure or undesired event. It is generally applicable
1042
for almost any type of risk assessment applications but used most effectively in model accident
where the multiple safe guards are used as a protective feature.
Now there is one approach called inductive approach in this approach you need to specify or
identify an initiating event and work forward towards the final result. This identifies how a
failure can occur and what is the probability of the occurrence of that particular failure?
So this particular aspect is important while calculating the consequences. So event trees they are
used to follow the potential course of event as the event moves through the various safety
systems. The probability of success or failure of each safety intervention is used to determine the
overall probability of each final outcome.
1043
Now let us have a look of this block diagram related to the event tree, you are having some
initiating events may be based on different type of component identification component 1, 2, 3
upto component n then simultaneously you are evaluation of assessment success and failure rate
for each component so based on this particular aspect you are analyzing this failure rate of each
component then based on this two important information there is a development of basic event
tree diagram.
Now it can be divided into three different aspect one is that the development of sequential effect
this may lead to the pruning of event tree analysis diagram and second thing is that assessment of
conditional dependency this is again attributed to the pruning of the event tree diagram. So
based on this particular aspect you can construct the final event tree analysis diagram and on the
basis of this diagram you can go ahead with the consequence assessment.
1044
So let us have a look about the binary logic model based on two things one is the control success
another one is the control failure. So each event can have only (one) two outcome this two that is
the success or failure the chain propagates similarly until the initial event terminates. So if let us
have look that if I is the initiating event and let us see that xi is the consequential events where I
is equal to 1, 2, 3 and x is the success that is s and failure F. So this is the initiating event maybe
success failure then again this success may be attributed to S2 F2 based on all kind of aspects
and everywhere you can design this two steps success, failure etc.
1045
So the first step that is the identification of initiating event like this then the second step that
identification of safety function designed to deal with the initiating event this one then you go for
construction of event tree that is step 3then you classify the outcome that is you describe the
resulting event sequences and next step is to estimate the conditional probability of each branch
here you can have the conditional probability of each branch then you go for quantification of
outcomes in the next step and based on all this aspect you go for evaluation.
1046
So the first step that is the identification of initiating event this may be identified during the
HAZOP as a potential event that could result in the adverse consequences so usually this
involves a major piece of operating equipment or processing step that is HAZOP or sometimes
Study Node. Now, the system or equipment failure human error or the process upset so one
example is that loss of cooling water to an oxidation reactor. So the you may have a different
type of aspect in the initiating event like strategy, risk different type of control methodology you
may have the proper information related to that particular industry or a process and these are the
supporting events for to identify the initiating event.
So you analyze these aspect with the help of HAZOP analysis step like you must have a proper
strategy and go for analysis if this is the risk then you must have a plan then the process all
information related to the process must be available based on the process you go for the
assessment, what are the controlled methodology based on the information available to with the
various resources then you need to evaluate perform the review go for the analysis and perform
the strategy so all this aspects are sometimes (())(15:03) if you perform this kind of HAZOP
analysis.
1047
Then you identify the safety functions so from PID process flow sheet or a procedure find what
is safety systems are in place and what their functions are? So here we have enlisted different
P&ID symbols for various valves like Bleeder valve, Gate valve, Ball etc. Now this can include
things such as automatic controllers, alarms, sensors, operator interventions etc. So on you Event
tree write across the top of the page in the sequence of safety interventions that logically occurs.
1048
So you give each safety interventions an alphabetic letter notation then the safety system that
automatically respond to the initiating event. The alarm usually sometimes you use the term
alarm usually alarm that alert the operator when the initiating event occurs and operator action
designed to be performed in response to alarms are required by the procedures. So there are
several barriers or containment methods etc. Now this are the intended to limit the effect of that
particular initiating event. So this is the inherent property of that event.
So this is the example of event tree now we are having the sprinkler system there is a
methodology called Call to Fire Department, Outcome and a Consequences. You may have a fire
there may be chance that sprinkler system may succeed or it may be chance of a failure. Now if it
succeeds then this is subdivided into two things success or a failure.
Now if it success then it is ok no problem but if it fails then there may b chance of partial
damage. So this is the consequence 2 and this is 1. Now in case of failure then the failure
methodology (fails) succeed then there may be a chance of a partial damage the consequence 2.
Now if it fail then there may be chance of system destroy so the consequence is 3 so this is the
outcome this is the methodology and this is the process of initiating step.
1049
Now step 3 is the construction of event tree so you enter the initiating event on the left hand side
like this then list to the functional responses chronologically here you have enlisted all the
functional responses then decide whether or not the success failure of the function can or does
effect the course of the event here which we have enlisted. Now if answer is yes the event tress
branched to distinguish between the success and failure of the function here we have the
branched in success and failure in both the aspect.
1050
The horizontal lines they are drawn between the function that applies here you have applied the
horizontal lines. Vertical lines are drawn with each safety functions that applies like success
upward, failure downward and no effect there would be no branch at all. Now indicate the result
of event that is circle you may indicate with the acceptable result, the cross circle that is
unacceptable result like this.
So here again one example is given that is explosion, the P is equal to 0.1 that is the probability
of event to happen now in case of explosion the start of fire that is true because the probability is
0.8 and start of fire that is false that means there is a failure, the probability is 0.2 then start of
fire that means the success then the sprinkler system not functioning that is sprinkler does not
function the probability is this one then sprinkler does not function then this one then the fire
alarm is not activated, fire alarm is not activated that is false, success failure may be activated
may not be activated, then if it is not activated succeed then the critical damage you analyze
through this one that is the outcome.
Similarly, if it is not activated that is the failure then the major damage is like this, similarly
sprinkler does not function the fire alarm is not activated this is the interlinked things so that is
the success then the damage is represented by this one. The fire alarm is not activated then the
damage is given by this one. Now this gives you the event end that is (())(20:28) minor damage.
1051
So here the Pi at is equal to P i if true then Pi is equal to 1 minus p if the false so net probability
is given by this function.
Now accidents they do happen so when accident or process deviation that is an event occurs in a
plant various safety system both mechanical and human come into play to prevent the accident
from propagation. Now these safety system either fail or succeed.
1052
So we must look into the occurrence frequency so the follow the process through which each
step to calculate the frequency of each consequence occurring now typically there are three final
results maybe in terms of continuous operation, may be the safe shut down or may be the run
away or a failure. So you have to look into three different results.
Now there is a concept of Mean Time between the shutdown so you need to evaluate this one the
mean time between the shutdown MTBS is calculated from this formula MTBS is equal to 1
upon summation occurrence of all kind of shutdowns. So the Mean Time Between the Runaway
reactions MTBR is calculated by this one MTBR is equal to 1 upon summation of occurrence of
various Runaways.
1053
Now let us have another example of loss of coolant to reactor, sometimes it is a usual practice
and it do occurs when we are having one any exothermic reaction or exothermic process within
the systems so you may have to go because of the catalytic requirement or because may be
because of the process requirement sometimes you may need to introduce the coolant. So that the
reaction temperature maybe at the appropriate level.
Now here this is a polymerization reaction here you are having a monomer feed this is the
cooling water coil here you are supplying the counter current cooling water and here the cooling
water which is at elevated temperatures coming out you are having the temperature controller
usually sense and usually actuates when there is a need of cooling.
So it may happen when you are not having the continuous cooling type of system so if it is if the
system reaction temperature goes beyond the acceptable limit then this temperature controller
activates and its sense to the cooling water so that the adequate supply of cooling water may
inside the thing. Now this temperature controller is usually affected or usually gets sensed by this
thermocouple.
Now here there is hig temperature alarm sometimes if it fails then this alarm will actuate and it
sensed or it gives an indication to the operator in question so that the remedial measure can be
1054
taken for to avoid any kind of process damage and sometimes it may happen because sometimes
this thermocouple may have a faulty this temperature controller may have the faulty things.
So if there is a reason the temperature rise in the temperature then this alarm will come into the
picture. So this if you see this particular figure there are three different safety devices one is the
temperature controller another one is this thermocouple another one is the alarm. Apart from this
you are having the cooling water supply and this cooling water supply is usually supported by
this temperature controllers sensors.
Our next step is that you need to classify the outcomes, now there are four safety interventions
one is that high temperature alarm, sometimes the operator notice in the high temperature during
the normal inspection when operator reestablishes the coolant flow sometimes because of the
failure of this things so he actually reestablish the cooling flow and then operator performs the
emergency shutdown of reactor.
1055
Then you may go ahead with the estimation of the conditional probability, now assume the loss
of coolant occurs once per year that is the occurrence frequency is 1 is every year. Now alarm
fails say 1% of time placed in demand that is the failure rate of 0.1 failures per demand then
operator will notice how reactor temperature 3 out of 4 times that is 0.25 failures per demand.
The operator will successfully restart the coolant flow 3 out of 4 times that is 0.25 failures per
demand then operator successfully shutdown reactor 9 out of 10 times so this are the
probabilities so 0.1 failures per demand.
1056
So you may construct this the entire event with the help of this result event tree analysis, you are
having the safety functions like high temperature alarm, operator notices the high temperature
operator restarts the cooling and operator shutdown the reaction. So here you may notice that
initiating event that is the loss of cooling 1 occurrence per year we have already may noticed
then based on this analysis 0.99 and 0.1 then go ahead the success failure then continue you go
for this continue operation then there may be a chance of shutdown runway reaction then the
circle is crossed. Now if it is there then the continuous operation shutdown runway reaction so
you may construct by this way in terms of result you may construct this event tree protocol and
then you perform the event tree analysis.
1057
Then we go for the quantification of outcome recall the previous formula if we are having the
shutdown then we have to sum up this thing summation that is 0.2250 occurrence per year based
on this particular protocols and if there is a runaway you can calculate this one, this one etc. So
we are having the 3 conditions of runaway, 1, 2 and 3 so after summing up it comes out to be
0.2500 occurrence per year. Now the event tree analysis show that dangerous runaway reaction
will occur on an average of 0.25 times per year or once in every 40 years this is very critical
analysis.
1058
So this is considered too high for this type of installation. Now possible solution of this inclusion
of high temperature reactor shutdown system this system would automatically shutdown the
reactor in the event that the reactor temperature exceeds a fixed value.
Now the next step is the evaluation of a possible outcome so the lettering is used to identify the
each final outcome, for instance ABDE in this the indicates that after initiating event A occurs
the safety system B failed that is high temperature alarm the safety system B failed the operator
1059
was unable to restart the coolant and the safety system E failed that the operator was unable to
successfully shutdown the reactor that is the extreme condition.
So the advantage let us have a discussion about the advantage. They are the structured progress
and mathematical approach it gives the quantitative analysis this can be effectively performed on
varying levels of design details may permit the probability assessment.
1060
Once we are having the advantages then obviously it comes with certain disadvantages so the
event tree analysis can only have one initiating event therefore multiple ETAs will be required to
evaluate the consequence of multiple initiating event. So it becomes extremely (())(29:19) the
partial success failure are not distinguishable this is I see as disadvantage. We require some
analyst with some training and the practical experience.
Now let us talk about the applications of this ETA, to identify the sequence of event that follows
a given failure or error as it could lead to a loss in system performance the result of an event tree
analysis are accident sequences or failure sequences they are useful in analyzing the effect of
safety system or emergency protocols or procedure on accident prevention and mitigation.
1061
They are used to during the definition, design, modification or operation phase of a system so
they are having the very wide spectrum. Now used as a tool for demonstrating the efficiency of
accident prevention and mitigation techniques. Now although this event tree analysis is priory
used for the safety analysis it can be quite useful for quality procedure analysis dealing with the
correct action procedure design and development. So this analysis has a great potential to add in
process control special cases are detected using this SPC.
1062
So let us have a look about the quantitative and qualitative analysis a comparison chart. Now the
qualitative risk analysis is they identify all hazards the quantitative risk analysis identify all
hazards so both are equal in this case. Now here in the qualitative risk analysis they select a large
set of scenarios in the quantitative risk analysis they select a small set of scenarios which with
the largest consequences so you need to find out all this scenarios. Now in the qualitative and
risk analysis they determine the expected frequency that is the likelihood whereas the
quantitative risk analysis obtain some feel for the likelihood of these scenarios.
The qualitative risk analysis they determine the consequence of all these scenarios and combine
all this result using wind directions like wind direction statistics etc and they calculate the
individual risk around the plant where is the quantitative risk analysis they determine the
consequences of this scenarios. Now in qualitative risk analysis you need to draw the individual
risk on map and compare with the acceptance criteria here in the quantitative risk analysis you
need to draw safety distances and a particular map.
1063
Now in qualitative risk analysis the aim is to classify the features, count them and construct
statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed. Whereas in quantitative risk analysis
the aim is to complete detailed description. In qualitative risk analysis the researcher knows
clearly in advance that what he or she is looking for whereas in quantitative risk analysis the
researcher may only know roughly in advance what he or she is looking for.
1064
The qualitative risk analysis is recommended during the later phase of any kind of research
project whereas the quantitative risk analysis recommended during earlier phase of a particular
project. In qualitative risk analysis the all aspect of study are carefully designed before data is
collected. In quantitative risk analysis the design emerges as the study unfolds. So in qualitative
risk analysis the researcher uses tool such as questionnaire or equipment to collect the numerical
data whereas in quantitative analysis the researcher is the data gathering instrument. So this is
again very crucial.
Now the (quantitative) qualitative risk analysis is recommended during the later phase of any
kind of research project and this quantitative risk analysis is recommended during the earlier
phase of risk research project. So in all aspect of study they are carefully designed before data is
collected in qualitative one whereas the design emerges as the study unfolds in the qualitative
analysis. So in qualitative analysis data is usually in the form of numbers and statistics whereas
in quantitative analysis the data are in terms of words, pictures or various objects.
1065
Now question being asked that is there any difference so one scientist is that there is neither
strictly deterministic nor strictly probabilistic approach to risk analysis each probabilistic
approach to risk analysis involves deterministic argument such as deterministic approach
includes quantitative argument which decide how the likelihood of event is going to be
addressed.
1066
A key distinction between the fault tree analysis and event tree analysis. Fault tree we are going
to discuss in next in other module is that in the later that is in event tree analysis an initiating
event is assumed to have occurred whereas is in fault tree analysis this initiating event is usually
the event for which the probability of occurrences s determined. So the initiating event maybe
the result of a particular system failure or it maybe caused by some external circumstances such
as natural phenomena etc. so in this particular module we have discussed about the event tree
analysis, what are the different guidelines associate for event tree analysis, what is the impact of
this event tree analysis in terms of qualitative and quantitative analysis in the process industry.
1067
So you may for further reading you may have a look of the these references which are enlisted
over here thank you very much.
1068
Lecture 43: Fault Tree
Quantitative Risk Analysis
Now welcome to the module pertaining to the Fault Tree Analysis, now this related to the
quantitative risk analysis related to the fault tree, so let us have a look about that what we had
studied in the previous module.
We had gone through the basic concept of event tree, we had gone through the definitions and
different steps of guidelines related to the event tree, we have discussed about the protocol
related to the event tree development, how we can develop the event tree, we have gone through
the advantage and disadvantage related to the event tree analysis, discussed about the various
applications and above all we have gone through the and we had a discussion about the
difference between the qualitative and quantitative risk analysis.
1069
Now in this particular module we are going to have an introduction of fault tree analysis, how it
originated, we will discuss about the understanding of the model of this fault tree, we will go
through the basic definition, history and we will discuss about why we need to perform this fault
tree analysis. Now once we will discuss this basic aspect of fault tree perform, then we will
discuss about the basic building blocks of fault tree analysis and how they can perform this fault
tree analysis. So once we will develop and discuss all these things then we will discuss about the
advantages and disadvantages associated with the fault tree analysis with application.
1070
So let us have an introduction of this fault tree analysis, these industrial operating system, they
consist of a combination of various components, they are clubbed together to form a single unit
to perform a specific operation, now let us have an example like the production of ammonia.
Here it is quite simple that we are having the nitrogen reacting with hydrogen to give you
ammonia, but there are several other steps involved, there are several components involved.
The basic component is that what is the appropriate temperature, what are the safety
methodology, now if obviously this reaction is an exothermic reaction then how to control the
isothermicity of that particular reaction? So there are various components involved in the
production of this ammonia, so these components are club together and they form a particular
unit for the production of ammonia.
So once we are having the different units so it is desirable to analyze the possible failure
sequences those who are related to such operations and we need to perform a probabilistic
analysis while developing a production cycle to successful, mitigate any kind of risk there for
and associated with that particular thing. So we need to carry out a failure analysis with these six
words like Where, When it happens, Why, Who was involved, How it happened and What, so
based on these types of sequential questions you may perform these kind of studies.
1071
Now this usually a preventive analysis and this analysis is performed to protect the end user from
unidentified and unacceptable consequences, so the fault tree analysis is you can say the one of
many tools available to identify the potential failures and mechanism associated with them. So it
is a hierarchical representation of various events those are directly or indirectly interact with each
other, so you are having different events in a particular plant so they may be either interactive or
may be non interactive with each other. So, to produce other events, sometimes if via the
interaction and non interaction, they may produce other events and develops a way through
which a particular failure can occur.
1072
So, hence proper functioning of system must be known before performing any kind of fault tree
analysis, so as fault tree produces a separate hierarchy for each event it becomes invaluable for
analyzing big and complex processes. It is a very important point.
Now let us discuss about the origin of this one, now as product and process technology becomes
more and more complex that we have already discussed with respect to one example of the
production of ammonia, the visual fault tree analysis has been proven to be invaluable as
standalone risk technique or supplement to the Failure Mode and Effect Analysis.
1073
Now here you are having a FMEA that is the Failure Mode and Effect Analysis, you may start
with any one of the function that detect the (failure) various failure mode, go for the severity,
then you go for the probability, go for detection and then you perform the risk priority numbers
that is R, represented with the multiplication of severity, probability and detection. So this is
termed as the failure Mode and Effect Analysis.
Now let us have understanding of the model that the fault tree analysis is a top down deductive
analysis technique which is used to depict the possible consequence or the possible sequence of
an event failure, so it provides all the possible path through which a particular failure event can
occur in the single hierarchical chart, this FTA is constructed by the help of Boolean logic
through which each step is divided into two extreme outcome whether it is true or false. Now
these events are arranged in a sequences of a series relationship through O R, ORs or the parallel
relationships through AND or AND, the Boolean logic.
1074
Now these sequences, they lead to form a tree like diagram formed through the logical symbols
which visualize the dependencies among the events, now the event can be you can say the
mechanical component or a software glitch or can be rise from the electronics used while
designing the system. So the failure event of any particular system under the study is called the
top event, this one. Now the event which cannot be sub divided further in different branch or sub
systems so hence if the terminating group of the branch of the tree that is called the basic event.
1075
Another definition that is the fault, what is the fault, this is an abnormal undesirable state of a
system which can be attributed to the implementation of wrong command or sometimes with no
implementation of command or due to failure of system or component of the system, so if the
system is interrupted by safety device and has been shut down then it will not be counted as a
fault because this is the deliberated event.
Now failure that is the loss of functioning of a system or component of the system that is called
the failure, for example let us say the Pressure vessel burst, the vessel failure, the cooling coil is
not functioning due to the corrosion, sometimes leaking, sometimes lack of pressure, etc. so
sometimes the cooling system fails.
Now sometimes it may happen that thermocouple coil is broken and hence relief device is unable
to detect the system temperature so it may be termed as relief device failure, now there is
different failures, one is the primary failure, now if the failure is occur due to the system itself
like failure within the life span leakage, system has no exposure to the surrounding then it is
called the primary failure.
Now the secondary failure, the failure occurred due to the exposure of the system to the
surrounding or manufacturing errors such as sometimes improper design may lead to such kind
of failure, wrong selection either maybe in terms of a raw material, maybe in terms of process
conditions like with respect to the pressure and temperature, sometimes there may be certain
1076
operational errors such as the use of device above the rated limit, etc. So these are termed as the
secondary failure.
Then there is a concept of multiple occurring event that is called MOE, so MOE or failure event
mode that occurs more than one place in the fault tree, this is also known as redundant or
repeated event, another is the multiple occurring branch that is referred as MOB. Now this
multiple occurring branch is a branch that is used in more than one place of in fault tree analysis,
so all basic event in multiple occurring branch will be the multiple occurring events in that
particular case, so branch usually are subsection of a tree. The module, an independent subtree or
branch that contains no outside multiple occurring event or multiple occurring branch and is not
a MOB, that is the multiple occurring branch.
1077
There are certain cut set limits or cut sets, these terms like cut set, this is set of events starting
from basic event to the undesirable top event that together cause the top event to occur that is
called a cut set, one is the minimum cut set that is sometimes referred as MCS, now this is a cut
set with a minimum number of events that can still cause the top event. There is a super set, this
is a cut set that contains a minimum cut set plus additional event to cause the top undesirable
event, the critical path, this is the highest possibility cut set that drives the top undesirable event
probability.
1078
Other is the Cut Set Order, the number of elements in a cut set, the cut set truncation, this is the
removal of cut set from consideration during the fault tree evaluation process, these cut sets are
truncated when they exceed a specified order or probability.
So let us have a look about the history of this fault tree analysis, so this fault tree analysis was
first developed in 1961 for the United States Air force by H. A. Watson at Bell Telephone
Laboratories for the use of with the Minuteman system. Now later it was adopted extensively
applied by the Boeing Company. So that is why we have used this the trademark of these two,
Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Boeing. So the system safety analysis tool, this was
developed in 1963 and is applied to the entire Minuteman system for safety in between 1964 to
67 and 1968 to 1999.
1079
The first technical paper presented for at the first system safety conference held in Seattle, June
1965 then it was used by Boeing for the design and evaluation of the commercial aircraft and in
the year 1966, the Boeing developed the 12 phase fault tree analysis simulating program in the
Colcomp roll plotter and further it was adopted by Nuclear Power Industries between 1971 to
1980. One of the many symbolic logic analytical technique found in the operation research
discipline.
1080
So the recognized software codes, they are included with the Prepp Kit, SETS, FTAP, the
Importance and COMCAN, they are adopted by the chemical industries in between 1981 to
1990, the commercial code developed that works on various personal computers, it was in the
1991 to 1999 and it was adopted by the robotics and software industry simultaneously.
Now the fault tree analysis is best applied to the cases which are having the large and perceived
threats of losses that is for example very high risk, some cases they are the numerals potential
contributors to a mishap, sometimes a complex or multi-element systems or processes they may
have the fault tree analysis, sometimes already identified undesirable events can be applied,
sometimes certain indiscernible mishap causes like autopsies, etc. so in that particular case we
may apply this fault tree analysis.
1081
This provides a traceable, logical, quantitative representation of causes, consequences and event
combinations, this are the amenable to, but for comprehensive system requiring use of softwares,
etc. There is intuitive, requires training, not particularly useful when the temporal aspect they are
important.
Now the question arises why fault tree analysis, why we are looking for this fault tree analysis,
the basic purpose of this fault tree analysis, is to identify the combination of equipment failure
and human error that can result in an accident event, so our predictive mode. Now the question
1082
arises okay we know that why we are using this fault tree analysis, but when to use this fault
tree?
So there are couple of options, one is under the design mode that is the fault tree analysis can be
used in the design phase of the plant to uncover the hidden failure mode that result from
combination of equipment failure another is with respect to the operation, so this fault tree
analysis including operator and a procedure characteristics that can be used to study an operating
plant to identify the potential combination of failure for specific accidents.
Now, let us have a look about the results, there are various types of results, now a listing of sets
of equipment or operator failure that can result in the specific accident, so one mode is this one,
now these sets can be qualitatively ranked by the importance, the nature of result that is the
qualitative with the quantitative potential this fault tree can be evaluated quantitatively when
probabilistic data are available so this is the foremost requirement that you must have all these
data with you.
1083
The other requirements may includes the staff requirement so under the staff requirement one
analyst should be responsible for a single fault tree so with frequent consultation with the
engineers, operators and other persons who have experience with the system or any kind of
equipment those involve that particular equipment, involve in the process that are included in the
analysis. The next is the a team approaches always desirable if multiple fault trees are needed so
with each team member concentrating on one individual fault tree, there must be interaction
between the team members and other experienced person, it is always necessary for
completeness of this analysis process.
1084
The data requirement, a complete understanding how the plant system functions that is the
upmost requirement for this system, the knowledge of the plant, system equipment failure mode
and their effect on the plant or system, it is quite essential under the head of the data requirement.
The time and cost requirements, they are highly dependent on the complexity of the system
involved, modeling a small process unit could require a day or less with an experienced team.
The large problem with the many potential accidents or accident event and the complex system
could require several weeks even with an experienced analysis team, so that is I mean in terms of
a variable.
1085
Now while considering the (applic) applying the fault tree analysis you must postulate the top
event that is the fault then branch down the listing fault in the system that must occur for the top
event to occur, must consider the sequential and parallel or combination of the fault, use Boolean
algebra to quantify the fault tree with event probabilities you need to determine the probability of
the top event that is once you have postulated the top event that is fault.
1086
Then adopt for the (free) fault tree logic, now use this logic gate to show how top event occurs,
higher gates are outputs from the lower gate in the tree, the top event is output of all the input
fault or events that occur.
Now there are certain, let us have a discussion about the fault tree building blocks, so you can
divide into the four different groups, basic event, gate event, conditional event or the transfer
event. So let us have a look about the basic event that is the failure event, that is the primary
failure or a (cir) usually denoted by the circle symbol, the secondary failure that is represented by
the diamond symbol. The next is the normal event and usually it is denoted by the house symbol,
this is an event that describes a normally expected system state, now the probability can be either
0, that is no or 1 that is yes.
1087
So these are the various symbols which are used in the fault tree analysis, this is the circle, the
basic and primary event, the conditional event, the undeveloped event, the external house event,
the dormant event, the basic primary event, now these events they are represented by the legends,
they are event, this one represents the event, this one is the basic and a primary event, this one is
the conditional event, this is the underdeveloped event and this is the house or external event.
Now let us have a look about the gate event this is the logic operator combining the input nodes
so gate event is a junction where a fault logic is either permitted or inhibited so there are only
1088
two options, now there are five basic type of gate events, AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, Priority
AND gate and Exclusive OR gate.
Now there are certain condition events so it develops a condition that is required for the
occurrence of the gate event, so these two are interlinked. Now these conditions are symbolically
attached to the gate event, now there are three types of condition event, Inhibit, Priority AND,
Exclusive OR.
1089
There are transfer event, this is a pointer used to tree branch like this, now it indicates a sub tree
branch that is used elsewhere in the tree and it is represented by a triangle symbol, now it can be
used for several purposes, now it may start a new page of plot, it indicates where a branch is
used, numerous places in the same tree but is not repeatedly drawn, that is the internal transfer.
Now it indicates an input module from a separate analysis that is called the external transfer.
So these are the (gates) gate and other symbol, AND gate, OR, NOT, that is the Priority one,
exclusive OR, this is the combination, this is the inhibit and this is the Majority Vote Gate, that is
M input out of (N input) N output, now this is the sequence gate and these are the transfer
symbols, this is the transfer IN and this is the transfer OUT.
1090
Now, let us have a look about the union, now here there are two events, either B or C, so if this
switch is open then definitely there would be no current and if the battery is at 0 volt then
definitely there would be no current so A is the result of B plus C and B or C must occur for any
kind of event that needs to occur with respect to A.
Now whereas in intersection you are having the two system E and F, these are simultaneously
they need to be occur like this is the 5 milli ampere current in a system and power applied should
1091
be greater than 1 millisecond so these two needs to be occur, so E and F must occur for any kind
of this process to be happen.
So there are guidelines for the developing fault tree analysis, you must replace an abstract by a
less abstract, to classify the event into the more elementary events, you need to identify the
distinct causes for an event and the couple trigger event with no protective action, you need to
find the co-operative causes for an event and pin point a component failure event, so these are
the certain guidelines for the development of a fault tree.
1092
Now question arises how to perform the fault tree analysis, there are five basic steps to perform
the fault tree analysis, these are, you need to identify the hazards, you need to obtain the
understanding of the system which you need to analyze then you create a fault tree then based on
your knowledge you identify the cut sets, so once you identify the cut sets then you try to attempt
to mitigate the risk whatever being identified through this particular analysis.
So let us take the first step that is defining the undesired event and that is obviously is having the
top event so usually several different but equivalent fault trees can be constructed for a given
1093
system so also different top events they left to the different fault trees, so it should be defined
that as precisely as possible, so you need to ask or frame several questions that how much impact
does the top event pose to the system, what will be the duration of that particular top event, what
are the (consequence of) consequences of happening, that is the safety impact. What is the
environmental impact, what is the regulatory impact, so you need to frame all these questions
and you need to answer all these questions.
Then identify all the immediate necessary and sufficient events to the top event, now those
immediate event they are the collection of past event, previous experience, they should be always
included in fault tree, then necessary event, always try to include only those events which are
actually necessary. Now inclusion of small faults event lead to the complication and complicated
visualization of the scenario, there are sufficient event, so usually do not include more than the
minimum necessary.
1094
Now the second step is to obtain the understanding of the system, this create or acquire the
appropriate support in formation, this includes the list of the components involved in the system,
boundary diagrams, schematic diagrams, code requirements, that is safety code associated to the
system, engineering noises and environments, example of similar product or failures and in case
if you have any previous fault tree analysis data it should be included.
Then starting from the top event, list the potential causes of hazard in accordance with the level
that is the top level, level 1, 2, 3 to the basic event. The development of fault tree should be
1095
focused on completion of single level first and then proceed to the next level. So always try to
include the past experience in the design engineers who have good physical thermodynamic or
chemical engineering knowledge of that particular system. Now this knowledge is very crucial
for cause selection.
Now it is usually team work this process, hence assign to who can assists in developing the
relationship of the cause to failure or fault, now the procedure is continued until the basic failures
are identified. So identify each causing event as one of the following path like primary fault,
secondary fault, command fault, etc. Then you need to estimate the probability of the cause at the
base level event, now label all (cause) causes with codes and prioritize or sequence cause in
order of occurrence or probability.
1096
Now the next step is the construction of fault tree, the set of events that all required to produce
and event of interest are connected to an AND gate then the set of events that can individually
produce an event of interest are connected to OR gate, it is a complete analysis of system
including mechanical, software as well as the electronics used in the system. Now this risk may
be prevented through engineering choices or control through quality control.
Now the basic event depicted usually as a circle or oval, now this the basic event is the point at
which the team can address the risk, now usually typically they are color coded, usually red that
1097
is the critical risk, orange that is the high risk, yellow minor risk and a green that is acceptable or
very low risk.
The fourth step is to identify the cut sets, now risk is estimated for each event so when available
the failure rate data can be used to calculate the risk of a single chain or many chain. Now if
there is no data, an estimate is established based on subjective guidelines similar to those used in
FMEA development, failure mode analysis. Now the cut set with the risk greater than the system
can tolerate that is the safety or in operative conditions are selected for mitigation, so the actions
are required for the critical, that is the red one and high risk which we have already discussed
with respect to the orange color.
1098
Now the minimal cut set theory says that the fault tree consists of many level of basic and
intermediate events linked together (and or) AND OR gates, some basic events may appear in
different places on the fault tree, the minimal cut set analysis provides a new fault tree logical
equivalent to the original with an OR gate beneath the top event whose inputs sometimes in the
bottom are minimal cut sets. Now each minimal cut set is an AND gate with a set of basic event
input necessary and sufficient to cause the top event.
1099
Then you will have a performance correction and the make decision so the application of
Boolean algebra and minimal cut set theory will result in identifying the basic events that is A
and the combination event BCD that have the major influence on the top events, so this will give
the clear insight on what needs to be attended and where the resources has to be put for the
problem solving.
The last step that is the step 5 that is the control of hazard identified, now have your plan of
action according to the fault tree analysis, now any risk that is not corrected up to the desired
limit can have a potency for the system failure and hence can be treated as topic of mistake
proofing and quality control. Now controlling such issues they may lead towards the satisfaction
and protection of customer from the risk.
1100
The examples of mitigation strategy is so when risk is unacceptable for the team may have
several options available, there are few example of the options available like you may have
option to change the design, you may have a selection of component with higher reliability to
replace the base level event component, now this is often expensive unless identified early in
product development.
Then the physical redundancy of the component, now this option usually places the redundant
component in parallel to the other one so the both must fail simultaneously for hazard to be
1101
experienced and that is very unprecedented, so if a safety issue exists the option may require
non-identical components. Then the software redundancy, the addition of sensing circuit which
can change the state of the product often reduces the severity of the event by protecting
component through duty cycle changes and reducing input stresses when identified.
There are certain warnings systems, so the circuit may just warn off an event, now this requires
action by an operator or analyst so it is important to note that if this course of action is taken the
human factor reliability, they must also enter into evaluation, so this particular aspect is
important. Another one is the quality control, so this may include the removal of potential failure
through testing or inspection, now the inspection effectiveness must match the level of severity
that the hazard may impose on the consumer.
1102
There are certain things you need to remember while performing the fault tree analysis like
always try to omit inputs with a small probabilities, always remember the difference between the
active and passive components, sometimes you may need to ask yourself does the quantified tree
makes sense, do not fault tree everything, be careful with the Boolean expressions, you must
have independent verses dependent failure modes, ensure the top event is having the high
priority.
1103
Now the fault tree quantification, this analysis is not quantitative analysis but can be quantified
so the question arises how to quantify this one, so draw fault tree and derive the Boolean
equations, generate the probability estimates, assign estimates to events and then combine the
probabilities to determine the top event, so this the user protocol for this quantification.
Now let us have a look about the advantages of fault tree analysis, this searches for the possible
causes of an end effect which may not have been foreseen, the cut sets derived in cut set analysis
can derived in fault tree analysis can give enormous insight into various ways the top event
occurs, it is very useful tool for focused analysis where analysis is required for one or two major
outcomes.
1104
The graphical representation of fault tree analysis help understanding the logic, the starting from
top event, convenient selection of the point of interest to find the root cause of the problem, the
monitoring and control optimization of the safety performance of a complex system is usually
possible under the head of this fault tree analysis, now easy compatibility towards the system and
towards the reliability of the system. Now it deals well with the parallel, redundant or alternative
fault paths, usually it provides the framework for thorough qualitative and quantitative analysis
of the system.
1105
The cut set method can be developed to give the enormous insight into various ways unwanted
top event may occur, now creating the list of precarious equipment, part or a various event, the
result can directly rank the (contribution) contributors leading to the top event, now one may use
the mathematical model, a number of modes could be arrived at reparable one, non-repairable
one or standby modes. So there could be consideration of sensitivity of cases for modification to
system component, architecture and component testing intervals.
So we have discussed a lot of the advantage of this fault tree analysis, so let us have a look about
the limitation of fault tree analysis, they require a separate fault tree for each top event and
makes it difficult to analyze the complex system. Now the fault trees they developed by the
different individual, they are usually different because they depend on their own perception, so
they usually different in structure, producing different cut set limits and results. So the same
event may appear in different parts of the trees leading to some initial confusion, so this is the
disadvantage of this fault tree analysis.
1106
Apart from this, it is very time consuming analysis and requires a large efforts for a complex
system, sometimes the possibility of omissions may occur then the failure event probability may
increase, there is no existence of any kind of partial failure and sometimes it is an integral part or
a process, for calculating the error probability of top event, probability of all basic events are
necessary which are not always possible to obtain because it may lead to cumbersome process so
this is again one of the disadvantage of fault tree analysis.
1107
Let us have look about the application of fault tree analysis, they are used in the field of safety
Engineering and reliability engineering to determine the probability of safety, accident or a
particular system level failure. Now they are used to monitor the performance of the system, they
are used to assist in designing a system as per the safety and regulatory concerned, sometimes
they are used to analyze the effect of medication in the present system.
They are used as a diagnostic tool to identify and correct causes of the top event, they are used to
understand the impact of changing environment or change in the duty cycle of the same design.
So in this particular module we have discussed about the various aspects of fault tree analysis,
different guidelines, limitations, advantages of the fault tree analysis, how do we constrict this
fault tree and we had a small discussion about the application of the fault tree analysis.
For further (ref) studies you may have a look of the references listed in this particular slide, thank
you very much.
1108
Lecture 44
Cause Consequence Analysis and Layer of Protection Analysis
Welcome to this module related to the Cause Consequence Analysis and Layer of Protection
Analysis sometimes abbreviated as LOPA. Now just we would like to have a brief outlook that
what we have studied previously because this particular module is linked with the previous
module.
So we had an production about the fault tree analysis and during this analysis we have gone through
the origin we had a very good understanding of the model of this fault tree analysis. We were well
acquainted with the basic definition and history of this Fault Tree Analysis then we had a brief
discussion about that why there is a need to perform fault tree analysis.
And apart from this we had discussion about the various building blocks of fault tree analysis and
the basic methodology through which we can perform the fault tree analysis. Apart from this we
had a discussion about the advantage and disadvantage or sometimes referred as a limitation of
this fault tree analysis. Now in this particular module we are going to study about the cause
consequence analysis.
1109
We will have an introduction about the layer of protection analysis LOPA which is very significant
nowadays. We will have a discussion about the Independent Protection Layer sometimes referred
as IPL and its classification. We will have a discussion about the use of LOPA that is a layer of
protection analysis then discussion about the steps involved in LOPA.
We will have a discussion about the initiating event frequency because it is very crucial while we
are discussing ETA that is Event Tree Analysis or a Fault Tree Analysis. Then we will have brief
outlook about the Probability of the Failure On Demand PFD, Fail Safe Position will be discussed
in the later part of this module and the periodic reliability testing apart from this we will have the
discussion about the operation modes and limitations.
1110
So let us start with the Cause Consequence Analysis. Now this cause consequence analysis is
usually a modified form of fault tree analysis now which utilizes some of the features of event tree
analysis so you can say that this is an argumentation of the salient feature of both event tree analysis
and the fault tree analysis.
Now this postulate an initiating event as far as the event tree analysis is concerned and develop an
event tree diagram and this simultaneously this develops the fault tree for all accident identified in
the event tree diagram. So you can say that this is the modified version of this ETA and fault tree
analysis.
1111
Now the process this can be reversed in that a top event is defined the fault tree and then developed
therefore the for each safety function in the fault tree and event tree is developed. There are some
special symbols you will use like hexagonal symbol for denoting the consequences and the
crescent sign for denoting the branch point which is which will be used in this particular
methodology. Now rest of the part we have already discussed in event tree analysis and the fault
tree analysis.
1112
So let us have an introduction about this things, so while performing any kind of HAZOP analysis
various possible process deviation and their probable consequences of potential accident is
assessed. Now based on your previous knowledge this assessment is carried out. Now after
determining this event tree analysis and a fault tree analysis the possible safeguards are identified
to mitigate the risk because ultimately the mitigation of the risk is our prime motto.
So a list of all supporting safeguards need to be created to understand whether it provides complete
or partial mitigation to the process risk. So in case if provide the complete then it is of very good
use and if provides the partial mitigation then again we need to go for to take the further steps. So
some of the listed safeguards may depend over other safeguards and some may be independent
from one another.
Now the team which who is carrying out all this aspect the team observing a particular safeguard
may also miss interpret its integrity with other because sometimes the system may say that this is
a foreign body so they may not be the system may not be in a position to interpret properly that
particular safeguard tool. So that is why it may miss interpret its integrity and its impact towards
the risk reduction.
So there is always a chance of either underestimation or overestimation of required safeguard for

the successful mitigation of the process risk. So both the conditions either underestimation or
overestimation is always undesirable. So you must have a proper optimization so these problems
1113
may arise the requirement of an independent assessment of the safeguard to ensure the adequate
risk reduction.
So let us have a some of the definition related to this particular aspect. The layer protection analysis
LOPA is study conducted on the basis of risk identification analysis such as HAZOP to assess the
adequate safeguard required to address the particular risk. So nowadays it is an upcoming field so
therefore because it gives you an optimized level of safeguard tools so it is defined as frequency
and the potential consequence severity so it is used to understand how a process deviation can laid
to a hazardous consequence and if not interpret by the successful operation of a safeguard and
sometimes this particular aspect. Is referred as independent protection layer or IPL.
1114
So it is to be noted that these countermeasures like IPL as per the name suggest must be
independent to each other to be very effective. Now this is semi-quantitative approach which
generally applied to the system and their protective safeguard which is already in place. So the
term semi-quantitative this represent that LOPA utilize this both qualitative that is characterized
by method such as HAZOP and What-if analysis or as well as the quantitative usually they are
characterized by the method such as Event Tree Analysis and Fault Tree Analysis so the
quantitative approach to decide the adequacy of existing or proposed system.
1115
Now remember the LOPA does not suggest which additional safeguards are required but it assures
that the potential risk to the process system is successfully mitigated to an acceptable limit. Now
this LOPA is limited to a single cause consequence pair as a scenario.
So let us have a look about the independent protection layer that is referred as IPL now this
independent protection layer IPL is they are intrinsic safety system as an independent series of
element those are related to the process design and maintenance. So let us have a look about the
salient features of this independent protection layer. First thing is that criteria now this is having
the very specific aspect it is Independence, Dependability and Auditability.
Now there are three D’s which we need to remember Detect, Decide, and Deflect. Similarly we
are having three E’s that is referred as Fats Enough, Strong Enough, and Big Enough so Enough
is there. Then there is one big I that is Independent so all IPL’s they are safeguards but not all
safeguards are IPL so this thing must be remembered in all the aspects. Now let us have a look
about the classification of IPL’s.
1116
Basically there are two ways to classify it one is on the basis of the passive and active approach so
the passive IPL dike, underground drainage system, open vent then then there is no valve etc, fire
proofing, blast wall or bunker, inherently safe design, flame or detonation arrestors etc and then
active IPL they are having relief valves, rupture disc, basic process control systems, safety valves
etc then interlocks. There may are certain sensors like instruments, mechanical may maybe or
human then decision making process with the help of logics solver, relay, sometimes human etc
then various actions like instruments maybe attributed to the mechanical or a human aspects etc.
1117
Now let us discuss about the use of LOPA so LOPA is used all around the process lifecycle, this
includes the research, the process development because sometime research may lead for the
process development then after process development the process designed place so process design
then operator and maintenance modification schemes and then decommissioning. So it covers the
entire process lifecycle.
This provide guidelines in process design it also decides the safety the critical aspect of various
safety measures it identifies the operator action and responses. So LOPA is typically applied after
it qualitative hazard analysis has been completed. Now it is a cost effective that LOPA is used
during or after the HAZOP review or revalidation. So you can cut down the cost the entire
designing or process lifecycle cost.
1118
There are various tasks associated with the LOPA one foremost task is 3 Q’s, what are those? The
Q’s first question is that how safe is safe enough? Then second Q is that how many protection
layers are needed? Because ultimately it decides the cost the third Q is that how much risk
reduction should each layer provide? So the providing rational semi-quantitative risk based
answers and sometimes another task is the to reducing the emotionalism and provide the clarity
and consistency and sometimes the major task of LOPA is the documenting the basis of decision
because sometimes it maybe referred for future study or future consequence analysis.
1119
Now there are various steps associated with the LOPA process we have enlisted all those process
the step 1 that need to identify the consequence to screen the scenario because there may be several
consequences then you need to shortlist or screen the scenario then the step 2 that is the select and
accident scenario so you will have a different scenarios then you need to pick the accident scenario
because there may be certain process related scenarios there maybe certain safety related scenarios,
there may be certain environmental related scenarios so you need to select and accident scenario.
Then the third step is identify the initiating event and determine the initiating event frequency, so
that you can properly design this particular process a priory then step 4that is you need to identify
the IPLs and estimate the PFD of each IPL so that you can narrow down or zero down the process
then step 5 that you estimate the risk and step 6 is that you evaluate on the basis of your estimation
you evaluate the risk.
Now, there are benefits of LOPA this these benefits are enlisted in this slide this LOPA takes less
time than the quantitative risk analysis the reason is that you have already shortlisted the various
scenarios so the time devoted to those unnecessary is less or curtailed compare to the quantitative
risk analysis. Now this LOPA provides the better risk decision basis because you have already
zero down your process now LOPA is more defensible for more rigorous documentation and
specific value than qualitative methods. Now this LOPA identifies the operation and practices so
it is more practical compare to the tools available.
1120
Now, let us have a discussion about the layer of protection by CCPS-AICHE now the CCPS stands
for Chemical Process Safety and it is a branch of American (chemical) American Institute of
Chemical engineers this is the foremost body of chemical engineers across globe. So you can have
a look that there is a hazard present over here then you need to take the process decision then there
are certain basic controls process alarms and operator supervision then the critical alarms and
operator.
The super vision and manual intervention, this is the another layer, then the automatic actions or
SIS for various system then the physical protection of the relief devices so these are the preventive
safeguards. So once they fail then the physical protection like dice and the plant emergency
responders so they are the mitigating safeguards so that it cannot propagate further.
1121
Now in this figure the safety protection is broken by several layers the layer 1 this particular layer
is the process design then we have discussed the basic control process alarms etc. so you can see
that there different layers.
Now on the basis of these different layers you can respond to various accidents if any take place
so it is to be noted that these layers describe not the exhaustive layers of protection and not to
consider as a complete one because some unforcing circumstances may take place. So the
development of layer of protection depends upon the type of case additionally no layer can be set
1122
perfectly effective and additional layer must be provided to perfectly mitigate the risk. So let us
have a look about the frequency of consequences that is sometimes referred as 𝑓𝑖𝑐 this can be
calculated through the frequency of initiating event that is (IEFi) and probability of the failure on
demand of IPL that is (PFDij) they are two events so this can be calculated through this particular
mathematical relation that is
𝒇𝒄𝒊 = 𝑰𝑬𝑭𝒊 × ∏ 𝑷𝑭𝑫𝒊𝒋
Fi is equal to IEFi into PFDij now this represents the product of all PFDs.
Now, let us have a look initiating event frequency IEF so in the previous module we have discussed
about various initiating event in failure so that leads to start the event. So IEF that is initiating
event frequency this represents the frequency of occurrence of such event in a particular interval
of time typically you can say the per year. Now this failure includes various kind of mechanical
failures sometimes error attributed to the operator sometimes maybe because of some bug etc the
software error sometimes any kind of electronic instrument or instrumentation panel may fail so it
is attributed to electronic error.
1123
Now the probability of a failure upon demand that is PFD this failure on demand is a case when a
safety system fails to react when an initiating event happen. So let us take an example that if a
relief device is assigned to address the pressure relief in case of reaction runaway and if runaway
occurs then it is considered as a demand the reason is that without this pressure release system you
cannot control the process. So in a testing experiment a relief device or through previous say plant
history now if it is observed that the relief device opens in 98 times out of 100 demand then the
PFD will be calculated as 100 minus 98 because this 100 the demand and 98 is the success. So it
is 0.02. So the PFD would be 0.02.
1124
Now, there is a Fail Safe Position so let us consider a case of electricity failure in the plant so what
will happen if the safety layer designed depend upon this electricity then definitely it could not be
in a position to work so it may also be possible more than one safety layer which we have already
discuss depends on the electricity in this particular case both of the layer will not be considered as
independent as they depend upon one cause. So this type of situation leads the safety engineer to
evaluate the fail safe position of the control device.
1125
Now the Fail Safe Position of a safety device sometimes like example of the pressure relief valve
is how it should operate? It should operate when there is a loss of power or signal because there
may be certain relief devices those who are actuated with the power or electricity and some of the
safety devices they do not require any kind of supply of power so let us discuss the previous case.
Now the proper functioning of the safety device must be known to assess this position. In this in
the case of pressure relief device it should be noted that majority of this devices are pneumatic that
means it depends on the air pressure to function. So the functioning of the relief system already
discussed we have already discussed the relief segment of the various modules so air has to be
added to release to function a relieve device.
Now this understanding develops two extreme cases for a relief device that is can be either AIR to
CLOSE that is Fail-Open or it can be AIR to OPEN Fail-Close type system. So fail-open it means
that the valve will open during the loss of power now to achieve this goal the wall should require
air pressure to stay close so during the power loss due to the lack of air pressure the wall will
automatically open. So this is the fail-safe position.
1126
So let us have an example of fail-open scenario, so let us consider a case where the pressure relief
device is mounted with the inlet of water line of a cooling system now this cooling system is
provide to cool down the vessel during the reaction runaway. So let us assume that suddenly an
electricity failure occurs which led to the loss of control to the pressure relief device. Now there
are two possibilities, one is that runaway does not occur and second is that runaway occurs.
So for case when the runaway reaction does not occur now there will be no need of any kind of
cooling system and the process will continue but due to the installation of fail-open relief device
1127
suddenly cooling water will start flowing which leads to lower down the reaction temperature and
it may interrupt the process. So this may lead to the loss of product quality for the batch and
sometimes it may lead to economic losses but the good news is that no accident happens but
ultimately there is a loss in the product quality and there maybe a chances of the process shutdown
so economic loss may occur.
For the case number 2 when the runaway reaction do occur now due to the installation of this fail-
open relief device suddenly cooling water will start flowing which leads to lower down the reaction
temperature inside the vessel and eliminates the chance of accident hence the fail-open device must
be installed in such a cases. So to better understand try to think of another example where fail-
open device is required.
1128
Now another thing is that the fail close, the fail-open it means that the valve will close during the
loss of power now to achieve this goal the valve should require air pressure to remain open so
during the power loss due to the lack of air pressure the valve will automatically close.
So let us have an example of fail-close scenario so consider a case where a control is installed at
the inlet of the feed of reaction vessel and a control supply of feed is required to eliminate the
chances of any reaction runaway. So if power fails then due to the lack of air supply the control
valve automatically close and the feed will stop entering into the reactor. The product formation
1129
will gradually stop and maybe the quality will be compromised or a challenged for that particular
batch but the reaction vessel will remain safe so this is the plus point of this particular thing. Now
let us have a look about that either fail-open or a fail-close scenario.
So let us assume that if fail-open device was installed in case of a fail-close then during the power
failure the inlet will remain open and that would result to the reaction runaway and the safeguard
is set to be failed. So in other words the safeguard or fail-open device for this case is called the
dependent on electricity hence it cannot be considered as an IPL scenario. So from the above
discussed example it is obvious that if safety instrument system that is SIS sometimes if we recall
the layering of AICHE diagram the layer 4 must be independent of basic control and the process
alarm and the operator supervision which are clubbed in the layer 2 of that particular diagram.
1130
Now there are certain things related to the Periodic Reliability Testing, so each layer of safety
protection system it must be audited periodically. Now the period of testing depend upon the type
of safeguard like big relief valves are in question then 3 to 4 years cycle if sensor this sensor maybe
attributed to the fire, toxicity, and others maybe monthly. So the time period of the testing can be
estimated through the probability of failure PFDs higher the PFD shorter the time period of the
testing it requires to maintain the reliability of the IPL. So this ultimately this is the governing
factor.
1131
Now SIS operation modes so the lower demand mode the mode of operation where the IEF is not
greater than one per year so the IPL is not challenged more than once per year. Now there is another
high demand mode now the mode of operation where IEF is greater than one per year the IPL is
challenged more than once per year. There is another mode that is called the continuous mode now
this mode of operation where the process must be retained in a safe state as part of normal
operation. So if an IPL is working in high or continuous mode then efforts should be made to make
improved design and maintenance such that IPLs they are able to operate in low demand.
Now there are certain limitations they are attributed to LOPA now LOPA is also based on the
numerical risk analysis so it has some limitations. Now in the order of magnitude risk calculation
this is the first limitations the value calculated are not precise due to the cumulative effect of values
after precision up to few decimal point. Now for large number of initiating event due to the
introduction of several IPLs the method is not feasible and LOPA is not suitable for common cause
failure event due to the mathematical limitation so be particular about using LOPA for various
scenarios.
1132
Now LOPA is the methodology for hazard evaluation and risk assessment and it lies between the
simple qualitative and more elaborative quantitative analysis technique and in decision making
process the LOPA helps to decide the propriety of protection layer that exist are suggested to
prevent the accidents so ideally matches the risk decision criteria of the particular unit or a
company whatever you would like to say. Now this LOPA is recognized technique that can
establish a proper safety integrity between level SIL of that particular process.
1133
So using LOPA we need to set up proper protection layers that evaluate analysis that evaluate
analyze and decrease the risk in chemical process. So in particular module we had discussion about
the cause consequences and LOPA and this are the you can say the elaborative work of your event
tree and fault tree analysis.
So if you wish you to have further discussion or further study then you can have a look of these
references which are enlisted over here, thank you very much.
1134
Module 9
Lecture 45
Bow-Tie Analysis
Welcome to the module related to the Bow-Tie Analysis, now previously we have gone through
the HAZOP analysis, risk assessment analysis, event tree analysis, fault tree analysis then we
have gone through the detail study about the cause consequences and then LOPA now this is the
analysis or ultimate analysis we carried out in the chemical engineering operations related to
safety aspect.
So let us have an brief introduction about this Bow-Tie methods. Now this Bowtie method is a
risk assessment process that can be used to analyze, arrange and demonstrate underlying
relationship in high risk scenario. So as the name Bowtie came from the final shape this final
shape that this diagram takes which looks like men’s Bowtie like this. Now it is a visual
representation of a prevention and mitigation steps taken in an organization to eliminate or at
least reduce the chances of any kind of accident.
1135
Now this is a typical Bowtie diagram now here you are having two different aspect like
prevention and mitigation. Now there are various threats related to the process and these threats
are supplemented by these barriers. So this is the hazard and this is the top event so this threat is
coming through the different kind of barriers and sometimes these barriers they prevent all this
things to escalate the things and similarly there are several consequence and this consequences
again they are approaching to the top event and sometimes they are inhibited by the various
barriers like this then it may go to the escalation. Now as shown in the figure the broader sense
this diagram represents two factor now we are going into detail of this particular figure.
1136
First its provide a visual representation and summarize all probable accidents scenarios like this
that is the threats, consequences they are arises due to them and their relative escalation factors
that could exists around certain hazards and second aspect is that by identifying the control
measures these are the barriers these are the control measures you can say. So by identifying the
control measures the Bowtie represents sequentially the steps the company should take to control
those scenarios. So it gives a broader spectrum of the steps the company may require for to
control all those scenarios.
1137
The beauty of this particular analysis which create a difference between this and others is that it
also identifies the ways through which the control measures that is the barrier in the diagram for
both threat as well as the consequences they fail. Now this factors or conditions are called the
escalation factors it is very much represented in this both the preventive and the mitigation
aspect.
So summarize representation of escalation factor and the required measures associated with the
failure is also included in that particular diagram. So there are possible control measures for the
escalation factors as well as which is why there is a also special type of control they are called an
escalation factor control which has an indirect but crucial effect on the main hazard.
So the by visualizing the interaction between the controls different controls and their escalation
factor one can see how the overall system weakens and when control have escalation factors. So
beside the basic Bowtie diagram management system should also be considered and integrate
with Bowtie to give an overview of what activities keep a control working and who is
responsible for those control because you are having various control zones in that particular
Bowtie diagram. Now integrating the management system in a Bowtie demonstrates that how
hazards are managed by a company.
1138
Now this Bowtie can also be used effectively to use that hazard are managed to an acceptable
level ALARP which we have already discussed in other modules. So by combining the strength
of several safety techniques and the contribution of human and organizational factor this Bowtie
diagram facilitate workforce the understanding of hazard management and their own role in it
that is very important this what is your role to control that hazard. So it is a method that can be
understood by all layers of the organization due to its highly visual and intuitive natures. While it
also provides new insides to the hazards safety environmental professionals that is sometimes
referred as HSE professional.
1139
So let us have a look about the history of this Bowtie. So it is usually said that the first real
Bowtie diagram appeared in the imperial chemical industry (UK) it is a UK based company this
course notes on of a lecture on HAZAN that is Hazard Analysis given at the University of
Queensland Australia in 1979 but how and when this method found its exact origin is not
completely clear. So the catastrophic incident on the Piper Alpha platform in 1988 awoke the oil
and gas industry.
1140
So the after the report of Lord Cullen who concluded that there was far too little understanding
of hazard and their accompanying risk that are the part of operation the urge rose of gain more
inside the casualty of seemingly independent event and condition and to develop a systematic or
schematic ways of assuring control over these Hazards. So in early 90s the Royal Dutch or Shell
group adopted the Bowtie method as a company standard for analyzing and managing risk.
Now this Shell company they facilitated the extensive research in the application of the Bowtie
method and developed a strict rule set for the definition of all parts that is based on their ideas of
best practice. So the primary motivation of the shell company was the necessity of assurance that
appropriate risk controls are consistently in placed throughout all worldwide operations. Now
remember when we talk about the world wide operation the ground scenario is all together
different in all operations because they are located at various zones various different countries
etc.
1141
So following the shell the Bowtie method rapidly gained support throughout the industry now as
these diagrams they appeared to be suitable visual tool to keep overview of risk management
practices rather than replacing any of the commonly used system. So in the last decade the
Bowtie method also spread outside the oil and gas industry to include aviation, mining, maritime,
various chemicals and health care etc.
Now the methodological parents to Bowtie are that while the origin of Bowtie method itself is
unclear there were other methods which were either at the root of Bowtie thinking or which came
1142
later but can be used to explain type of thinking so we do have some idea about that what
logically preceded in the Bowtie. So we have already mentioned that there are two things that
Bowtie does first the Bowtie analyzes chain of the event or the analyzes chain of various event or
the possible accident scenarios so the way it does that was inspired by three different methods
the first method is the fault tree which we have already discussed which covers the left side of
the Bowtie in the different form.
The second is the event tree again we had a previous discussion about this event tree so which
can be seen on the right hand side of the Bowtie. So we are recalling the figure again like this
this one this is the right hand side of the figure so but this also different from the original event
tree so do not get confused while referring the original event tree it is bit different from the event
tree lastly the casual factor that is charting which is most likely the origin of escalation factor.
Now the second thing the Bowtie does is to identify control measures that an organization has in
place now this type of thinking is more easily explained with the famous Swiss Cheese model by
James Reason which is originated in early 90s.
1143
(Refer Slide Time: 11:24
)
Now a Bowtie diagram that visualizes the risk you are dealing with in a just one easy to
understand the picture so it is small and easy to understand figure. Now this diagram is shaped
like Bowtie creating the clear difference between the proactive and the reactive management.
The power of a Bowtie XP diagram is that gives you an overview of a multiple plausible
scenario in a single picture, so in short it provides the very simple visual explanation of risk that
would be much more difficult to explain otherwise.
1144
So the Bowtie diagram we can divide broadly into different parts one is that hazard that is the
start of the Bowtie diagram so you need to identify because we have already discussed the hazard
identification tools. The top event this define the top event causing the hazard there is a threat
that is you need to identify the threat that cause the top event then there is a consequences there
may be several consequences or a single consequence then preventive and recovery barriers
define the list of a preventive barriers so for a particular threat if you recall the figure we have
enlist.
We have pointed out several threats they are supported by the barriers those are the preventive
things for a particular threat then there is an escalation factor for preventive and recovery of
those barriers. Then they are certain EF barriers so we have already this escalation barriers,
escalation factors etc. we have already enlisted in that Bowtie diagram if you recall this diagram.
We were having the top event and there are various things like threats, escalations etc. they were
included in that particular Bowtie diagram.
Now there are various parts of this Bowtie so we had already discussed this point when event
tree analysis and a fault tree analysis but as these are basic elements of the math let us have a
discussion about this elements in a very short manner like hazard anything that is inside or
around the process unit oblique organization which has the potential to cause the damage harm
or adverse health effect on something or someone, harm that is the physical injury or a damage to
1145
health. Hazard, a potential source of a harm to a worker there is a risk that is the probability of
occurrence of harm during the exposure to hazard.
Now there are various type of hazards like chemical hazards and the physical hazards couple of
examples are chemical hazards that are hydrocarbon under pressure, smoke, toxic materials,
volatile fluids in tanks there may be certain physical hazards like moving road tankers or
vehicles, elevated objects, noise, people working at height and sometimes the high voltage.
1146
There may be certain biological or other hazards like biological hazard some toxicological lab
hazards, biological bacteria sometimes pathogens etc. Sometimes you may experience the
working outside the country without the family members that is the physiological hazard then
sometimes maltreatment or sometimes miscommunications etc these are the other hazards.
So we have enlisted several hazards and its harm like different things may be attributed to the
knife it may create the cut sometimes bleeding etc then it may be attributed to a substance like
benzene it may create the leukemia or carcinoma then it may be attributed to several material
aspect that mycobacterium tuberculosis is may lead to the tuberculosis, may be attributed to the
source of energy may be because of the electricity sometimes you may have shock or
electrocution.
Then there may be conditions sometimes may be wet floor you may slip, fall, injured etc. then
the process attributed to the process may be related to the hazard associated with this welding
and the harm is the metal fume etc. So you must have a clear cut picture or you must be in a
position to differentiate between the hazard and harm.
1147
Next aspect of the Bowtie part is the top event the hazard always occurs due to the miss
happening the top event is the moment where the control is lost over that particular hazards. So
you are not having any kind of things which you need to control. Top event does not mean that
the accident got happened but is the beginning of the accident.
So at this point it can be controlled if possible measures have been taken or sometimes you may
referred as a near missed type of thing. The top event that can be a threat or a consequence
depend upon what is describing and that is why the top event is enlisted over here. Now threat
the definition of threat is something which caused top event and this can be the multiple type of
threats for initiating a top event.
1148
A possible cause this can be a thermal, chemical, biological, electrical, sometimes electronic,
sometimes may be attributed to kinetic environmental radiation or human factor. So there are
several examples like high temperature inside or outside the process unit then tolerable limit,
sometimes the corrosion inside he vessel reactor or a pipeline. The biological contaminants to
cause illness or health hazard sometimes high or a low pressure than the tolerable limit,
sometimes erosion of a material due to the prolong use.
1149
Sometimes it may attributed to the power fluctuation may be higher or a lower voltage,
sometimes ultra-violate radiation, sometime like UV present in some rays deteriorates the
various materials such as plastic, resins etc. there may be certain environmental conditions such
as whether, temperature or humidity, sometimes human error that is lack of concentration,
mistake, anxiety and other factors. Sometimes attributed to the design of the system, sometimes
the improper maintenance may lead to this kind of scenario.
Now let us have an example so let us assume a fire in a process unit they may happen in the
factory due to the cigarette butt left near the explosive material but the fire is controlled
immediately through the fire extinguisher in that particular case the explosive material is hazard
the burning of the material is the top event, the cigarette butt is the threat and the fire
extinguisher is the mitigation step. So do you know the large number of fire accident cases were
caused just because of the cigarette butt so Bangladesh they have recorded 13.55% of the fire
accidents in year 2017due to cigarette butts. So this is for the sake of the example.
1150
Then again go back to the different parts of Bowtie the consequences, the result obtained due to
the happening of the top event there can be more than one consequence for every top event so
always try to describe every consequence related to the top event and do not directly move
towards final losses due to the consequence such as loss of man material as a damage
environmental impact, economical and social losses so this term should not be considered as
consequences. Now beside the consequences shall be written in terms of immediate concern like
for example the breakage of conveyor belt, oil spill into the sea, toxic cloud formation etc so
there may be so many.
1151
Sometimes it may create harm to the people or a worker maybe attributed that no injury or
damaged to the health slightly injury or injured or health effect handled using first aid or a minor
medical treatment they do not affect the work performance sometimes minor injury or health
effect loss of work time etc. they affect the work performance, restriction to work activities
restricted work day case etc. the complete rest of full recovery that is the lost work day case
because sometimes the worker maybe ask to go for the complete rest for the full recovery.
So that is attributed that is a lost work day case. Similarly sometimes the restrictions to the work
activity sometimes they are (not) they are assigned to a temporary job or sometime they are away
for the activities for which they are trained then in that particular case this is termed as the
restricted work day case.
1152
Now there are several examples of consequences the major injury or health effect that is the
permanent or a partial disability they effect the work performance ultimately lead to the
economic losses of the company. Sometimes a reversible health damage such as hearing loss,
irreparable bone injuries etc. this may happen. There may be a single fatality that can occur due
to the accident or illness. Now illness maybe attributed to the malfunctioning. There may be
certain multiple fatality like in Bhopal death can occur due to an accident.
1153
Other examples of like that damage to asset sometimes it may happen that there is no damage at
all in the plant then there may be a consequence of slight damaged they do not effect the regular
operation so slight effect may take place and then there is no process loss or any kind of
hampering towards the regular operation. There may be certain minor damage this may affect the
operation but it can be repaired in a short span of time.
There may be certain local damage this is the effect of effect operation for a specific time
interval there may be a chance of partial shutdown. There are certain major damages they
severely affect the operation but still something is going on. Then there is a thing of related to
the extensive damage that means it this extensive damage may lead the complete shutdown of
the process. So the severe economic loss so this are the consequences or example of the
consequences.
Apart from this because we had discuss this thing related to the asset which is within the plant
side or within the company. Now there may be certain effects they are attributed to environment
so the environmental effects are like zero effect, they do not pose any kind of environmental
concern that means they are within the limit as prescribed the various regulatory bodies.
Then they may have a slight effect that effect environment near the sight of operation so there
may be negligible financial consequences. There are certain minor effect the contamination
exceeds the legislative prescribed criteria for single time and there is no permanent effect to the
1154
environment so you can repair it or (repair) the environment itself repair that thing in C2. Then
there are certain localized effect that the contamination exceeds the legislative prescribed limits
and effects this severely effects the neighborhood environments.
There are several major effects the severe environmental damage and company requires the
extensive measures to restore the contaminated environment to its original state that means
heavy economic loss. Then there is massive effect that persistent severe environmental damage
and damaging the effect to the environment and the major economic loss to the company and
sometimes the regulatory body may ask to shut down its operation so that is the massive effect.
1155
Apart from this one psychological factor is that the impact on reputation so if there is no impact
then may be attributed to that more public awareness there may be slight impact that public
awareness may exist but there is no public concern so nobody bothers. There is a chance that you
may have a limited impact so some local public concern and local media or the political tension
with potentially adverse aspect of the company operation so sometimes it may reflect there may
be chance of considerable impact that is the regional public concern and adverse stance of local
government so again it may lead to the several negative aspect to the company.
1156
Then there may be a chance of national impact the national public concern so extensive adverse
effect or effect on the functioning of the company the national media and the political tension
attributed to the regulatory laws and sometimes you may experience the mobilization of various
action groups there may be a chance of international impact. The international public attention
extensive adverse attention in international media with potentially severe impact on access of to
new areas, grants and legislation. So you may recall or you may refer to the Bhopal gas tragedy
when it was an international impact as well as the national impact on the company called union
carbide.
Now let us have a look about the barriers so the barriers they are the measures taken to prevent
the threats or to prevent the consequences of a top event once the hazard is released. So this
barriers may be mechanical like relief valve, cooling jackets etc. operational like standard
operating procedures SOPs, notices etc. there may be technical that is the design modification or
any other non-physical activity.
1157
There are several examples of threat barriers the guard or protective shield like protective
coating, sometimes covering, corrosion, inhibitors, machine guards, fencing etc. there may be
certain PRVs like pressure relief valves etc. The thermocouples maybe auto cutoff for the
temperature etc. the operational changes sometimes may this operational changes may be
clubbed under the head of threat barriers like temperature, flow rate, pressure, speed, voltage etc.
Timey maintenance is also come under the threat barriers because timely maintenance may delay
or may prevent the chance of any accidents. Then the reducing congestion in the operation areas
so that the release may be neutralized once it happens.
1158
The other example of consequence barriers like gas, fire and smoke alarms, emergency shutdown
system. You may have a firewater deluge system, the fire and blast walls, the emergency
response plans training and drills, you may have a business resumption plan, contamination
removal plans also clubbed under the head of consequence barrier. The first aid and emergency
rooms.
Now let us have a discussion about escalation factor of barriers so always remember that no
design is perfect. Hence no barrier implied can assuredly prevent the threats at workplace or
1159
100% mitigate any kind of consequence therefore there is a need to introduce an escalation factor
that describes how the barrier will fail. So a safety engineer should determine all possible reasons
of failure of a barrier as well as the measures to control those failures. Now never describe the
failure event of a barrier in a Bowtie diagram but the real weakness of barrier and its control
mechanism should be highlighted any kind of abnormal conditions like critical standby,
equipment under the maintenance during an emergency this is the example of escalation factor.
The plant operating outside the design envelope the extreme environmental conditions may not
allow the activation of any kind of planned recovery measures. The incorrect operations of the
plant that is attributed to the non-availability of updated operating protocols sometimes human
errors due to the lack of competence or ineffective training. So in this particular module we had
discussion about the Bowtie this is the last you can say the protocol of risk mitigation and we had
discussion about the various integral part of this Bowtie diagram.
1160
So in case if you wish to study further you may have a look of all the references listed in this
slide, thank you very much.
1161
Lecture 46
Accident Research: Introduction
Welcome to the new module related to the Accident Research and investigation so by this way
we are starting a new chapter for Accident Investigation. Now accident investigation is a very
vital because it gives you proper information that what went wrong and how we can change the
things so that it should not happen in future.
So in this particular module we are going to study about the accidents we will study about the
accident weed then accidents studies. We will have a discussion about the accident near misses
this word we have already discussed in previous modules. We will discuss about the various kind
of dangerous occurrences and what is then outcome of the accident then we will discuss about
the accident causation theories. What are the different applicable for this accident causation. So
let us have a look about that what is an accident?
1162
Now usually we had discussed previously something but the synchronized definition is that this
is an unplanned, unwanted but controllable event which disturbs the work process and cause
injury death and or damaged to the property equipment or materials to people. So in initial if you
see that this may attribute to the entire economic loss of a particular plant or a country or
anything else what you can see. So they all accidents they have a cause and effect this is the rule
of thumb and this points needs to be remember throughout this particular chapter.
1163
Now an incident may disrupt the work process but does not result in injury or a damage it should
be looked as a wakeup call sometimes it is referred as nearness etc. So it can be thought of as the
first of a series of event which could lead to a situation in which harm or damage may occur.
Now just for a sake of an example a 25 kilogram of carton falls offs the top shelf of a 12 feet
high rack and lands near the worker.
Now this event is unplanned, unwanted and has the potential for injury. So suppose if it falls to
the head of this particular worker then the problem would have been more severe. So that means
presently in the present context it is not having any impact towards the injury or damage but it
should be looked as a wakeup call.
So while considering the accident it is just like a pyramid structure you may have n number of
hazardous conditions that is the biggest percentage of injury causing potential like this we have
discussed about the fall of this carton then you may have a various close calls so in this you may
need to perform several investigations you need to conduct so that you can minimize these
hazardous conditions. You may have a lesser number of minor injuries and sometimes it may
happen that the cross section of this particular box may fall at the back part of this worker.
So the minor injury may call sometimes it may have a severe injuries so when you are carrying
out this the most accident investigation usually they are conducted in from minor injury to the
1164
severe injury and this may lead to couple of fatalities. So you can say this is the pyramid
structure when you are having several hazardous conditions it may be n in number then a bit
lower number in those are the close calls then the minor injuries and the fatality. So if you start
the things right from the hazardous condition then you can minimize or you can reduce the size
of this particular pyramid. This is the basic concept of this accident analysis.
Now usually accidents do not just happen so most workplace injuries and illness they are not due
to accident so let us take the mythical 25 kilogram of carton though falling from 12 feet of for
the second time. So only this time it hits the worker this causing injury, predictable? Yes,
ofcourse, preventable? Ofcourse, because you knew the things a priory so accident is defined as
an expected, unintentional event that is that it was just bad luck so more often than not it is a
predictable or foreseeable eventually.
1165
Now the accidents they have two things in common, one they all have outcome form the accident
they all have contributory factor that cause the accident. So these two things are very important
while considering the accident investigation.
There are some other facts related to the accidents that employer should investigate an accident
to determine the root cause because if you are having several hazardous conditions then
obviously you have taken care of those hazardous condition. So anything like if you take the
1166
previous example whenever any person who put it this particular carton to the top of the almirah
then he never thought about that it will fall down.
So it maybe the hazardous conditions but it is the person is in the thought that he has taken all
kinds of safety precautions but accidentally it fell down. So employer should investigate an
accident there to determine the root case and use the information to stop process and behaviors
that could just as easily have resulted in an accident. So it can be predictable the logical outcome
of the hazards now like if you touch the hot pan you will be burned.
Now if the corner of this stainless steel counter is sharp it will cut someone. So you must analyze
and you must have a proper information so that the corrective measures can be taken. So we can
say those accidents are predictable and preventable events so when you are performing any kind
of correctable measures then it is the preventable events. Now preventable and avoidable hazards
do not have to exists.
For example putting the boxes in a path way because someone to fall wearing heatproof gloves
when cleaning the fryer or a pan or grill will avoid a burn. So they are cause by the things people
do or fail to do.
1167
Now there are several other things which you need to know while carrying out any accident
investigation do not investigate only accidents incident should also be reported and investigated.
Like the tip of iceberg this is the accident the accident or injury at the top tip of the ice berg of
hazard. Now the incident is that investigate incident is they are potential accidents in progress.
So something maybe hidden and something may appear at the top. So you need to go into deep
or detail.
1168
Now it is just like the accident weed. Now there are several root causes like this and they may
attribute to the fruits or a leaves that is an outcome. Like the root causes these roots may not
result in an accident but do contribute it. Like this there may be a chance of a poor work
procedure, somebody not having the proper follow up or not given the proper feedback, there
may be a chance of lack of a training.
Sometimes the lack of training and the person is not acclimatize to handle the scenario because
of the lack of training then it may come in the form of accident then there may be a chance of a
poor safety management sometimes it maybe a attributed to the purchasing of unsafe equipments
because sometimes due to the economic aspect you may not be in a position to spend much
money towards the safety of the equipment then there may be a chance of lack of supervision
this may lead to the proper unfair housekeeping. Every equipment every process conditions they
are having the set of rules need to be followed during the course of action and somebody or all
the things all the rules are violated then there may be a chance that there is lack of safety
leadership then the poor safety leadership may be just because of hesitation or reluctancy.
So these are the several root causes those are attributed towards the hazardous conditions. So
when we talk about all these root causes there are certain things which may come out like may be
attributed there may be no material safety data sheets sometimes it may be lead to the equipment
failure sometimes because you have purchase some unsafe equipments sometimes it may come
out in terms of are defective tools it may lead to the poor housekeeping sometimes it may have a
missing guard etc. So these you can clearly visualize similarly there may be certain horseplay
ignored the safety rules because you are not having the rules enforcement or this may be
attributed to the lack of safety leadership.
So because you are having a lackness in the safety leadership so may not be in a position to
follow the safety protocols or procedure did not the report the hazard when it was noticed like
the fall of box or cartoon from the 12 feet high almirah then somebody those you may observe
they should report to the officers or they should report to the supervisor that do not please do not
put this box at the top because it may be dangerous to somebody else and because of the lack of
training somebody they do not know how to handle the things. So these are the various
hazardous practice so one should know this type of accident weed.
1169
Now the accident studies is again a very integral part of this investigation so in all cases the non-
injury incidents they had the potential to become events more consequences. Now such ratios
clearly demonstrate that the safety effort should be aimed in all accidents including unsafe
practices at the bottom of the pyramid when resulting improvement in upper tiers. So Peterson in
1978 in defining the principles of management and he said that an unsafe act, an unsafe
condition and accident are symptoms of something wrong within the management system. So he
gave this particular specific definition.
1170
So all events they represent degree of failure in control and are potential learning experience so it
is therefore follow that all accident should be investigated to some extent or sometime sit is
referred at the same extent. So this extent should be determined by the loss potential how much
is having the potential towards the loss so rather than just the immediate effect because this loss
potential aspect will give you the futuristic aspect.
1171
Now there are basic type of various accidents like minor accidents such as paper cuts to fingers
or dropping a box of material which we had discussed. Now the more serious accidents that
cause the injury or damage to equipment or properties such as forklift dropping a load or
someone falling off a ladder. Now sometimes accident that occur over an extended time frame
such as hearing loss or illness resulting from exposure to chemical.
So there are damage or injury due to accident this includes sprain, laceration now laceration is
deep cut or tear in skin or you can say any type of criticizing things etc then you may have a
broken bone then you may have a concussion that is the mild traumatic brain injury which can
cause head or brain to shake quickly back and fore.
You may have some unconsciousness you may have experience the ill health there may be a
chance of damage to building there may be a chance of damage to property sometime you may
experience the sickness due to the exposure to a dangerous substance fume or gases, fire
explosion etc. Sometime one may feel sickness due to chemical spill or environmental pollution.
1172
Now let us have a look about the accident those who are near-miss, so sometimes it is also
referred as a near hit. An accident that does not result any injury or a property damage but could
have as a potential for serious consequences exists. Now remember the near miss is just a serious
just as serious as an accident. Sometimes it may refer as just skipped.
Sometimes if you are crossing a road and some fast moving vehicle just come across then on the
immediate action you may say that oh God that means just escaped from that particular accident.
So remember these near misses is just as serious as an accident and it gives you a proper
learning. It gives you a message that gentleman something is not correct.
1173
Now there are dangerous occurrences now this dangerous occurrences are one number of
specific reportable adverse events with high potential to cause death or serious injury but which
happen relatively infrequently. Now, this dangerous occurrences are reportable to the health and
safety authorities HSA which are related to your local area or national area etc.
Now there are several dangerous occurrences like dangerous occurrences they usually include
incidents involving lifting of an equipment, sometimes related to the pressure system, sometimes
1174
attributed to the overhead electric lines, electrical incidents causing explosion or fire, explosion
biological agents, radiation generators and radiography they may be attributed to the breathing
apparatus, diving operation. Sometimes collapse of scaffolding, sometimes it may be attributed
to the even train collision, pipeline or pipeline works, sometimes they are attributed to the wells
or sometimes reservoirs etc.
Now remember one thing that all accidents are incidents. So however the definition of an
incident is wider in that it includes dangerous occurrence near misses.
1175
There are several outcomes of accidents. The negative aspect of an accident outcome they are
named as like injury and a possible death or a fatality. So again it is a very serious because
maybe a criminal offence or sometimes the company need to pay a heavy compensation.
Sometimes it may be attributed to disease sometimes it is related to the damage to equipment and
a property, sometimes company or industry may suffer the litigation cost and a possible citations
that could adversely affect the image of that particular industry.
Above all they may have a chances of lost productivity because the production is on the negative
side so sometimes it may happen that the company may out of the business it reduces or it
diminishes the moral of the company management as well as the company workers.
1176
The positive aspect of the accident outcomes they are like proper accident investigation so you
can prevent the reoccurrence of accident because if you properly investigate the things then you
can find out the root causes and subsequences so that you can prevent the reoccurrence of that
accident then this proper accident investigation or outcome may compel the company
management to change the safety programs because if there is any lack in that safety program
this may again may lead to the accident.
Then sometimes it may refer the company management to change the operating procedures
sometimes you may use a lesser hazardous substance sometimes you may use the lesser
flammable substances etc. and based on this two change to safety program and the change of
procedure sometimes you may need to even change the equipment designs so that you can
operate the things in a less hazardous manner. So ultimately you can prevent the reoccurrence of
any accident so that is why the outcome of accident is extremely important.
1177
So let us have the discussion about the incident investigation so when incident are investigated
the emphasis should be concentrated on finding the cause of the incident so it can prevent the
event from happening again or reoccurrence. The purpose is to find the facts that can lead to the
corrective actions and not to find any kind of fault. You need always look to for a deeper cause
do not simply record the steps of the event so one must apply his or her own brain.
1178
Now the reason to investigate a workplace incident this includes the most importantly to find out
the cause of incident and to prevent the similar incident in future.
Because if you recall this particular slide the cause of accident will give you major impetus
towards these three aspects like change to safety programs, change to procedure and change to
equipment design. So you must have some ground to adopt this three things. The purpose is to
find the fact that it can lead to corrective action and not to find the fault so always look for a
deeper cause do not simply record the steps of cause. Now another reason to investigate the
workplace incident include the most important to find out the cause of incident and to prevent
similar incident in future.
Now because sometimes the legal requirement play a very vital role so and all industries they are
compel to follow all kind of legal requirement may be the state level or may be national level or
may be to the global level. So it is mandatory to fulfill any legal requirement that may lead to the
accident investigation. Now to determine the cost of an incident that means partially you are
performing the economic analysis.
To determine the compliances with applicable regulations that is occupational health and safety
sometimes if in case of fatality or injury you may have to encounter the criminal proceeding etc.
To process the workers compensation claim because whenever there is an injury or a illness or a
1179
fatality then definitely there may be a chance that the process workers may seek the
compensation maybe towards their medical bill maybe towards the one time settlem4ent etc so
that is why these are the reasons to investigate the workplace.
Now, let us have the accident causes and first of all this is the root cause analysis. So an
investigator or a team who believe that accidents are caused by unsafe conditions they will likely
to try to uncover the conditions as fast. So who believes they are caused by unsafe act will
attempt to find the human error that are causes and therefore it is necessary to examine all
underlying factors in a chain of event that tends but that ends in an incident.
1180
Now many models of causation have been proposed ranging from Heinrich domino theory to the
sophisticated Management Oversight and Risk Tree that is referred as MORT. Each of which has
some explanatory and predictive values like The domino theory, Human factor theory, Accident
incident theory, Epidemiological theory, System theory, Multiple Causation theory, Pure chance
theory, Based liability theory, Accident proneness theory so these are the several theories being
predicted in due course of time for accident causes.
1181
So let us have look about the Heinrich Dominos Theory, now W H Heinrich safety engineer and
a pioneer in the field of industrial and accident safety he developed this domino theory in 1931.
So according to this theory almost 88 percent of all accidents are caused by unsafe acts of
people, 10 percent by unsafe actions and 2 percent by acts of God may be natural calamity etc.
So he proposed a 5 factor accident sequence in which each factor would actuate the next step in
the manner of top toppling dominoes lined up in a row.
Now the sequence of accident factors are as follows like ancestry or social environment, worker
fault, unsafe act together with the mechanical and a physical hazard, the accident and damaged to
injury. So these are depicted in this particular figure.
1182
Another is the Ferrell’s human factor model now Ferrell he defined the accident in terms of
being the result of an error by an individual and he explained this theory using the assumption
that accidents are caused by one person. Now Ferrell identifies this the three general causes of
accidents, one is the over load second is the incompatibility and third is the improper activities.
So each of these are actually broad categories that contains several more specific causes.
1183
Now this is the human factor theory and all three aspects enlisted over here now overload may be
the environmental factors they are attributed there may be certain internal factors and sometimes
it may be a situational factor. The inappropriate responses they detecting the hazard but not
correcting it then the removing safe guards from the machines and equipments sometimes it may
happen when (they) there is a wear and tear sometimes even you are compelled to remove any
kind of guard or offencing etc from the chain pulley system etc and sometimes it may happen
because of the ignoring the safety aspects or the safety rules.
Then there are certain inappropriate activities like the performing task without the requisite
training that is the lack of safety management then misjudging the degree of risk involved with
the argument task. So this is this table gives you the human factor theory that we have enlisted
some couple of examples of each aspect like over load, inappropriate reasons and inappropriate
activities. So let us have a brief discussion about this model that is improper activities usually is
the perhaps the simplest of the concept.
Now it encompasses two state forward source of accident one is it is possible that the risk
responsible person simply did not know any better. Alternatively he or she may have known that
an accident may result from an action but deliberately choose to take that particular risk. So if
you are innovative or if you are enthusiasts then you may be in a position to take this risk
deliberately.
1184
The incompatibility cause is slightly more complex than improper activities. Now it
encompasses the incorrect response to a situation by an individual and subtle environment
characteristic such as workstation that is incorrectly sized.
The third is the over load now this is the most complex of Ferrell causes it can further be broken
down into three subcategories. The emotional state of the individual accounts which include
conditions like unmotivated and agitated. Now agitation may be attributed to the various reasons
1185
somebody may be suffered from the home problem and may be at the workplace problem etc. so
it has so it is having a large spectrum.
Now second aspect is the capacity this capacity refers to the individual physical and educational
background, physical fitness, training and even genetics plays a vital role. The situational factor
such as exposure to drugs and pollutants as well as job related stress and pressure they also
effects ones capacity.
The third one is the load of an individual this can also be major contributor now this includes the
difficulty of the task the negative or a positive effects of the environment may be noise
distraction etc. and even the danger level of the task so this is the main contributor towards the
over load.
Another model is attributed to the Dan Petersons Accident or Incident model, so the Petersons
model is largely an expansion upon human factor model. Now Petersons conceptualize the
environmental aspect of incompatibility like work station design, display, control etc so as a
different part of the model they are calling them the ergonomic traps and now it is various
companies they are paying much attention towards the this environmental aspect. He also
separated a decision to err from the overload cause, further he also introduced a new element that
1186
is called the system failure. Now this system failure attributed the inability of the organization to
correct errors and this was added as a possible mediator between errors and accidents.
So over load, ergonomic trap and decision to lead human error.so in this particular module we
had discussed about the basic broad definition of accident the accident investigation protocol we
have gone through the root cause analysis of accident we have discussed about the importance of
accident investigation and we had a discussion of three models related to the accident in incident
etc. In the subsequent module we will discuss these models in detail, thank you very much.
1187
Lecture 47
Accident Causation Theories
Now welcome to the next module of Accident Research and Investigation so before we go ahead
let us have a look about that what we had studied in the previous module. So we have described
the various aspects of accidents we had a discussion about relative facts about the accidents we
had gone through about the accident weed.
We have discussed about the various aspects of accident studies. We have gone through the
concept of accident those who are near misses apart from this we have discussed the dangerous
occurrence, various outcomes of accidents then accident causation theories. So when we were
discussing about the accident causation theories we have gone through the various models of
these theories so couple of models we have discussed in the last module so we are just going
through other (modules) models of those accident causation theory. So the next is our
Epidemiological theory.
1188
This epidemiological theory of the accident causation theory this holds that model used for the
studying and determining the relationship between environmental factors and disease can be used
to study the casual relationship between environmental factor and accident because the
environmental factor is again a very crucial issue sometimes some accidents may lead to destroy
the environment and sometimes it takes very long time to clear or the environment for the
livelihood of mankind.
1189
So this theory is having two aspects, one is the Predisposition Characteristic another one is the
Situational Characteristic so while we were discussing about the predisposition characteristics
they covers the susceptibility of the people involve within the plant periphery and the
environmental aspect those who are living outside those periphery they may have include about
the various perceptions related to the source then other environmental factors.
While we consider the situational characteristic they includes the risk assessment by individual,
individual may be the worker, may be the outside people then they involve the concept of Peer
pressure, peer pressure may be attributed to the again those who are living at the vicinity of the
plant periphery or within the plant then the priorities of supervisor.
Because this priority is again very crucial in terms of supervisor because sometimes the
supervisor may experience the pressure related to the production sometimes it may experience
the pressure related to the environmental aspect, sometimes it may experience the pressure
related to the safety, safety of the plant plus safety of other aspect like monetary gains etc. Then
it includes the attitude, attitude may be towards the maximum production or attitude towards the
safety of the system.
Now in case of any you need to have a proper optimization of all this factor now these any kind
of imbalance all this predisposition characteristics or situational characteristics may cause
accident so proper balance can cause or prevent the accident condition. So this is extremely
important now you may change these predisposition characteristics or situational characteristics
as per the requirement.
1190
Now other theory is the System Theory, now a system model theory approaches the relationship
between the persons and their environment differently. Now rather than the environment being
full of hazard and a person being error prone the system theory view a harmony between the
person may be sometimes a host, machine that is the agency and the environment. So again it has
the three different variables person, host, machine, agency and environment. So under normal
circumstances the chances of an accidents are very low so that means whenever there is any
chance that means the harmony among person, machine and environment is on the different
track.
So once someone or something disturbs this harmony by changing one of the component or the
other relationship between among three the probability of an accident occurring increases
substantially. The reason is that any kind of suppose you are changing a parameter then
definitely there would be a change in the machine then the person though or host must be in a
position to adopt those changes so that the imbalance should be stabilize.
1191
Now this theory was modified by a Firenze in 1978 he suggested that considering the five
calculated risk and benefits so he has given the five risk which are enlisted in this particular slide
that is one is the job requirement, second is the capabilities and limitations of the worker in
relation to her or his job. The potential gain upon succeeding, the potential consequences upon
various failure, the potential loss of not attempting the task, sometimes you may not be in a
position to follow the guidelines or follow the orders given by your superiors then there may be a
chance that you may suffer substantial loss sometimes the loss of job, sometimes the loss of any
kind of you can say the bonus and other thing.
So you may suffer this type of aspect so you must consider the potential loss for not attempting
any kind of assign task sometimes what kind of potential gain you may have once you have
succeeded that particular job assigned to you sometimes you may need to assists that what kind
of the potential consequences may happen upon the failure of any kind of thing.
So he analyzed al this five calculated risk sometimes job requirement may pose certain
restrictions so you have to consider all you may have to take the calculated risk and sometimes it
may be beneficial and sometimes it may not be then you need to assist the capabilities and
limitations of the worker in relation to his or her job then you must be in a proper position to
assist this thing.
1192
Now this, a system model this views sees a harmony between the man, machine and environment
that we have discussed in previous slides so under normal circumstances the chances of an
accident are very low that means all three parameters or all three approaches they are working
well in order. So once someone or something is imbalanced or sometimes it may happen that
some cause disturbs this harmony then there may be a chance that the accident may happen.
Now in this particular figure we have shown this particular aspect and we can explain this thing
more precisely so once the host the machine and the environment all three are in a good
condition then there is no problem but if anyone or all three this is the problem then there may be
chance of certain overlapping and this causes the problems in decision making and this may
cause the severe risk and this risk may attributed to the cause of an accident.
So you need to take the proper feedback of those accident so that you can adopt the corrective
measures among all three aspects or all three parameters. So once you analyze or once you assist
the risk then based on those risk you can assign the task which gives the feedback that you are
task is unsuccessful it provides the feedback to all three stake holders to adopt the corrective
measures. So that is the system theory. Now another theory is the Multiple Causation Theory it is
an outgrowth of the domino theory which we have discussed in the previous module.
1193
Now it postulates that for a single accident there may be many contributory factors there may be
certain causes, there may be certain sub-causes and that certain combinations of these things give
rise to an accident or sometimes multiple accidents. So the major contribution of this multiple
causation theory is that a very rarely it can happen that there will be an accident because of a
single cause or act.
Now according to this theory the contributory factor can be grouped into several categories but
the majority there are two categories one is related to the behavioral and then second is the
1194
environmental. So behavioral theory this category includes the factor pertaining to the worker
such as improper attitude, sometimes because of limitations of training there may be attributed to
the lack of knowledge and the lack of knowledge may lead to the lack of excuse to handle the
scenario and inadequate physical or mental condition may be because of some variety of reasons
may be because of the family issues, may be because of some job stress etc.
So these contributing factors may lead to the accident. The other is the environmental aspect,
now this category includes improper guarding of other hazardous work element and degradation
of equipment through use and unsafe procedures. Now this type of things may happen during the
course of multiple of use or prolong use of equipment. One example is that suppose you are
using particular equipment for a long time without any kind of maintenance or repair or a
modification then it may happen that the wear and tear way possible so the condition may
become the unsafe.
Now those unsafe conditions may become may contribute towards he accident. Another example
is that suppose you are using a pulley system which is duly guarded by the fencing or the covers.
Now continuous use of that particular thing may be because of the vibration, may be because of
other environmental conditions the fencing is degrade so and if you have not taken care of any
kind of repairing or modification or a good housekeeping then you it may lead to the unsafe
condition or unsafe protocol and this may lead to an accident. So these environmental factors are
again important under the head of a multiple causation theory.
1195
Now other theory is the Pure Chance Theory, now according to this theory every one of any
given set of worker has an equal chance of being involved in an accident. So it further implies
that there is no single discernible pattern of event that leads to an accident. So under this theory
all accidents are treated as corresponding to Heinrich’s act of God and it is held that there exist
no interventions to prevent them.
Another theory that is the Biased Liability Theory, now it is based on the fact that once a worker
is involved in accident the chances of the same worker becoming involved in future accidents are
1196
increased or decreased as compare to the rest of the worker. So you may say in other words the
(chances of ) chances may not become stagnant because sometimes it may increase or sometimes
it may decrease and this again this liability theory suggest that because if any accidents suppose
in for an example accident happens then the worker may be charged or it may be trained. So if it
is charged then probably he may not be in a mental condition to repair the things or to enhance
its mental ability.
In that particular case the involvement of worker has become decreased, sometimes it may
happen that by any means the worker is involved in any kind of accident and then if it is being
trained or it has been you can say got the knowledge of that particular incident then it may be in
a position to decrease the ability of the accident probability. So in that particular case both the
things increased or decreased may happen. Now, this theory contributes very little if anything at
all, towards developing the preventive action for avoiding the accidents.
Another theory is related to the Accident Proneness Theory, now it maintains that within a given
set of worker there exist a subset of worker who are more liable to be involved in an accident.
Now you have to find out those subset of workers to make your process safe. So researchers have
not been able to prove this theory conclusively because most of the research has been poorly
conducted and most of the findings are contradictory and inconclusive.
1197
The one of the foremost reason is that the experimental determination of all the accidents is
extremely difficult so therefore this theory is not generally accepted. Now it is felt that if indeed
this theory is supported by any empirical evidence at all it probably accounts only a very low
proportion of accident without any statistical significance because statistical significance or
statistical data is extremely difficult in this case.
Another model is the Reasons Swiss Cheese Model, so this was given by James Reason and the
James Reasons Swiss Cheese Model was originally proposed in 1990. So each layer of defense is
a represented by a slice of Swiss Cheese and the possible problem or failure in that defense are
represented by the holes in the cheese and these holes in the Swiss Cheese they are deliberately
created.
So there are two type of failures that can occur either active or latent, the active failures are
unsafe acts they directly contribute to an accident while latent failure are conditions that exist
that may be may lay dormant for a period of time until they lead to an accident. So sometimes
there may be a scenario where the things are there but they are dormant they are not contributing
any kind of activity within the process area but if they find the suitable time then it may be
populated and it may lead to an accident. So these are called the latent failure.
1198
Now another example of the latent failure could be the lack of policy describing how a given
work task should be completed safely. For an accident to happen the holes they are like this
(they) these holes are line up then no layer of defense caught in the problem. Now if holes they
do not line up then the problem was caught and no accident occurs like this, these holes are line
up then there may be chance that no accident occurs. Now if these holes are not a line then there
may be chances the system may diverted to some unsafe condition.
1199
Another theory is that Energy Transfer Theory, now there is a source, there is a path and there is
a receiver for every change of energy. Now this change of energy resulted in a damage of
equipment or worker injury. So this theory is useful for determining the injury causation and
evaluating energy hazard and control methodology. Sometimes you can adopt or you can
develop the strategies which are either preventive or limiting or ameliorating with respect to the
energy transfer.
The control of energy transfer at the source can be achieved by the various reasons (three of)
three reasons are enlisted here that is you may eliminate the source the you may change the
changes made to the design or specification of elements of the workstation and sometimes the
preventive maintenance.
1200
The path of energy transfer can be modified by various enclosure of the path, sometimes you
may need to install the different barriers to prevent the things, sometimes by the installation of
absorbers and it is very common in chemical engineering. Sometimes by changing or providing
the positioning of various isolators. Now the receiver of energy transfer it can be assisted by
adopting the different measures like limitation of exposure and the use of personal protective
equipment. Remember we have already discussed this PP in various modules.
1201
Another or you can say the important concept is Management Oversight and Risk Tree that is
referred as MORT. The management oversight and risk tree is a complex analytical procedure
that provides the disciplined method for determining the causes and contributing factor of
various accidents. Now it has provided a technique for thorough searching investigation of
occupational accident and analysis of safety program. Now this MORT is sufficiently searching
and a revealing that full scale analysis of only few serious accident or accident will point to
many needed program improvements.
Now few MORT analysis give more useful information then the less rigorous study of large
number of accident. Now usually this is the risk analysis protocol so structurally MORT is a
logic tree in the form of a chart that illustrate a long series of interrelated questions. Now you
may recall the fault tree analysis and event tree analysis in which the different interrelated things
or interrelated scenarios they are link together and there are several set of questions being framed
to interlinked all those things. So these questions they are applied in sequence and these
questions probe factors that constitute three major area of concern, specific oversights and
omissions, assumed risk and general management system, weakness etc.
1202
So while similar in some aspects to fault tree analysis but it is reconsider is a modified version of
our old fault tree analysis so MORT is more generalized and has several innovative characters.
So it identifies nearly 300 specific problematic areas each having a relevant question. Now this
management oversight and risk tree that is MORT investigation utilizes a color coding system to
help identify those areas on the event tree where additional investigation or analysis is required.
So you can say that this is that is why we are saying that this is the modified version of event tree
and a fault tree analysis. So the MORT is a formal disciplined logic decision tree to a
systematically relate and integrate a wide variety of safety concepts like sequential roles of
different energy barriers, to energy transfer, error change and risk.
1203
Now let us have a discussion about the objective of MORT, the objective of a MORT analysis is
to understand how specific targets were exposed to harm, damaged or unwanted change and to
explain in terms of risk management. Now this MORT model attempts to illustrate that the
causes of an accident can be grouped into five different categories.
Now these categories are enlisted over here the task, the Material or you can say equipment, the
environment associated with the process, the human factor it is not only with the human factor
related to the process but also to the other environmental those who are living at the vicinity. The
management that is the cultural fashion or the cultural factor because earlier we had a discussion
that management play a very vital role for introduction of safety aspect within the process arena.
1204
So let us have a look about the work and task, now you need to frame a various questions related
to the MORT that is management oversight and risk tree so work and task related questions are
that was the actual safe work protocol used? Again it is a very you can say the deliberated issue
because every time you need to you must aware about the entire process plant arena, plant layout
etc then the second question may be that was actual method used for the current procedure
unsafe?
So you need to analyze the thing that whatever safety protocol you have implemented to for the
safe operation of the process if it fails then what was it was unsafe condition or what are the
causes those attributed for this unsafe condition? Now were the appropriate tools and materials
available and used?
This is again a very beautiful question because it gives you an opportunity to analyze that you
are having all the things with you or you are not having the required tools or material for the safe
operation. Now next question may be the were the safety devices working properly? Again it is a
very good question because it gives you an idea whether the proper housekeeping, maintenance,
modification protocols were followed or not, safety drills were performed or not.
So it gives you an idea about all those activities, then last question may be that was actual lock
out used when necessary? Sometimes it may happen when you are not in a position to control the
unsafe condition then you may have to adopt the concept of lock out so that you can transfer the
1205
workers or a human factor to the safe arena. So in that particular case you may have to analyze
that actual lock out protocol was used when it was required that means this things are not in the
control of all the safety devices available at the arena.
For most of the question you need to have a follow up question that is if not then why? See let us
have a let us go back to the previous question, was actual safe work (protocol) procedure was
used? Now if not then why? What was the reason? Because this why word is extremely
important it may reflect the satisfactory answer of this why word may give you a very good
information about the system procedures because if the things are not working properly then
there may be certain lacuna then it gives you an idea that gentlemen you need to take a corrective
measures to make your process safe like were safety devices working properly?
Now if the answer is not then why? May be because of the lack of the training may be because of
certain things may be malfunctioning, may be the power supply issue may be certain other
issues. So whenever you are in a position to answer this why it gives you the corrective
measures.
1206
Now second aspect is the material then again you need to frame and you need to ask the
question, was there an equipment failure? If yes then definitely you need to take the certain
corrective measures for the future reference. Then you may ask the question, what cause it to
fail? Sometimes may be the cooling water supply fail.
Sometimes may be the sensor they did not work then next question may be was because of any
poor design or a poor maintenance now if the temperature sensor fails then definitely it may be
covered under the head of poor maintenance. Now sometimes it may happen that you are
forcefully or sometimes you are compelled for over production and your system is not designed
for this kind of over production then it may be a chances of a poor design. Then next question
may be were any hazardous material involved? Sometimes it may happen, the reason is
sometimes the raw material may contaminated, sometimes any kind of byproducts side products
it may be involved because of the certain process parameter variation.
Now next question may be were they clearly identified? So in case if it is the part and parcel of
say the raw material then definitely the question may be ask that why (the) when the raw
material was received then why the proper quality check was not being performed. So if they
have clearly identified then you can go ahead with other options so were they clearly identified?
This is again a very important question, was a less hazardous material possible or available?
Now if you remember in industrial hygiene module we had discussion about the substitution, so
1207
in case if you have any opportunity to use the less hazardous material or if it is available then try
to use it.
Sometimes if you are in a position to compromise with the yield or conversion with respect to
the economics etc then it is a very good option to use the less hazardous material. Now if it is
they are available then why you did not use? Then the other question may be was raw materials
substandard? Could have an effect?
Now if your raw material is having substandard may be sometimes certain impurities then it may
create a problem. Now should personal protective equipment be used? So sometimes may be if
you are working in a toxic environment or may be working in a (hazardous) other hazardous
environment may be attributed to the mechanical aspect then the personal protective equipment
be used.
Now for each time if question reveals that yes then investigation team must ask, why this
situation was allowed to exist? So once you are performing any kind of accident investigation
you may frame these questions and if the answer is yes then the investigation team should ask
this question why this situation was allowed to exist? Suppose if there was an equipment failure
then why this situation was allowed? Or if any kind of raw material was contaminated like this
then why this the system was allowed to go ahead? Because sometimes it may happen that these
contamination may create the hazardous scenario so type of scenario must be addressed.
1208
The next thing is the environment, the physical environment especially sudden changes they are
also some factors that can help to identify the cause of an accident. For this type of things the
sample questions may be like this that what were the weather condition? So the meteorological
may provide the exact answer. How was the temperature condition? Was it too hot or too cold?
Was poor housekeeping a problem?
This is again a very good question sometimes the solvent maybe drained to the sewage and
without treating there maybe get discharged to the local canal or sometimes to the river so this
may attributed to the poor housekeeping and the solvent may be hazardous to the environment,
the solvent may create the flammability issues, the solvent may create the inhalation problem. So
this was an example.
So was the poor housekeeping a problem? Was there adequate lightning? Because sometimes if
lightning in the poor condition then it may create the problem within the plant, was any type of
noise heard? Because sometimes rumbling sound or sometime of any whispering sound and may
be a very good indication of faultiness of a process or a system. Were there any air contaminants
dust, fumes etc. because it may provide a very good indication in that the system is on the wrong
track.
1209
Other aspect like human factor, the physical health and mental conditions of a person directly or
indirectly involved in the event must be explore, then the several questions may be asked by the
investigation team that were the workers too old or too young for work? May be sometimes the
workers are you can say the too old for to for that particular assign job and sometimes they are
too young for that assigned job so the investigation team may ask this question. Were the
workers experienced for the particular work?
That reflects the proper training of those workers if they are not tune for that particular work then
again it may create a problem, had they been adequately trained? So this question is linked with
the previous one and the reason is that if they are not properly trained and they are assigned to do
that particular job then it may be this may lead to the problem of accident.
Were they physically fit for the work sometimes heavy loading or unloading job it may create a
problem so the investigation team must assists that the workers those who are assigned for that
particular job they are fit for the work or not. What was the health and mental status of the
worker?
Were they stressed or tired sometimes because of the production requirement they may be assign
to do the overtimes then there may be problem of stress there may be problem of tiring. So they
need to assist that what was the health and a mental status of work, if they are stresses and tired
1210
so sometimes mistakes may do happen. So these are the certain questions that should be asked by
the investigating team to find out the root cause.
Because these are the very good input for the further studies then apart from this the certain
questions must be framed related to the management or organizational behavior. Now the
management holds a legal responsibility of the work place and therefore the role of supervisors
or higher management persons they must always be considered in an accident investigation
because one thing must be remember that whenever there is a for sake of an example whenever
there is a need of any kind of a training or employment of a old or young worker everywhere the
management is involved because it is the management who tune the system in such a way to hire
the too old or a too young person.
So it is a proper responsibility or a legal responsibility of management to look into the fact. So as

far this questions are concerned the investigating team must ask were the safety rules
documented and communicated? Because based on the regulatory body directives, based on the
local authority issues the safety rule must be documented, followed and it should be well
communicated to the all-stake holders including the workers, including the middle management
level etc.
Now had the procedures been developed to address them? Because sometimes the all the workers
may not have a properly educated so you need to adopt a proper procedure for proper
1211
communication of those safety rules to them. Sometimes the play cards, sometimes the safety
drills, sometimes the safety training this need to be organized for the proper communication of
those safety rules to the stakeholders. Now once you communicated, you documented then you
need to ask the question, were these safety rules being unforced?
Because sometimes may be because of the lackness, sometimes may be because of reluctancy we
may not follow all those safety rules so there may be a chance that the accident may take place.
So it is the responsibility of the management to enforce those safety rules. Now was there
adequate supervision? Again this question is important because if you have documented the
rules, communicated then developed and you provided the training you provided the protocol for
the enforcement then there is a question that whether those things were under supervision, by a
supervisor or a management?
Then this is big question. Now the last question may be like that were proper training being
given to the worker? Again this is related to the previous one that all the workers must be trained
because it is again essential for the good health of the organization.
Other questions may be like that had hazards being previously identified? Again it is the
responsibility of the management that they need to find out that these hazards must be previously
identified. Were hazard eliminated or adequately controlled? So once you have identified then it
is a responsibility of management that either you need to eliminate or you need to control them,
1212
because sometimes it may happen that the management may not be in a position to eliminate
those hazards because hazards are everywhere.
So the thing required is that they must be adequately controlled, now were work procedures
available or followed? Because sometimes in any industries they are having the standard
operating protocols SOPs. So the question may be ask that if you are having the SOPs then was it
followed and if not may be the chance that it may be not be available with the management. So
they may ask the investigator team may ask that were the work protocol available?
And if available then why it was not followed. Now were the proper maintenance and the
calibration done for the equipment use because this is again a very important for the good health
of any company because maintenance sometimes because of the prolong use some wear and tear
may be possible and this may catastrophic.
So it is necessary that the proper maintenance protocol must be followed. Now if another
foremost requirement is the calibration because sometimes the pressure, temperature, volumetric
sensors may not be calibrated and it may give the faulty reading and any kind of say temperature
failure or a temperature mismatch with the protocol may be catastrophic. So they may ask that
question that the proper maintenance and the calibration protocol be followed, were a regular
safety inspection carried out? Now this is again a very crucial because the safety section it tells
you that whether the safety devices or your process is working properly or not within the
regulations or within the SOPs being developed.
So it provides the corrective measures so this question may be asked that were the safety regular
safety inspection be carried out or not? Now on the basis of safety inspection if anybody notice
that there are certain unsafe conditions so the question may be ask, what are the all unsafe
conditions be corrected or not? Now some investigators may prefer to place some of the sample
questions in a various different categories so it is you can say the prerogative of those
investigators however the categories are not important as long as each pertinent question is
asked. Now this question must be very specific.
1213
Obviously (there are) there is considerable overlap between various categories now this reflects
the situation in real life. So it should be emphasized that the sample question which we studied in
different slides do not make up a complete check list but are some examples only. So
investigators may frame their own questions as per the situation requirement.
Now this MORT incorporates traditional safety concepts such as hazard review, lifecycle, human
factor engineering and the job safety analysis and it as well it the innovative safety concepts such
as a barrier analysis, the effect of change and energy transfer phenomena. So this aspect focuses
1214
on rational assessment of management control system. Management program elements they are
specified in extensive details and judge to be adequate or less than adequate.
So once completed this MORT procedure provides an all important visibility the accident
analysis process. Now it enables the investigator to review the findings present them
meaningfully to others, alter the analysis as additional facts warrant and the record the total
effect for later use. Now this MORT represent a major theoretical and practical contribution to
safety aspect or a safety technology, so in this module we have discussed about various theories
and different models and in detail we have studied about the management oversight and risk
tress. In next module we will discuss about the accident investigation protocol and for your ready
reference we have enlisted various references at the end of this module, thank you very much.
1215
Lecture – 48 Accident Investigation Procedure – I
Welcome to this module of accident investigation procedure so before we start let us have a
look that what we had studied in the previous modules. We had gone through about the
accidents.
We have find out some facts about the accidents this we had a discussion about the accident
weed, accident studies, accident those who are near misses and we had a discussion about
various dangerous occurrence and we have gone through about the outcomes of accidents. In
the previous module we have discussed about the various accident causation theories.
1216
So in this particular module we are going to discuss that different aspect of accident
investigation, we will ask several questions related to the accident investigation, so the first
question in this aspect is that what is an accident investigation? So the accident investigation
is a process that allows management to identify and evaluate the true causes of an accident or
incident so that it cannot be repeated in subsequent protocols or subsequent steps or some in
the scenario cannot be repeated.
Now it is used to formulate the solution to the underlying problems so as to avoid or

minimise any kind of future accident from the same source. Now, if you choose not to
investigate the accident we are destined to repeat them over and over. Now this may become
a very dangerous scenario. Now accident investigation is one of the fundamental principle of
loss Control Management because ultimately in previous modules we had a discussion about
the hazard safety etc.
Then this (con) we told you that the concept of safety has changed to the lost control
management system. Now this loss control management system attributes towards the
economic losses. So whenever you are performing any kind of plant design layout design etc.
you cannot overlook the importance of those safety aspects that is why it is called the
fundamental principle of loss control measurement.
1217
Now the question is that who how we can go ahead with this accident investigation? So the
things is that all supervisors need to be aware of the need for and the benefit of an effective
accident investigation program. They should also be provided with the skills to consistently
and thoroughly investigate the workplace accident and incident and they should be provided
at training.
So that they can analyse those near misses which we had discussed in the previous module so
that they not only investigate the accident but they should be in a position to prevent those
accidents so it is an important part of any safety management system. Now it highlights the
reason why accidents occur and how we can prevent them.
1218
The primary purpose of any accident investigation is to improve the health and safety
performance by the resistors. One step may be the exploring the reason for the event and
identifying both the immediate and underlying causes. The second is the identifying remedies
to improve the health and safety management system by improving risk, control preventing
reoccurrence of and reducing the financial losses.
Then the question maybe ask that what to investigate remember all accidents whether major
or minor are caused. The serious accident have the same root cause as minor accident, as to
do the incident with the potential for serious loss. Now, it is these root causes that bring about
the accident, the severity is often a matter of chance.
Now just let me recall you about the Bhopal Gas tragedy because the MIC was leaked and
just because of the wind direction the accident became more and more serious, so it was a
matter of fact that or matter of chance that the severity is on the extreme side. So accident
studies they have shown that there is a consistently greater number of less serious accidents
then the serious accidents and the same way a greater number of incidents then accident.
1219
So if you recall the we have studied about the accident pyramid, there are larger number of
near misses there maybe certain things those we have investigated and then we have taken the
certain remedial measures and this attribute the serious accidents, this may be some minor
accident. So this last line that the consistently greater number of less serious accident then the
serious accidents, so this number is on the great higher side compared to this one.
Now, question is that what are the benefits of accident investigation? Now some of the
benefits of the accidents investigations are that prevention of future or similar losses, accident
investigation helps in contribution to the bottom line, they helps in reduction of human
1220
suffering or environmental suffering, they led to the continuous improvement of the process
now if you recall the previous module we had frames several set of questions.
Now these the answer to those several questions they are for the betterment or improvisation
of the process, now if their answer is yes then definitely you have to take it the corrective
measures so that is the plus point of any kind of accident investigation.
Now another question or you can say the more systematic question is asked that what is the
difference between the accident investigation. And analysis then the questions may be ask
that what is the purpose of an OSHA investigations OSHA stands for occupational safety and
health administration. Now first thing is that determine what happened to see if employer
violated any kind of safety rules because these safety rules are frame for the benefit of
employee, benefit of mankind or benefit of the environment.
So what happened to see if the employer those were violated the safety rules these rules
again, these rules are framed to look into the local conditions or national conditions, etc. Now
to gain the greatest benefit why does the employer conduct the accident analysis, this is again
a very good question. The first thing is that the determine what happened to see the safety
management system weakness exist.
1221
Now question arises that when to conduct an accident or incident investigation. Now we have
already studied in last module that all incident whether they are near miss or an actual injury
related event should be investigated, so these near miss reporting and investigation allow you
to identify and control hazard before they cause a more serious accident.
Now, to find out those near misses you must have a proper safety knowledge, you must have
a proper safety commitment and you must have a proper safety training only then you will be
in a position to identify those near misses. So the accident or incident investigations they are
tool for uncovering the hazard that either were missed earlier or have managed to slip out the
control plant for them.
1222
Now, it is useful only when done with the aim of discovering every contributing factor to the
accident incident to foolproof the condition and the activity and other preventive future
occurrence so in other words your objective is to identify the root causes not to primarily set
blame. Remember, while you are identifing the root cause, you should not wait for an
accident.
Now another question is that who should do the accident or incident investigation the usual
investigator for all incident is the supervisor in charge of the involved area or activity or
facility. Now, it generally represent a good way to involve employees in the safety and health
because it is not a one man show it is a team effort so sometimes worker of the lower side
1223
may give you proper information or more information about the near misses and the faulty
things etc. at the process arena. So the employee involvement will not give will not only give
you additional expertise and inside but in the eyes of the worker will lend credibility to the
result so it turns a psychological factor also.
Then the employee involvement also benefits the involved employees by educating them on
potential hazard and the experience usually makes them believers in the importance of safety
so you may strengthening the safety culture in the organisation by adopting this particular
aspect. Now, the safety department or the person in charge or the safety officer in other words
or those who are involved in the safety.
And health operation they should participate in the investigation or review the investigative
findings and recommendations. So many units or companies they use a team or sub
committee of the joint employee Management Committee to investigate incidents involving
serious injury or extensive property damage.
1224
Then question arises that whether we should impart training for accident investigation or not.
Remember no one should investigate incident without appropriate accident investigation
training because sometimes they may miss interpret the facts. So a many safety and health
consultant and a professional organisation provide this type of training.
So before committee, before committing any kind of resources to training one might want to
check the course content against the information found in various kind of authorities, one of
the foremost authorities in Indian context is the National Safety Council. This may be
represented as the accident investigation, a new approach.
1225
Now this incident investigation is a six step process. Now these very steps those involved in
the accident investigation they are enlisted over here that is the collect information, the
second is the analyse all kind of the causes, you may assess the future accident potential, the
fourth one is the developed corrective action, fifth is the report data and recommendation, the
sixth one is the take corrective action and monitor.
So, let us start with the first step. The first step said the collect all kind of information. Now
there maybe various issues related to the collecting information so let us take the first issue
on site now this on site information or covers that securing the scene, so once we have an
accident or incident to investigate the several activity will takes place at the actual
sightseeing. So you need to have answer for various question when is it appropriate to begin
1226
the investigation where the effective methods what are the effective methods to secure an
accident scenes.
Now the securing the scene is again important and you can see that sometimes they maybe
carden off with this yellow tape the reason is that sometimes, if it is a deliberated event or it
is being involved by the sabotage or there may be certain issues related to the management
failure, certain issues related to the compensation issues sometimes the people may try to
hide the facts so as quickly as you are securing the scene are you securing you are the
securing the plant Arena or accidental Arena then you may protect the things to be destroyed
or alter.
Now in this particular aspect sometimes it may happen maybe because of certain medical
issues or sometimes maybe because of other environmental issues the authorities may take a
corrective measures a priory so proper securing of scene is essential sometimes the debris
may be dislocated from the place of accident because all these debris may give your proper
source or a vital source of information for the accident investigation. So the securing of the
scene is extremely important. Now other thing is that the investigating or investigation at the
scene or a desktop.
Now if warranted by the circumstances the scene may need to be barricaded and the
physically segregated against to the further injury or nearly to preserve the scene for the
initial investigation. Now sometimes it may happen that if the barricading or segregation is
1227
not performed then the building or anything suppose if the accident took place related to the
fire so it may we can the building.
And if it is not working properly barricaded or segregated sometimes it may fall and it may
create the further losses. So the list methods to document the scene and collect data about
what happened. Now you have to be very clear that what kind of documents will you be
interested in reviewing and why because collecting the unnecessary documents, collecting
unnecessary information may some time lead to the confusion.
Then next aspects is that recording the key information so this information will be largely
determined by the nature of the accident, so sometimes you may enlist various kind of
equipment what are needed for recording of those information camera maybe other kind of
secured bags etc. So you are the key factor is that all kind of information whatever necessary
may be recorded.
1228
Then there are certain issues related to the offsite. Offsite includes that you may interview the
key people, when is it best to interview and why, who should we interview then you must
have a segregated or you must have find out or you must have select the person to whom you
should have an interview and why, sometimes, for an example, sometimes any kind if any
Pressure Vessel fails so the person nearby me provide a very vital information so you have to
select that particular person for interview.
Then where should we conduct the interview? Sometimes at the site of the accident and
sometimes because of some psychological reasons you make call them to some other
appropriate place. Because it helps that at the person may recall the things more smoothly
compared to when they are at the site. So this type of again aspect is extremely important.
1229
Now the considering interviewing on to collect more information about the accident that is
the key point of interviewing the people initially the injured persons or any eyewitness they
may not be in a position to tell you more about the accident. But later on you can because the
prime of is its essential that the injured person should have a first right to be treated rather
than being interviewed. So every effort should be made to interview any witness, any
eyewitness, now these witnesses can be a very good source of information regarding the
cause of an accident and the conditions those who are associated with it.
So, eyewitness they can provide critical information about an accident as far as the describing
the activities and events that led up to the accident itself. Now witnesses should be
1230
interviewed as soon as possible after the accident provided they are in a good physical or
mental health because sometimes if you have any delay about this interviewing process then
there may be a chance that they may skip or they may forget core issues related to that
particular accident.
So you record the name address and telephone or contact details of all those witnesses and
other persons with information so that in case if you required further information or further
query then you can easily approach to them. Now, have witnesses document their statements
and ask them to date and signs. So, that they may not be in a position to change their
statement or they it also helps them to recall all that they have said they have reported this
thing to the investigation team in such a manner.
Now depending on the accident one may want to also interview other such as the personnel
manager maintenance foreman, other supervisory staff and employees. The interview process
should include the injured employee if possible because again the injured employee should
get the proper Medicare first. So do not ask the employee to re-enact the accident, now as a
second accident is possible through the re-enactment of process so sometimes it may not be
very helpful aspect to re-enact the accident.
There are certain interviewing tips like it is important initially put the witness at ease by
carefully explaining the purpose of the investigation staff and it is their right to know that
why they are being interviewed. So interviewing person involve and witnesses to the accident
1231
is of prime importance ideally in familiar surrounding, so as not to make the person
uncomfortable.
Sometimes if you go there to the accident side the psychological things says that they may be
little bit uncomfortable. Now this process is fact-finding in nature and not a means to assess
blame or discipline the employees. Now, questions when asked should not be intimidating
that as the investigator will be seen as aggressive and reflecting a blame culture, so they
should be made clear to them.
The interview should be separate to stop people from influencing each other so proper
segregation of interviewers be there. Although there maybe disciplinary action as the result of
the accident the processes distinctly different than the investigation process which seeks to
obtain the root causes of an accident and the proposed the solution to identified problem. The
person should give an account of what happened in their terms rather than the investigators.
1232
Good questioning technique in this particular process is to ask open-ended question that is a
question that cannot be answered with just a one word response because all the detail may be
very useful. Now this technique often provide the investigator with more information than
questions that are not open-ended. So investigating the accident versus disciplining the
employee. Now, in all likelihood the information we have now discovered will have raised a
new set of questions about how and why the accident occurred.
Now you may have assess past accident history so the determining the past accident history
with a particular operation machine or work activity is valuable to evaluating the future
accident potential so sometimes the logbook plays a very vital role for pre accident history is
1233
the plays a very vital role. However, this is not only the piece of information to be considered
a series of near misses in particular area will now not show up as a past accident but may
represent a potential for a serious future loss if left unchecked, so you the pertinent records so
that because sometimes it may give up a very good source of information.
Now reviewing record you may frame various questions like what were the standard work
practice, have you done the job safety analysis because it may lead to the managerial aspect
also, have you read the material safety data sheet, had you gone through the employee
personal record sometimes the personal record may give a proper information about the
mental stability of the person then the past job record etc.
Now, if the maintenance logs were up to date because sometimes in the lacuna in the
maintenance log maybe the vital source of an accident. Was there any past accident history in
if it is then what were the corrective measures were taken at the time of those accidents?
What actually the inspection record says because sometimes based on the standard work
practice and all kind of safety reviews the inspection may taken place in at the workplace.
So what actually the inspection records say, sometimes they may find certain lacuna in the
process arena, then was the management in the position to correct them, does the motor
vehicle record show any kind of accident because sometimes any kind of fertility or any kind
of injury motor vehicle record will provide a proper clue because sometimes the medication
or sometimes of the medical care may be given or maybe the injured may be transferred to
1234
some hospital etc. So motor vehicle record is the best clue to give the proper vital
information.
Now let us have a look about the step number 2.
That is the determining the cause. The root cause is the most fundamental and direct cause of
an accident or incident there maybe one or more contributory causes in addition to the root
cause however the root cause is one event or condition that participated in that particular
accident which you are investigating. Now the key is that if we were to remove the root cause
the accident would not have occurred.
1235
Now if we remove the contributory cause the accident still may have occurred although the
severity of that particular accident may be minimised. So accident investigation is ineffective
unless all causes are determined and corrected and that is why you need to find out the
(countrib) a more other contributory causes.
Now the category is of root causes are in two fold, they are grouped under the workplace
factors or the employee factor. Now the workplace factor these are the largely under the
control of a management so in a broad spectrum you can responsible, you can fix
responsibility of the management. The second is the employee factor these are the under the
control of individual employee.
1236
Now, the workplace factor there are some of the example of the workplace factor are as
follows the improper tools and equipment, whatever tools are required but you are the
management does not supply those tools to the workers, then inadequate maintenance that
means the either management they did not follow the proper maintenance protocol or they are
having the lack of commitment towards this maintenance.
Then lack of job procedures, this job procedure may included like formation of standard
operating practices availability of the manuals etc. The poor workstation setup, sometimes the
managerial aspect or workplace factor may include the poor housekeeping, things may be in a
shabby condition sometimes the solvent or solvents are lying there, then electrical circuits
they are open without keeping any kind of insulation etc. Then lack of jobs supervision, these
lack of job supervision may lead sometimes nobody is caring to that particular Arena. Lack of
job training that means, the workers are not provided with adequate training to handle the
scenario.
So employer may make every effort to properly train the employee to the safely (pro)
perform the job but if the employee decides to take inappropriate risk anyway the root cause
will be classified as an employee factor and not the workplace factor. So some of the example
of employee factors are like fitness for duty, substance abuse, fatigue, effect of the
medication, emotional distress etc. so these may be the major contributory aspect.
Then failure to apply the training sometimes the adaptability maybe because of the age
maybe because of the certain psychological factor or emotional factors the employee may not
1237
be in a position to adopt the training being given to them, so this may be clubbed under the
head of the failure to apply the training. Then task exceeds the physical and mental
capabilities because sometimes big maybe because of the age maybe because of some other
capabilities they are not coping up with the task given to them.
Then the task exceeds to the mental and physical capital, then sometimes some of the
employee they are having the risk taking behaviours so in that particular case there may be a
chance of or sometimes they may be so innovative that they may be in a position to violet the
the safety rules so this type of cause should be recorded.
Now, let us have an example, if a supervisor directs an employee to lift an item that is too
heavy to be safely handle by one person alone, the root cause falls under the workplace factor
category, since it is under the direct control of management. If however, the employee
decides on his or her own to lift the same item because sometimes it may not be physically fit
to handle the scenario. So had been instructed by the management to get help in the situation
then the root cause would be the fall under the class of employee factor.
1238
Now after answering who, what, where, when, and how. Initially the system answers why
and completes the puzzle. So there initially 5 whys in an iterative, interrogative technique
used to explore the cause and effect relationship underlying a particular problem. The
primary goal of the technique is used to determine the root cause of a defect or a problem by
repeating the question why so why why why why etc.
Now each answer of question why forms the basis of the next question. So in 5, the five in
the name derived from and small story observation that a number of iteration needed to
resolve the problem, so after the five ‘why’ have been asked answer the key question is
simply a screening tool that tells us if we have indeed gotten to the root cause level.
1239
The fundamental here is not to stop short of obtaining the root cause. The five whys and the
key question help us avoid this pitfall in the accident investigation. So when the satisfaction
is attained that the investigation is that the root cause label it is time to propose corrective
action so that the accident is not likely to reoccur. So in this module we have discussed about
the various root causes and we have discussed about the two steps of this accident
investigation in the subsequent model module will discuss the remaining steps of this
accident investigation thank you very much!
1240
Lecture – 49 Accident Investigation Procedure – II
Now welcome to this Accident Investigation Procedure module. In the previous module we
had gone through about the accident and related facts about accident, various outcomes of
accident, accident causation theories and accident investigation protocol. So had we had
studied earlier that the accident investigation protocol has the six step and then the previous
module we have studied first two steps of this accident investigation protocol. Now, let us
have a look about the third step.
Now this third step involves the assess the future accident potential. Now in this particular
step, this particular process involves the assessment of the future loss potential now it helps to
assign priorities of corrective action that we may recommend or we will recommend and it
helps us to sell the need of any improvement and it gives the suggestive majors for those
improvements to the upper management. Now loss severity can be thought of in three
different classes. Class A, class B & class C. The class A represents the potential for major
injuries or damage, the class B for the serious injuries or damage and class C for the minor
injuries or damage.
1241
So, let us have a look about a class A hazard that is major. Condition or practice likely to
cause the permanent disability, loss of life that is fertility loss of body part or extensive
property loss or damage. Let us have an example that an unguarded machine with the
potential to amputate a finger or hand. And unprotected floor opening that could lead to a fall
from an elevation greater than 10 feet or a and badly worn brakes on motor vehicle that could
lead to an intersection collision.
Now, let us have a look about the class B hazard that is serious. The class B hazard represents
a condition or practice that could cause serious injury or illness such as a temporary disability
1242
or a property damage that is serious but less severe than those under we have club under the
class A the example is the unguarded floor opening that might may lead to a fall from an
elevation of less than say 10 feet. And unguarded pinch points in a machine that may lead to
a serious problem or broken bones but not amputation and the work protocols that allow an
employee to move 4 litres drum without any assistance.
Let us have a look about the class C hazard those are cub under the head of the minor one. A
class C hazard is minor in nature and is likely to cause non disabling injuries or illness or not
non-destructive property damage. For example the use of a chemical that may cause
dermatitis without the practice of using gloves or barrier creams, a process that creates dust
but worker practices do not call for the use of any kind of ventilation or the wearing of any
eye goggles etc.
1243
Let us have a look about the step no 4.
Now this system 4 involves the correcting the causes. Now in order to make the corrective
action successful one need to have a corrective action for each and every root causes which
we have identified, however more than one control may be needed for each root cause
depending on the circumstances. Now the control hit list is the simple tool that is spells out
the desired level of controls available so that the best type of control may be selected as first
choice and so that one consider all the possible controls without just reaching for the most
obvious one.
1244
Now if the corrective actions are not likely to be implemented right away because maybe of
the variety reason, because of such things as a large expenditure of money or may require
redesign of a workstation or a workplace or purchase of different equipment or machinery.
Now it is advantageous to propose and implement the short-term solution that will minimise
the immediate risk. So the force field analysis being carried out, now this force field analysis
is simply a visual tool that helps us to realise that for every restraining force we must identify
and implement an opposing counter acting force.
1245
So, let us have a look about the control hit list. Now it helps to think of control in 6 different
categories, now they are listed in priority order with the most effective control at the top and
the least effective control at the bottom, so this maybe because some categories have proven
more effective than others so these are the like elimination of hazard this is the most effective
control.
But you cannot eliminate all hazard at workplace so you can minimise those hazards. Now
minimization may be achieved by the substitution of a less hazardous material. Number 3
may be use of proper engineering controls, you may use the administrative control sometimes
there is an administrator may be included like controlled zones adopting the protocol of the
control Zones.
So that the common people are those the people those who are not required that work place
they may be cordoned off to go into the controlled zone, so these are the some of the example
of use of administrative control. Then the use of personal protective equipments PPE and
then the training of the employees.
So once the causes have been found the keys to always consider the controls at the top of the
list and work their way down. So sometimes it may be somewhat rare to actually eliminate
the hazard now it is essential to always start with this particular possibility so if you recall in
the industrial hygiene chapter we have discussed the four basic protocols like substitution,
attenuation, isolation etc. Now it is not unusual to combine more than one control for the
1246
same hazard particularly when the controls chosen are low on this particular list like combine
employee training with the use of personal protective equipment etc.
Now, let us have a look about the fifth step.
That is their statistics on occupational accident now the statistics of factories or Industries is
collected they are compiled by the Labour Department on the basis of annual returns reports
with respect to the factories act 1948 and their furnished by the state and union territories.
1247
Now this is very important that is the under the factories act 1948 injury is resulting from any
industrial establishment under the head of industrial accident by reason for of which the
person injured is prevented from attending to work for a period of let us say 48 hours or more
immediately following the accident they are recorded. So it gives a proper data so that it in
future then you are analysing those accidents may be used as a future reference.
Now, the important indices on injuries are frequency rate that is FR and incidence rate that is
IR now the frequency rate is defined as number of Total injuries per 100000 man-days
worked. This one and the incidence rate is the number of injuries per 1000 worker employed
in those factories or establishments.
1248
Then there is a report of a data and recommendations so all accidents to employees however,
maybe minor should be recorded that is very important. Now this is a requirement under the
social security legislation so all near misses incidents and accident they should be reported,
no matter how slight they may appear. So fatal accidents this may include the fatal accident,
accidents causing the major injuries, notifiable accidents and dangerous occurrence,
reportable accident and dangerous occurrence and some written records.
So the company usually encourages employee to report all accident no matter how minor and
sometimes they fail the reason is that if the accidents are reported in a proper manner then the
1249
chances of paying compensation in terms of economy may be on the higher side so accidents
that involve very minor injuries like small cuts non extensive process etc. and would not
normally require any action on behalf of the company like the breaking of a drinking glass
etc.
So they do not have to be reported all the employee could report them if they want so the
quality of accident sampling is essential. Now on the other hand the accidents that involve for
or could have involved more severe injuries and they may required investigation and action
from the company must be dutifully reported.
So as a result of a workplace injury and Employee need to claim for benefits in future and the
relevant checks will be made to confirm that the accident occurred at workplace. Now, the
employer need to be sure that they satisfy all legal reporting requirements for the employees
and non employees and take the measure to monitor those accident, so that is crucial as far as
the employer perspective is concerned.
1250
Now accidents happened for a reason it could be machine failure, unsafe work practice or
poor housekeeping but reporting this occurrences can help identifying the cause and help
prevent the this accident reoccurring. So as a part of the reactive monitoring process accident
records are needed to assess whether the existing controls are adequate or they need to
identify trends are developing then sometimes it may give a very vital information it is just
like that if the rise in temperature is recorded in any reactor then it may be serious thing. So it
helps us to identify if there any kind of trend is developing and to implement any kind of new
procedure.
1251
Now, the record may also be produced for the health and safety executive to the parents or
the guardians or in course of civil proceeding if a claim is brought following incident. Now
reporting and recording procedures they vary from organisation to organisation as the
procedures are a different, usually in most effective way of reporting incident accident is
through a specific reporting form. So the design of that particular form is important.
Now the form should contain a detailed description of incident the person and a task involved
injuries obtain any kind of medical treatment is given to them and witness statement if they
are available sometimes people are better reluctant to give any kind of witness statement.
Now, if possible picture of the scene there should be included if the investigation team is able
to get any kind of picture then they should be included. So all report should be submitted to
the management as soon as possible so the accident incident can be investigated.
1252
Now, let us have a look about the basic feature of the form now the usually the form is
divided into some of the general sections to cover all relevant information. Now these
sections may include the section 1 may be the background, section two the description of
detailed description of the accident, the section 3 may be the finding of investigating team.
The Section 4 is the recommendations been suggested by the investigation team, section fifth
will be the summary and section sixth may the follow up the actions and section 7 may
include the comment and various kind of attachments may be used for the reference of this
particular report. Now, the important thing is that need to documents document the facts only.
1253
Now determine if the corrective action applies to more than one employee, more than one job
function or more than one shift, etc. Then the priorities the corrective action based on future
accident potential you may submit the both short term and long term solution if required. Let
us have an example like. If employees are exposed to excessive paper concentration a short-
term control maybe the wearing the personal protective equipment while the long-term
control maybe the by the installing ventilation system.
Now, let us have a look about the sixth step that is the last step that is recommend corrective
action and improvement. Now this step is actually implement the corrective action identified
and recommended through the accident investigation process. Now it is essential that long
term solution do not get lost in shuffle and get implemented as originally plant. So over time
the effectiveness of the controls we are chosen can be assessed through such means such as
employee interviews, job, safety analysis and finally the presence of lack of additional
accidents and incidents from the same cause.
1254
Now to make the corrective action various control strategies can be used, one is the
engineering control this helps in eliminating or reducing hazard through equipment redesign
and replacement, substitution, attenuation, isolation etc. Then the Management control it
helps in eliminating or reducing exposure to hazard by controlling employee behaviour the
third one is the interim measures. These include the strategies that are used as a temporary fix
while permanent controls are being developed.
Now various improvements should be made to policies programs plans processes and
procedures in order to have proper and better investigation and less accidents. Now it can be
1255
done within one or more of the following elements that does safety management system like
managerial commitment, employee involvement, hazard proper hazard identification control,
proper training and education, then incident and accidental analysis by adopting the proper
system evaluation protocol, then by fixing the accountability etc.
Now the making a system improvement might include some of the following things like
including the safety in a mission statement because you may find that in several good
organisation there is a mission statement and there is a vision statement so the safety may
include in the mission statement. Now improving safety policy so that it clearly establishes
the responsibility and accountability.
The changing a training plan to include using checklist because checklist is a very vital
source of finding the problems within the system. Revising the purchasing policy to include
safety consideration as well as the cost so you may one example is that sometimes you may
give allowances to the raw material contamination because sometimes the contaminants may
create a future problem in further reaction.
So you may revise because sometimes the account section may say that you should
compromise with 5 percent 6 percent purity of that particular component so you may revise
the purchasing policy. Now the changing the safety inspection process to include all
supervisors and employees.
1256
Now the investigation system should be examined from time to time to check that is that it
consistently delivers information in accordance with the stated objectives and standards. Now
the usually requires that checking samples of investigation forms to verify the standards of
Investigation and the judgement made about the causation and the prioritization of remedial
actions, sometimes checking the number of incident near misses, injury or all ill health events
now checking that all events are being reported that is very important.
Now sometimes these accidents investigation fails so why this accident investigation fail? the
investigation system should be modified time to time in order to avoid the failure of accident
1257
investigation and some of the other reason of the failures maybe like investigation is stopped,
short and did not reveal the root cause of accident. /there was no time to complete the
accident investigation, there was no motivation towards the completeness of that particular
accident investigation, there was a lack of accountability, lack of skill and knowledge so all
these factors they are involved to the failure of accident investigation.
Now, let us have a look about the accident prevention now accident can be prevented by early
detection, reporting and awaiting, so let us have a look about the various steps involved.
1258
Like hazard identification, detection, identification of hazard before they cause injuries is
important now to accomplish this conduct the periodic walk around inspection looking for
items may be such that like slip, trip and fall hazards maybe across may be wire across umm
a walkway, sometimes you may observe the broken damage equipments for example, stool
with broken leg.
Sometimes you may observe the machinery with the missing guard like cutting machine with
the missing frayed guard. Sometimes you may experience the exposed electrical wiring may
be frayed electrical cord sometimes you may experience that there is a damage of personal
protective equipments like gloves with rips or tears etc. so this may create a problem.
Second is the step is the report hazard so once a hazard have been identified they need to be
reported to the appropriate area that is that for example, the broken floor tiles that could cause
a trip and fall that should be reported to the maintenance section for repairing. The safety
officer, safety committee or maintenance department should keep a log of those item reported
and follow-up to ensure the hazard reported have been corrected so this is again important
issue.
1259
Then third one is that the hazard abatement. The hazard abatement can be defined as the
elimination or reduction of a safety hazard by complying with applicable safety and health
standards or taking accumulate protective measures so take the steps necessary to abate
hazard now this will provide a safer environment for employees, contractor, visitors etc.
Now, here are some ways to prevent the accidents one is to ensure the work areas they are not
cluttered and trashes removed regularly because this lead to the good housekeeping. Now
provide the necessary training, retraining of all employees. Now ensure that necessary
controls they are in place like a machine guarding etc. administrative controls they are well in
1260
place like label sign, play cards etc. The personal protective gears they are in place like safety
goggles, mask, etc. Now have spills cleanup immediately that is a very good housekeeping
practice.
Ensure proper lifting carrying techniques they are being used. One must ensure that
mechanical handling equipment is being used properly one may ensure that walking working
surfaces they are they all are free of slip trip and fall hazard. One must ensure that the safety
rules policies and procedures they are well implemented, you may ensure that that safety
inspection they are being conducted regularly.
1261
So, in summary you may say that the regulatory requirement for investigating workplace
incident and dangerous occurrence. You must collect all evidences for an investigation,
analyse all evidences for an investigation. You must develop a workplace investigation
report, a proper workplace investigation report, a detailed workplaces specification workplace
investigation report.
Now you take the action following a workplace investigation report. So, in this particular
chapter we have discussed about the accident investigation protocol. What are the different
key factors? What are the different theories involve and how we can present the report? How
we can go for the follow up action etc.?
1262
Now, if you wish to have for the reading then we have a listed a large number of references
for your convenience. You can go through all those references, thank you!
1263
Lecture – 50 Jaipur Terminal Fire, India
October 29, 2009
Now, welcome to this module related to the fire and we are going to discuss a case study of
Jaipur terminal fire took place at IOCL terminal facility at Jaipur on 29th October, 2009 and
after the flex (())(0:45) this is one of the most dangerous most devastating and most capped
catastrophic accident related to the fire. So let us have a background of this particular facility
by the description of the facility.
At the time of accident the age of the plant was around 12 years and this Plant was housed in
about hundred and twenty acres of the land. Now, this the plot housed the facilities for the
marketing terminal of IOCL and they were having 11 storage tanks of kerosene, motor spirit
and high speed diesel. Apart from this they were having the truck loading facilities to
delivery for the delivery of these is product into truck and the product pumping facilities to
the neighbouring installation of Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited and Bharat
Petroleum Corporation Limited through pipeline.
1264
Now, apart from this the plant accommodated the facilities for pipeline division which
operated the cross country pipeline that is Koyali Sanganer product pipeline feeding to this
particular terminal and the marketing terminal occupied around hundred and 5 acres of the
pipeline division facilities which was located in 15 acres in the North East corner of the
particular facility.
So, this was the Koyali Sanganer product pipeline here this is the Sanganer, so this is the oil
pipeline network of IOCL so they are having some existing product pipeline, some crude
pipeline they are well connected with various Refineries of Indian Oil Corporation, apart
1265
from this they are having certain LPG pipeline. So this is a Piping network of Indian Oil
Corporation.
Now, the location of the Sanganer was as a plot was far away from then the residential
localities of Jaipur city and at a time there was no neighbouring industries or factory located
within few kilometres from the plot boundary of time of installation of that particular
terminal. Subsequently a large number of industrial establishments they were developed by
the state government all around the terminal area. So, you may say that they may be the other
the outcome of that particular accident.
1266
Now, there are certain salient features of this Jaipur terminal. It was the first automated oil
terminal in the country and this terminal was fed by the Koyali Sanganer product pipeline and
receive product from product they were having two three different type of product like a
motor spirit, that is petrol, high speed diesel and kerosene from the Koyali refinery. The
terminal also used to receive and distribute the lube oils in drum through trucks, so they were
having a the storage facilities for lube oils.
Now that terminal delivered the petroleum product through the tank trucks to retail outlets
and also supplied lube oils to the local market of Rajasthan. And now this particular terminal
was also supplied the petroleum product to the neighbouring terminals of other oil companies
like HPCL and BPCL.
Now BPCL Sanganer terminal is dependent entirely on receipt of the product from this IOCL
terminal. So because these Oil Companies they are having some sort of arrangement internal
arrangement so that they can borrow the product from 1 terminal and the share the equivalent
amount of the product from their own terminal to the other oil company.
1267
Now earlier HPCL Jaipur terminal in Sanganer which was in the close proximity, was also
solely depend on the supplies from this facility only so but after the commissioning of
Mundra Delhi pipeline MDPL, the HPCL’s Jaipur terminal at Sanganer has been closed down
for operation since the commissioning of HPCL’s own pipeline terminal at Bagaru, this is
only 30 kilometres from Jaipur. So you can see in this the Mundra - Delhi pipelines you can
see that they are having its own terminal.
Now the IOCL crude oil pipeline which runs from Mundra to Mathura and Panipat Refinery
because in the Northern belt, Mathura and Panipat Refinery these are these two refineries are
1268
owned by IOCL, so they are also pass through this, that particular pipeline was also pass
through this particular terminal. So a pipeline booster pumping station of the pipeline division
was also located and operated within the marketing terminal of Indian Oil Corporation.
So they were having a very good storage facility so the storage facility is originally consists
of 9 tanks for petroleum products and subsequently two more thanks were added for Motor
spirit tank followed by one more tank that was not commissioning commissioned at the time
of accident under pipeline division for the receiving the pipeline interface. So there are
certain interface because sometimes these pipelines are attributed for more than one product
so there is some interface which is usually send back to the refineries.
1269
Now, this is the three dimensional plot plan they were having the this is the tank yards this
was the entrance administrative block, account section etc. there having the pipeline so in all
they were having all the tank facilities over here and there this is the tank lorry depot.
Now this is a you can say the more clear form here they were having the high speed diesel
tank facility there are the kerosene tank, the motor spirit tank which was involved in this one
which was involved in that particular accident. They were having the lube warehousing apart
from this the security gate and adjacent to the security gate they are having one inverter factor
1270
that is called the genus factory and this was the pipeline installation and this is that a tank
card loading facilities etc. this was there in the exchange pic.
So while we are having the continued discussion about the storage facility is underground
tanks they were having the five in number and each of having was the capacity of 70 kilo litre
for the storage of the petroleum product. So each tank had facilities on three modes and that
is important and that was the main crust of the accident. One mode was the pipeline receipt so
when the material is coming to the through the pipeline second is attributed to the inter tank
transfer and third one is the dispatch.
So you can say these two facilities the pipeline receipt and dispatch they were inlet and outlet
and this one is for the inter tank, so when you are having two tanks inline so you may connect
all those these two tanks apart from this one is inlet another one is the outlet. Now, this
facility was designed in a way that at one time only, only one mode of dispatch will be
carried out that is either tank lorry or a pipeline transfer so this is again a very important
aspect of this the designing.
1271
Now each mode of operation was achieved by a positive isolation of a tank so the proper
safety installation or a proper safety devices they were there. So isolation of the tank from the
other operation modes using two isolation valve and they are attributed to the gate valve and
they were having a blind or a blank in between them.
So the first isolation valve on the tank was provided as the motor operated get gate valve and
the subsequent slides this is referred as a MOV and the second one is the line valve which is
the hand operated gate valve and referred as HOV. Now this they are having a hammer blind
valve between the motor operated valve and hand operated valve.
1272
Now they were having three push buttons one for operating the valve when it is pushed the
other for closing the valve when it is pushed and third for pausing the movement when its
pushed for stopping the valve movement.
Now, these valve can also be operated by means of a hand wheel just like any other hand
operated valve. So the valve was to close automatically in case of power failure as per the
original design features some sometimes it may be violated. So at the time of the incident and
for the past several years the facility of a remote closing of the valve from control room and
automatic closer of the valve on power failure has not been operational. So this facility has
been made defunct since 2003 one of the main reason why this accident took place.
1273
Now, let us have a look about the hammer blind valve. The hammer blind valve there is a
hollow wedge open eye and a solid wedge that is a solid eye to be used and depending on
whether one wants to block the line or make the line through a flow like this, this is the
opening and this is the complete closer, so whenever it operates it moves like this direction so
the opening my take place. And if it is like this then no flow can pass through this particular
valve. So some, there are 4 different type of HOVs, so this is the crown wheel through which
you can control the flow either closed or open.
1274
There are several other associated facilities in that particular plant like the pump house the
pump house accommodates nine pumps three numbers they are dedicated for each products,
motor spirit that is petrol, high speed diesel and kerosene. And the pumps and these pumps
are generally electric driven centrifugal pumps the plant was having the truck loading
facilities referred as DLF. There are 30 numbers of loading gantries are provided for truck
loading of motor spirit kerosene and high speed and this consists of 30 loading bays with the
33 loading.
They were having one exchange Pitt Fury calling the plot plan at the corner of the plot they
were having the exchange pit. So for pipeline transfer at the South battery limit and exchange
pit is provided consisting of two number of isolation valve one is HOV. Again with the
hammer blind type of valve for the positive isolation on each of the product transfer pipeline,
they were having a control room the control room mainly consisted of a digital screen and
other instruments including emergency shutdown procedure for the entire installation.
1275
They were having a business Community Centre this terminal also had the business
Community Centre which housed to the backup for the corporate ERP system and this
business Community Centre was provided with a DG set to provide the necessary power
backup which was designed to start on auto mode in case of any power failure in the centre.
There was a good power protection system now this unfortunately this fire protection system
was not competent enough to come to cater the need of entire plant. So this fire water system
for marketing division is composed of two number of fire water tank and as a basic protocol
three number of main pumps diesel operated for fire water network and foam shed and spray
1276
rings around the tanks for both motor spirit and diesel for cooling purpose in case of
adjoining product tank fire.
Now you can imagine that all these activities they were actuated at a time of accident but they
failed so you can imagine that scenario and you can imagine that how much quantum of
enthalpy generated at the time of an that particular accident. Now, the fire water system was
adequate to provide the primary protection for 4 hours as stipulated in oil industry safety
standard so they were very much within those standards.
The fire water system for pipeline division that was comprised of one fire water tank, two
main pumps usually they were diesel operated firewater network. Now, both the water fire
water system were interconnected including the fire water tanks.
1277
They were having some entry and exit protocols the terminal facility was provided with three
gates two on the south west side of the plot and one at the north east side so. So, why I am
telling you all these sides because the time of accident the meteorological conditions also
play very vital role. So entry was only through a single gate that was in the southwest and the
second south west gate is kept locked and the northeast gate was used in terms of emergency
protocol.
Apart from other things they were having the effluent treatment facilities so oily waste water
from the pump house area and tankage area is routed via a closed system to a RCC sump in
1278
the effluent treatment plant. Now, it is usually then pump with a effluent feed pumps to the
inlet of tilted plate interceptors where in the free of oil droplets they are intercepted and form
a floating layer of oil, which is skimmed through a rotatable skim pipes.
As far as the personnel are concerned, the Jaipur Terminal worked under the overall guidance
of the general manager, Rajasthan state office they are having the IOCL Regional Centre at
Jaipur apart from this there are 10 other officers with the different responsibilities and 24
Blue Collar workers and 4 clerical staff.
1279
Now, let us have a discussion about the operation so this terminal operate usually operated in
3 shifts so for the Terminal operation with the timing of 6:00 a.m. to 2 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. to
10:00 p.m. and 10:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. in the morning. The TLF that is the truck loading
facility operation was restricted to the morning general shift operation that is from 8 a.m. to
5:00 a.m. 5:00 p.m. The control room that was supposed to be manned but there was no
dedicated person for it and occasionally when all the four people were out in the field for
different job it remained unmanned, this is again a problematic issue.
In the evening shift of October 29, 2009 the IOCL petroleum oil lubricants terminal at
Sanganer in Jaipur was preparing to transfer kerosene and motor spirit to the neighbouring
BPCL terminal that was obviously a routine operation so a crew of 4, one shift officer and
three operators they were manning the IOCL installation and kerosene was the lined up first
that is through pipeline. And thereafter the operating crew proceeded to prepare the motor
spirit tank for pumping to BPCL installation.
1280
So in the process of lining up MS tank at around 6:10 p.m. a huge leak of the product took
place as a jet of liquid from the hammer blind valve on the delivery line of the tank leading to
the MS pump that is motor spirit pump. Now this liquid petrol which rapidly generated a
vapours and soon overwhelmed and incapacitated the operators carrying out the line of
operation.
So they were practically helpless at the moment because the quantum and velocity the
pressure was so high, the shift operator or shift officer who was nearby try to help the
operator but he two was affected by the vapours, liquid and had to be removed to hospital in
semi conscious state so you can imagine the scenario.
1281
So, this is the schematic layout, this was an Motor Spirit tank and that was the MOV and this
is the HOV and this one is the hammer blind valve so and this was the transfer pump and this
is again the same scenario, so the problem took place in synchronising all these three steps.
1282
So, now the standard operating sequence was to ensure that a MOV and HOV this and this
both are closed then reverse the position of hammer blind valve so that you can have a
desired scenario then open the HOV this one, then open the MOV initially inching operation
to establish the leakage from Hammer blind valve body now the likely sequence says the
MOV opened first. However, desired was the HOV but initially MOV opened first and then
hammer blind valve this was opened that is in the second step and then because of lack of the
synchronisation the leakage started.
So the second operator who was incidentally in the canteen at the time also rushed to the spot
but he was also completely overpowered by the strong petrol vapors and liquid and could not
be rescued. So the third operator on the shift who was supposed to be on site had earlier left
1283
for home for some personal work and was thus not available to initiate any rescue or
mitigation step.
So, these two are again the contributing events that particular accident. With none of the
operating crew available any more for initiating any control action the leak continued
unabated and by the time the senior staff and civil authorities could reach the site had already
gulped almost the entire installation making their entry not only difficult but also dangerous.
So you can say that this was the initiation and this is the total propagation.
So, after about an hour and 15 minutes the leak having started there was a massive explosion
followed by huge fireball covering the entire installation. So it is estimated that in this one
hour and 15 to 20 minutes of uncontrolled leak about thousand ton of motor spirit could have
escaped out, which would have generated enough vapour to cause an explosion with
equivalence of almost 20 tons of a TNT.
Now, remember when this huge firewall occurred, then there is may be a generation of huge
quantum of heat and that may initiate by any modes of heat transfer, that may initiate the
vapour formation and pressure build up in the adjoining tanks so the explosion in other
adjoining tanks may took place.
1284
Now, this was the source of motor spirit leak, now you can visualise there are hand operated
valve motor operated valve and this one is the blind, blank, now this is the mean scenario so
it was not been inserted properly while the transfer took place.
So, let us have a look about that all three steps of this particular incident initiation,
propagation and termination. So the source of ignition which triggered the explosion and fire
would have been found from one of the non flameproof electrical equipment in the
administrative block or from a vehicle being started in the installation. Now remember when
1285
vapour escapes from any kind of facility in terms of a vapour cloud and if it is exposed to the
atmosphere it may form the uncontrolled vapour cloud.
Then it is very difficult to prevent all the presence of all kind of source of ignition and
moreover they were, these vapours are under the grip of atmospheric air so sufficient supply
of oxygen is also there, so you cannot avoid the scenario of generation of either fireball or
fire. So, the fire which followed the explosion soon spread to all other tanks and continue to
rage for about 11 days so that was the a propagation step.
The management of IOCL they had taken a consider decision to allow the petroleum product
to burn out to avoid for the possibilities of accident in the installation in the interest of the
public safety. So you can say that it is let it go policy because practically the quantum of heat
was so high at the moment that they were practically helpless to extinguish the fire by the
usual methods available as on date.
So, ultimately while we consider the termination and discuss about the losses so ultimately
the entire about 60,000 kilo litre of Petroleum products stored in the terminal that is
equivalent to about 1000 to 1200 retail outlets at the time of accident was consumed in the
fire and installation was totally destroyed. Now building in the immediate neighbourhood
were heavily damaged with a minor damage and window panes breakage occurring up to
around the two kilometres from the site.
1286
Now the reason was when the tanks they were exploded the noise or the vibration was so
high that all the window panes damage some cracks etc. They were they took place at the
site. So the total loss estimated on account of the fire and explosion as reported by Indian Oil
Corporation in the press which includes the loss of the finished product, stores, fixed assets
and the compensation for the third party losses amounted to be 280 crores.
11 people lost their lives in the accident and 6 from IOC and 5 from outsider and several
others were injured. The Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas they immediately thereafter
that is on 13th September 2009 constituted the seven member in independent enquiry
committee to enquire into the incident. So in inertial you can say that if the operators they
didn't follow the protocol that means the lack of training and lack of a technical competency.
1287
So, let us have a discuss about the immediate cause the immediate cause of the accident was
the non observance of normal safety protocols involving the sequence of valve operation in
the line of activity and engineering design which permitted use of Hammer Blind Valve a
device which is used for the positively isolation of pipeline so they have not follow the
standard operating protocol.
The root causes, the basic root causes were the absence of site is specific written operating
process protocol or a procedure the absence of leak stopping devices from a remote location
this facility of a remote closing the motor operated valve connecting to the tank side which
1288
could have stopped the leak, although some of the safety protocols they were defunct at the
time of accident. Now insufficient understanding of hazard and risk consequences.
There were some critical factors involved in that particular plant that critical factors which
resulted the catastrophic accident are the laws of primary containment of motor spirit that is
petrol so but practical they were not in the position for the containment of motor spirit so that
is why it escaped from the storage facility, the loss of secondary containment so the
incapacitated the operating person because at the time of accident one was away to his home
and remaining persons they were not in a position to control the things, they were not having
a proper mitigation measures at the time of accident.
So inadequate mitigation measures there was so many shortcomings in design and

engineering specification of facilities and equipments because when the person is not in a
position to operate this HOV or MOV with the blind then definitely they may be certain
shortcomings in design and Engineering specification there was absence of operating
personal from site and also from the vital operation area which they were not supposed to do
so.
1289
Then the question arises about the responses so information about the leak and hazard was
conveyed by the security staff on site to the terminal senior manager staff and others the state
and local civil authorities they were alerted by IOC state level officers and within about 30 45
minutes almost all persons and agencies in the city and around that come to the site. There
was a serious non availability of a self-contained breathing apparatus and fire suite
immediately, and when it was not available they left the entire response team as a mere
helpless spectators in preventing the incident.
1290
So because this accident was attributed to the vapour cloud explosion so explosion occur. The
to the tune of approximately 20 tons of TMT, 9 of the total 11 tanks got fire immediately
after first explosion balance two tanks maybe at a distance got fire after sometime so because
of regular heat transfer modes for which they caught the fire. So decision was taken to allow
the fuel that is 60,000 kilo litre to burn as all fixed fire fighting facilities is at the location got
demolished and they were not in a position to handle the scenario where the external fire
fighting devices.
Now this is the major timeline for the accident. Now the sealing of tank lines, valve, etc. to
before 5:50 p.m., the tank handing over by pipelines to marketing 5:50 p.m., start of hammer
blind reversal work after 5:50, start of motor spirit spillage at around 6:10 p.m., rescue of
operation officers officer between 6:20 to 6:24 and the first communication outside the
terminal gate which was supplied to 6:24 and sounding of siren after 6:30 and the formation
of vapour cloud across the terminal, it took place around between 6:10 p.m. to 7:30 p.m. and
vapour cloud explosion took place at 7:30 p.m.
1291
Now we can discuss the possible scenarios for this particular accident. The scenario one the,
the motor operated valve was in open condition before the start of hammer blind reversal job
so this maybe that attributed to the this opened by someone anytime between the previous
blinding operations and on 29th October, 2009. Because it is not at all possible to establish
any one of the above conclusively the reason is that whenever they started the job then
definitely they might have look into this aspect.
Then the scenario to the motor operated valve opened accidentally when the blind was being
reversed due to the spurious signal or manually. So among the two scenarios, scenario one
1292
that the MOV was open condition before the start of hammer blind reversal job appear to be
more likely.
So when they discussed about these two scenario they found that this scenario is most
appropriate one.
Then they discussed about to the source of ignition so as vapour cloud spread in such a large
area the source of fire can be anything inside or outside the installation so the non flameproof
electrical fittings in administration block located in the south western direction of the
1293
terminal or spark during the starting of the vehicle at installation they are the probable cause
of the source of fire.
Now there are certain contributing factor to this incident that is one is a non availability of a
one of the shift work man who was supposed to be on duty so when the investigation team
carried out the investigation they found out these are the contributing factors. Second may be
the control room remaining unmanned due to the above things.
The third one is the absence of a specific written time procedure for the works to be
undertaken and therefore at the reliance on practice. Fourth may be the opening of hand
operated valve before the completion of a hammer blind reversal operation. Another one is
that not checking the motor operated valve for its open close status and not lock locking the
closed position.
1294
One may be that not using the proper protective equipment while attempting rescue work.
The initiation of the critical activity after the normal working out leading to delay in response
to the situation. Sometime, another contributing factor may be non availability of the second
alternate emergency exit and the last one is that the proximity of industries institutes
residential complexes etc closed to the boundary valve.
So, based on all the facts and incidents the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas,
Government of India they constituted and independent seven member committee headed by
Shree MB Lal, ex-chairman Hindustan Petroleum Corporation to enquire to the incident. So
1295
the committee submitted their report on 29th January, 2009 and made the following
observation. This Jaipur accident was first of its kind in India and the third one reported
globally. So you can assess that how much the gravity of that particular incident
So that this committee made the different conclusion on cause the loss of containment in
terms of time and quantity was never considered a credible event and accordingly not taken
to the hazard identification so that might be the part of the Hazard identification for the future
study. Now basic operation operating procedure for hammer blind opening was not followed.
1296
So the overall lessons one must learn that the facilities and installations with inherently high
hazards should incorporate redundancy in the safety system and ensure their upkeep at all
times. The management should ensure that reliable system are in place to give timely
feedback on the current practices and the state of readiness in the different facilities. The
management must ensure that identical actions are being carried out. High priority safety
from the senior and top management groups will send the right signal down the line to ensure
safety and production.
High degree of operational competency should be maintained at all times by building on

combined knowledge and experience of all the professional groups. The lesson from all major
incidents should be shared that may be the part of the safety review and widely disseminated
in the entire industry preferably through an appropriate website.
1297
Now you can have a look of the gravity of this particular accident through these photographs.
Now these tanks they were burning and the car in the nearby location it is burnt out. Now you
can see that this is the storage tank facility how much pressure being built up so that it the
entire tank which is so strengthen installation is collapsed.
1298
Now you can see like this, this is the firewall,
Now, this is the highway nearby that installation so you can see the gravity of this particular
accident.
1299
The people were running around now unfortunately we should not install like this.
1300
1301
So, these are the couple of the photographs which looks they are so which depicts that how
much the gravity of that particular accident.
Now, you can see that after the accident this was the scenario of the all tanks those who were
there at the time.
1302
So, you can see the black smokes and flame they are seen out of an oil depot of the Jaipur.
So, by this particular case study we have studied that this is the main you can say the latest of
in the fire and explosion accident and again by not observing the standard operating protocol
this this kind of a major accident they may take place in any kind of establishment. Thank
you very much!
1303
Module 11
Lecture 51
The Flixborough UK Cyclohexane Disaster
(June 01, 1974)
So the first in this particular line is The Flixborough UK Cyclohexane Disaster which took place
in 1st June 1974. Now this particular accident is most disastrous accident in terms of fire and
explosion. So, let us have a look about this particular accident, now before we start this particular
accident in terms of case study, we will have an introduction of the plant then we will discuss
about the process protocol or process methodology then what were the shortcomings and to the
best of our effort we will try to give a proper accident investigation.
So let us have an introduction about this Flixborough plant, this was an explosion at a chemical
plant that was owned by Nypro UK Limited and occurred in Flixborough, England on Saturday
1st of June 1974 about 4.53 pm. Now this particular plant was in operation since 1964.
1304
So why this particular accident took place we will go into the detail in due course of time but a
temporary pipe which containing the cyclohexane caught on fire and burst and that blast was
equivalent to almost 5 tons of TNT. So it was a still, warm sunlight afternoon, one moment a
blast of nightmarish intensity as the giant plant blew up and blotted out the sun, that was the
Humberside police report. So you can see these are the some of the photograph of at that
particular time.
1305
Now let us have a look about the Flixborough petrochemical plant, the Flixborough plant was
owned by Nypro Limited which was virtually demolished by an explosion of warlike dimensions
on afternoon of 1st June 1974. This explosion was initially estimated to be equivalent of to the
force arising from 15 to 45 tons TNT. Later on it was turned as 5 ton, 5 TNT. So this was due to
ignition of a vapor cloud which formed when pressurized cyclohexane escape from a reactor and
vaporized and subsequently it was ignited. So, on site 28 people they were killed and 36 injured.
Now if, remember, if the explosion had occurred during the week there would have been many
more casualties because during the working hour there may be certain people in the offices and
other general shift.
Now let us have a look about the Flixborough site, this was a 60 acre Nypro plant was owned by
Dutch State Mines, 55 percent and National Coal Board, they were having the stake of 45
percent. Now this work was situated on a low lying ground of to the east of the river Trent.
1306
Now this is the Flixborough site and was this particular plant was surrounded by farms and fields
with fortunately a low level of population.
Now this particular plant involved in production of caprolactam that is H2N(CH2)5 COOH this
is a raw material for the manufacturing of Nylon-6 and that is from the benzene.
1307
So this is the Flixborough site, here the main problem took place, this was the caprolactam plant,
there was a certain loading-unloading operation the production arena, acid plant, pyrites sites,
laboratory, main control room and that was the work boundary you can see and this was the
cyclohexane oxidation plant, bypass line etc.
Now let us have brief discussion about the process. The plant was built for the production of
caprolactam which is basic raw material for the production of nylon-6. Now the process involves
the oxidation of cyclohexane with air to produce a mixture of cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone
1308
and then this caprolactam is in situ converted into caprolactam which in turns produces nylon-6,
we will discuss the reaction methodology later on.
Now this is the simplified diagram of cyclohexane oxidation plant, here they were having 6
different reactors 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 and the cyclohexane, they were injecting from the first plant
with the help of an air sparger and the compressed air was supplied from the air supply utility
line and they are, these reactors are connected in series. Now, whenever there is a problem then
what they used to do, they used to draw one reactor from problematic reactor from the main
battery and then they used to repair and then they re-insert it.
So there are certain every reactor was connected with the expansion bellows like this to
overcome any kind of pressure imbalance. Now the product whatever product they coming out
from the after reaction they used to the pump and then separator water is separated and they send
to the distillation section and this is subjected to the cyclohexanone and cyclohexanol recovery
and whatever left behind this unreacted cyclohexane, it is sent back to after scrubbing it is sent
back to the main reactor battery.
1309
Now the disaster, the disaster took place among just you can say whatever they were misses or
the some faulty operations, so we have enlisted all those things in these particular slides, so 2
months prior to the explosion the cyclohexane was discovered by leaking to the reactor number
5, this was the main problematic reactor so the cyclohexane and they were discovered from to be
leaking from reactor 5. So it was decided that the reactor number 5 is to be removed for
inspection and a temporary bypass this, was the temporary bypass, the temporary bypass
assembly to be constructed to connect the reactor number 4 to reactor number 6, while repairs
were made. So this is the basic repairing line or section being carried out.
1310
So on the 1st of June 1974 at 4:53 pm the temporary bypass line which was connected in between
reactor number 4 and reactor number 6 was ruptured, so within a minute about 40 tons of,
because of reactor was having the capacity of 20 tons each, so within a minute about 40 tons of
the cyclohexane it was leaked from the pipe and formed a vapor cloud that when coming in
contact in an ignition source exploded and completely destroying the plant because they were
having high, they were having low boiling point (so in each) and the source of ignition was
having the sufficient energy to ignite that particular vapor cloud and sometimes when this vapor
cloud usually it is termed as unconfined vapor cloud, so whenever this type of scenario happens
then practically the ignition source they are supposed to be available everywhere.
1311
Now let us have a discussion about the scale of accident, so total casualties 28 peoples they were
killed and 36 people were seriously injured. All the records and the charts for the startup were
destroyed and the fire were remained burning in the area for over 10 days, so you can imagine
that how much inventory was there in that particular plant, because they were practically unable
to extinguish the fire for almost 10 days. So the blast was having so much impact that it can be
heard for 30 miles away. The property damage, they extended over wide area and that is more
than 1800 buildings within 3 miles radius of the site was damaged. So these are again couple of
photographs of that particular time.
1312
Now you can see that the various newspaper clipping and accident sites in these figure. So this is
the scenario of vapor cloud explosion and the daily mail they reported that survivor return to a
funeral pyre. So this was the whole scenario.
Now let us a Product Description, so the raw material for that particular caprolactam production
was cyclohexane, it is having the formula of C6 H12 molecular weight 84 and boiling point is 81
degree Celsius. Now this cyclohexane is a volatile liquid with a low boiling point at ambient
condition. It is something like petrol. It is having the liquid density, 780 kilogram per meter cube
1313
and a vapor density is 2.4 kilogram per meter cube at atmospheric condition or atmospheric
pressure. So the liquid is lighter than water while the vapor is heavier than air, in common with
the many hydrocarbons, this is very common phenomena for many hydrocarbons.
Now cyclohexane is having the following thermodynamic properties like specific heat is 1.93
kilo joule per kilogram kelvin, ratio of specific heat that is gamma is equal to 1.087, latent heat
of evaporation is 360 kilo joule per kilogram and flammability in air of the gas is 5.3 to 8.3, in
other words you can say the LFL and UFL.
1314
Now this is the production protocol of nylon 6 from benzene, this is the classical route and they
were suppose to follow this classical route. Now benzene is hydrogenated to give the
cyclohexane and this cyclohexane (in) is subsequently oxidized to give the cyclohexanol and this
cyclohexanol is further oxidized to give the cyclohexanone and in presence of NH2OH (and)
H2SO4 the cyclohexanone is converted into cyclohexanone oxime which is subsequently
converted into caprolactam with H2SO4 and NH4 whole twice SO4 ammonium sulphate is
byproduct and this caprolactam is converted into nylon-6. So this is the production stream of
nylon-6 from benzene route and the plant was having substantial quantity of benzene within its
periphery.
1315
Now the benzene under high pressure gives the cyclohexane and cyclohexane with ammonia and
oxygen the cyclohexanone, so ammonia is again used for the production of cyclohexanone and
one advisory is that oxygen needs to be carefully control. Now why oxygen needs to be carefully
controlled? The reason is cyclohexane is extremely flammable and you are supplying oxygen, so
sometimes it may happen that the if you are not controlling oxygen, so that it can meet the
minimum oxygen concentration demand and it is extremely you can say it may become the
extremely disastrous. Then this cyclohexanone plus oleum H2SO4 gives the caprolactam and
caprolactam upon hydrolysis it gives the nylon-6. So this is the basic stream and this is the
oxidation of cyclohexane.
1316
Now the Flixborough petrochemical plant was involved in the production of cyclohexanone, a
precursor of the manufacture of nylon. The raw material cyclohexane, this was oxidized to
cyclohexanone by injecting air in presence of a catalyst. So the process of oxidation is usually
slow and it was decided to use the 6 stirred reactors in series with the product from the first
overflowing into the second and so and so on.
So if you recall, the production protocol, so these 6 reactors they were in series and the overflow
of the previous reactor is subjected to the inlet of the next reactor inline and in such a way. So
1317
this is (the) you can say the Flixborough flow sheet here (the) this was a cooling scrubber then
there is heat exchanger, this 6 reactors they were in series they are connected with the 20-inch
bypass line. Now here the reactor number 5 is out of the business because of the some repair and
there are other previous sections just which we have already discussed.
Now since to meet the reaction kinetics, they were having the 6 reactor in series. Now to do this
the reactors they were mounted on a platform arranged in a series step such that each step is
having the height difference of 0.355 meter with another one. Now, the good reaction kinetics,
they dictate that the cyclohexane in the reactor be maintained at an elevated temperature of 155
degrees Celsius.
So, chemical kinetics plays a very vital role for any kind of fielder conversion things. Now this
temperature is above the boiling point at the atmospheric pressure, so (it) to hold the liquid, to
hold all the contents in the liquid state the reactor had to be operated at 9 bar pressure. Because
remember the cyclohexane is having the boiling point 81 degree Celsius. Now since reactors
they are operating at a temperature higher than this particular temperature and the operating
temperature was 155 degrees Celsius so they need to be put at a higher pressure.
1318
So this higher pressure and higher temperature, this is this was a main reason these two
parameters were the main reason for this particular reactor apart from the mechanical or
deliberated failure. Now, this is the actual photograph of the reactor train or reactor battery in the
course of during the course of the erection. Now, this was the reactor which was taken out for the
repair and this was the sketch of the bypass pipe. So there was a reactor number 4 and this was a
reactor number 5, reactor number 6, so they were connected through this bypass pipe.
1319
Now you can have a more closer look of this a particular reactor battery. So these were the 6
reactor and this was the off gas manifold and this was a problematic reactor.
So sometimes in March 1974, the cooling water was sprayed on the outside of reactor number 5
to quench a minor leak from a valve. Now the water was contaminated with the chemicals which
corroded the mild steel casing of the reactor. Now this problem you can say, this is the near miss.
Now the steel shell was under a tensile hoop stress and due to this the contained pressure which
would have accelerated the damage. Now this phenomenon is known as the stress corrosion.
1320
So this correction had to the had the result that more of the mechanical load was transferred to
the stainless steel liner which was then overstressed and it in turns cracked. So cyclohexane
vapors they begin to leak from the reactor, again you can say this is the miss. Now the first
lesson of this would be that the system could leak as a result of an external corrosion that is
presumably not considered to due to the lagging. So sometimes it may referred as that this is
lagging but it is not.
1321
Now just because of this particular thing, this reactor had to be shut down and removed from the
service for repair. Now to keep the process running, it was decided to fabricate a temporary
bypass pipe to join reactor number 4 to reactor number 6. Now a poor mechanical design of the
bypass pipe was a reason for that disaster. Now remember, both the reactors they were
pressurized and they were at an elevated temperature, see remember the reactor temperature was
155 degrees Celsius and both of them were at 9 bar.
So whenever you are applying such kind of for modification you need to go ahead with the
pressure test. So which was not performed because sometimes it may have (because) whenever
the content moves from this place, this reactor to this one then there may be a chances of any
fluctuation.
So a 20-inch diameter temporary bypass line or jack-knifed, this is like this where the pipelines
they are supported, so jack-knifed and failed under the thermal expansion stress, now because
both of the reactors they were operated at higher temperature. So again, the thermal (expression)
expansion test or stress tests need to be performed. So, about 42 of 120 tons of cyclohexane
escaped into the congested reactor supported structure. Now the jack-knifed were like this, so
they approximated around 40 to 100 tons or 120 tons of cyclohexane they escaped into this
arena. So within 2 minutes of the vapor, the minutes the vapor cloud ignited and detonation class
of vapor cloud explosion took place.
1322
Now this is the schematic view of this indicate the basis of the incident. Remember this was
running at 155 degrees Celsius and again the temperature of a (105) 55 degrees Celsius, 9 bar
pressure and it is again having the 9 bar pressure. So the entire content and when this was
broken, this bypass line was broken, then you may assume that the entire material they may
come out because every reactor was running under pressure.
1323
Now let us have a look about this the defective pressure vessel that is, the pressure vessel number
5. Now this failed pressure vessel taken out of the service. Now the cracked propagation near the
flange square hold or where the material has been removed for examination.
So this is again the original figure where this reactor number 5 was supposed to be there.
1324
Now this you can see that before the explosion the plant was having this type of thing and this is
after the explosion.
Now this is, you can see the view of the entire plant arena after the incidence, so this one is the
main fire zone and you can see that the entire plant was destroyed at the moment.
1325
Now let us have a look about the bypass line because it was the main culprit of that particular
incident. The details of the support of the cracked bypass pipe, the pipe was supported by
scaffolding poles or you can say the jack-knife system. So, as pressure built up the bellows
displaced vertically downward at one end and the failure occurred by squirming then the rupture
of the mitred welds. So they just welded the things in a non-professional manner. So the bypass
had not been properly designed and effect of some excel forces apparently they overlooked. The
liquid escaped and formed a vapor cloud which ignited in the explosive manner.
1326
Now this is the reactor battery and they try to just extinguish the fire.
Now the explosion hypothesis, they suggested that the sequence of the event is unclear, still
unclear. The two hypotheses were considered in the inquiry report because at as in this is an
outcome of the accident investigation that was a failure of an 8-inch pipe and separately and then
next is the failure of the 20 inch bypass as the pressure was increased, as the plant was being
1327
brought fully online after the fitting of the bypass. So see again, it seems that the plant officials
they were under stress.
So in case if you are removing any reactor then to meet out the reaction kinetics and to meet out
the requirement of a conversion or a yield then they were forced to put the scenario to bypass the
chemical kinetics things. Like now the original chemical kinetics, they suggest that you need to
maintain the reaction temperature at around 155 degrees Celsius under 9 bar pressure. But
whenever you are forcing towards the higher conversion, then that means you are compelled to
alter all those process parameters.
So this disaster was caused by poor design and inadequate structural support with the (flexible)
jack-knife type of scaffolding of a (temperature) temporary 20-inch diameter bypass pipe. Now
the structural calculation for the bypass were not carried out, such calculations might have
anticipated the failure of mechanism. So again, they have, you can say they have missed this
particular aspect, a very important aspect of the process.
Now there was inadequate recognition by the management that a calculation and a proper
pressure test was necessary for the bypass because all the reactors they were under high pressure.
So there was a necessity to carry out for the bypass and there was no work engineer employed at
the work at the time.
1328
And there was too much reliance on the chemical engineer in the management team rather than
the mechanical engineer. So chemical engineer they were just involved to alter the reaction
kinetics or process parameters and they can, you can say, they were incompetent to carry out all
kind of pressure temperature calculations for that particular pressure vessel. So the information
on the conditions necessary for the formation of large flammable vapor layers and the
consequences of their ignition was not at all available. So they did not carry out this type of
analysis and it was very fortunate that the plant was not located in an urban area.
1329
Now there are certain observations, the investigations revealed that the part of the plant including
the failed reactor had over the years suffered from the nitrate stress corrosion. Now the inquiry
suggested that the training of engineer should be more broadly based both academically and
practically, so that they had some knowledge of other branches of engineering. Now this is very
important had the chemical engineers they the knowledge of the stress test or the pressure
imbalanced and (test) then they might have any position to compel the fabricators to perform
such type of test to avoid such a scenario.
1330
Now there are certain process design flaw, the cyclohexane in the reactor was in a liquid state at
a temperature of 74 degrees Celsius above its atmospheric pressure boiling point. Hence any loss
of containment would produce large scale of flashing and escape of flammable vapor. Now the
cyclohexane and the benzene both of them they were stored in a large quantity, so inventory
problem was also there in that particular thing.
1331
Now this was the structure of scaffold and this you can see the scaffold which was supported the
reactor number 4 to reactor number 6.
Now this was the bypass pipe geometry, this was a reactor 4 and this was a reactor 6, they were
supported by these bellows and the pipe reactor flanges and the distance was almost 355 meter
just to suggest that reaction kinetics and the distance of these two reactors, remember reactor 4 to
reactor 6 was 6.5 meter.
1332
Now these are the pictures shows that a reactor 4 and 6 after the accident, so you can see these
are the openings where the things were connected. So this was the (reaction) reactor number 6
and this was the reactor number 4.
Now this is the bypass pipe after the accident, so you can see the damage over here.
1333
The consequences are 28 plant people they were killed, 53 people who are wounded and required
medical treatment almost 1,800 houses they were damaged in the rural area beyond the plant
fence line.
So when the accident investigation took place then team over viewed the entire scenario and they
found out that a temporary pipe was fitted between two sequential reactor in a plant and that was
oxidizing the cyclohexane at an elevated temperature under pressure. Now this pipe was not
designed properly and the mechanical load acting on the pipe were not correctly identified. In
particular the (ply) pipe was subjected to the large bending loads for which it had not been
designed.
1334
Now you can see in this particular figure that whenever the flow is transferred from this way. So
the load would be on the higher side of this particular pipe junction.
Now the pipe broken down, open at a thermal expansion bellow fitting in the line, the large
amount of liquid cyclohexane escape to the atmosphere through the rupture pipe and vaporized
because they were having the higher temperature and excess pressure. So the vapor cloud found
an ignition source and a fireball in ensued.
1335
Now, so they recommended couple of things before they proceed further. The changes to a
design should be overseen an authorized by the properly qualified person. Remember there was
no mechanical engineer involved for carrying out any kind of pressure, temperature based
calculation, so they suggested. Now there was an upmost requirement to carry out the systematic
search for the possible cause of the problem before any modification process being done.
Because the chemical engineers they were forced to carry out the higher conversion.
Now knowledge and understanding of the hazard of the process might have prevented the
accident from occurring. Now this was again important point to note because they were having
the large sized inventory and for all flammable materials like cyclohexane, benzene and because
they were carrying out the oxidation reaction, so the source of oxygen was adequately available
at the point of time. So in a synchronized manner the accident investigation team, they
categorized the things in event leading to the incident.
1336
Now 2 months before the accident, the reactor number 5 was decommissioned and because they
were founded to be leaking, a 6 feet long crack there in that particular reactor was developed, a
water hose stream was directed to crack, to the crack to cool and quench the small cyclohexane
leak.
And this cooling water contained nitrates, brine just to have a thermodynamic calculation. So
which (can) encourages the stress corrosion of certain carbon steel. So thus by trying to relieve
1337
the situation the quenching was actually acting as a promoter of corrosion. So ultimately they
were, they were decided to decommission that particular reactor from the service and they were
trying to repair that particular reactor in due course of time.
See there was no experienced worker, work manager available on the site to the time of removal
of reactor number 5. The previous work manager, (which) who was a very good maintenance
engineer with the 25-year experienced had quit job because an anticipated promotion was given
to (an) another outside person. So this may be the reason when we were discussing about the
accident investigation so human value point is there.
1338
Now this event could not be happened as there was no experience mechanical engineer on site.
Now those remaining decided to fast track on scratch pad type of solution to intent the bypass, so
they just sketch the full-scale bypass line in chalk on the maintenance floor and that was highly
undesirable because when you are having such a high sensitive plant with you. They were not
carried out any stress analysis calculation on that particular bypass connection.
1339
Now because they were so much under the stress, they the bypass line was quickly installed and
the plant put into startup mode as quickly as possible. Now shortly after startup the bypass line
failed causing forty thousand to hundred thousand pounds of cyclohexane to leak into the
confined space of the reactor support structure. The reason was that initially the, the maybe the
plant was having the low pressure and initially when they were raising the pressure, there was a
pressure fluctuation that could have lead the rupture of that particular pipeline So within 2
minutes the vapor cloud that vapor cloud exploded.
Now, we can learn a several lessons from this particular Flixborough explosion the main root
cause of this incident was the use of the cooling water with the nitrates to quench cyclohexane
leak on the reactor. So the, whenever you are compelled to use this type of cooling water carry
out the stress analysis. Another root cause was installing a bypass line or any line for that matter,
without any kind of stress analysis and that is the recipe of the disaster. The third root cause was
the management must recognize when they are vulnerable to a critical manpower change. So if
you recall the maintenance engineer, he was forced to quit the job because the promotion was
given to some outsider. So that was a human value task.
1340
The more control is required to conduct a good engineering practices once the plant is up and
running, that means the top at that particular point of time the workers, they were not well
trained because they carry out all kind of bypass analysis through chalk on the maintenance
floor. The poor location and a poor construction of the control room because it was collapsed at
the time of vapor cloud explosion. The plant was too congested in that design (state) stage.
So if you can see the previous figure that was extremely congested because and remember the
plant was having the involvement of a extremely highly dangerous flammable vapors. So they
must minimize the hazardous inventories, at the time of accident they were having a very large
quantity of hazardous inventories like acid, benzene, cyclohexane etc.
1341
There were certain failure analysis need to be carried out like check pipework, which was not
corroded, bellows they were not corrected specification because as a protocol whenever you are
replacing anything and then the replacement should carry the same type of specification. So there
was a lack of backup isolation valves, although it was not necessary at the time because all these
6 reactors they were connected in series. Incompatible substances stored in the same warehouse
when they were not supposed to be there. Inadequate smoke detection and firefighting facilities
were there at the time of accident in the Flixborough plant.
1342
There was a time delay of 50 minutes before accident reported to emergency services. There was
an inadequate identification of potentially hazardous impurities and hazard marking was also not
checked on the tanks, driver documentation not checked, all the causes of accident. The reason
was that because the source of ignition was unknown and it practically investigation team failed
to find out the source of ignition from which that vapor cloud was ignited.
So in this particular module, we had a discussion about the Flixborough accident and a proper
accident investigation and what was the failure of that particular Flixborough explosion. So in
the subsequent slide, subsequent module, we will discuss about Seveso, that is related to the
toxicological studies, Bhopal again, it was related to the toxicological studies and the Jaipur
accident. Thank you very much.
1343
Lecture 52
Seveso Accident
July 10, 1976
Now welcome to the case study related to the toxicological aspect. Now here we will discuss the
two cases, one is Soveso another one is the Bhopal. Now why these accidents are important? The
reason is that unlike fire and explosion, these toxicological accidents they are having a long-term
impact. So the impact is divided in two fold, one is the immediate impact, when few a couple of
fatality or small amount of injury may take place and sometimes the injuries are not there
because they may become the part (and the), the toxicant they may become the part and parcel of
your body system through inhalation, dermal absorption etc and sometimes these toxicants they
are having a very vital role because sometimes they may even change the (geno) gene character
of body. So they may have a long term impact on the human.
Now as far as the environment is concerned then they may have a larger impact because the soil,
air, water they may get contaminated over the period of time. So whenever those people, those
who are using the soil may be in terms of growing the vegetables or vegetations etc or they are
using the groundwater they may be get contamination over the period of time. So they are having
the la long-term impact. So that is why these the toxicological accidents they should not be look
into that how many fatalities are there, but they should be look into terms of that, how much
impact they are giving to the environment as well as the human value. So prior to Bhopal the
Seveso accident was termed as the most dangerous and disastrous accident in terms of
toxicology.
1344
Now it was dioxin pollution and took place in Italy in 1976. So let us have a brief history about
that particular plant and accident and then we will carry out the accident analysis in terms of case
study. Now this is an extremely serious accident, this was an extremely serious accident occurred
in 1976 in a small chemical plant located not far from Milan. Now it is known as The Seveso
Disaster because Seveso was the most affected community at the point of time. Now this
industrial plant was owned by a company called ICMESA sometimes referred as MESA, now
Industrie Chimiche Meda Societa Azionaria. Now this is a subsidiary of an Italian company
which in turn was a subsidiary of Hoffmann-La Roche the plant was built many years before the
accident and it was involved in the manufacturing of dioxins.
1345
So the, due to a mechanical failure the temperature rose to around 300 degrees Celsius and the
relief valve eventually opened and 6 ton of material this including 1 kilogram almost 1 kilogram
of TCDD that is called Tetrachlorodibenzodioxine, they were all content for release to the
atmosphere and they spread around 18 kilometers square, square kilometer area. So these (dogs)
dioxins are extremely dangerous to mankind. So these they first came to widespread public
notice during the Vietnam War when it was identified as a component of the defoliant Agent
Orange and previously the substance had been banned from agricultural use because of its
alleged toxic effect on humans. So people were very much aware about the severity of that
particular chemical.
1346
Now this Seveso Italy, it is 15 miles from Milan. Now a white cloud drifted from the chemical
site work to the township. So that depends on the wind direction at the time of the release, now
they occurred in a small chemical plant before the start of the weekend and Trichlorophenol
synthesis become the runaway reaction. So it is some sort of thermal runaway reaction. This
caused the increase in the temperature as well as the pressure and just to relieve the system the
safety valve broken down and release the chemical into the environment.
1347
So this particular substance was TCDD 2, 3, 7, 6 tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin. Now again, there
was a lack of communication between the plant officials and local authorities. So they first notice
when the animal tend to die and people fell in. However, please remember that there was no
death directly attributed to TCDD. So, if you recall the previous statement made by me (in) at the
start of this lecture, they may not have a immediate effect in terms of a fatality, but it may have
some sort related to the occupational illness or illness and they may have a long term impact to
the society. So coming back to the nothing, the product was hexachlorophene, a bacteriocide
which trichlorophenol produced as an intermediate.
The when you are having a very controlled things in your in your hand and you are strictly
following the chemical kinetics suggested by the engineers so, normal operation it produces a
very small quantity of TCDD as an undesirable side product. Now this is the TCDD is the most
potent toxin known to man. It is (unsol) insoluble in water and (decom) decontamination is
extremely difficult. Now in the subsequent side, we will discuss that how we can decontaminate
this particular TCDD from any process plant.
1348
Now let us have a discussion about the process, the process which gave rise to the accident was
the production of 2, 4, 5 trichlorophenol TCP is in a batch reactor. Now, this trichlorophenol is
required to for making the bacteriostatic agent called hexachlorophene . Now the company used
to manufacture this trichlorophenol to avoid any kind of impurities. Now this process involved
two stages.
1349
The stage one, the alkaline hydrolysis of 1, 2, 4, 5 tetrachlorobenzene referred as TCB using
sodium hydroxide environment. Now the reaction mixture also contains some xylene so you can
see this, this is the reaction mechanism 1, 2, 4, 5 tetrachlorobenzene in presence of NaOH the
temperature of 135 to 170 degree Celsius. It gives rise to this, then the second stage the sodium
trichlorophenate, this was the sodium trichlorophenate, (sodium tricehlorophenate) this was
acidified to with HCL to give the trichlorophenol TCP. So this is the reaction formula for the
generation of a TCDD.
Now, there were certain mandatory steps involved in that particular production line. So after
stage 1, that is this one stage this stage, after stage 1, 50 percent of ethylene glycol used to distill
off and the temperature of the reaction mixture needs to lower down to 50 to 60 degree Celsius.
It is 50 to (50 degrees) to 60 degree Celsius by the addition of water. Now excess water usually
removed by the xylene through the azeotropic distillation. So in the process the formation of
small quantities of TCDD as byproduct is unavoidable. So at a reaction temperature below 180
degrees Celsius, it is 180 degrees Celsius. The amount formed would be unlikely to exceed 1
PPM of TCP.
1350
Now if you go on the prolong heating in the temperature range of 230 to 260 degrees Celsius, it
could increase the thousand times. So, during the manufacturing or during the process nearly
99.7 percent of TCDD formed concentrated in the distillation residues and incinerated. Now only
(1) 0.3 percent, 0.3 percent found its way into TCP.
Now let us have a brief look about the reactor. The reactor was 13875 liter of vessel with an
agitator and steam jacket and there was no automatic control for heating. The reactor assembly
1351
was provided with the rupture disc and venting direct to atmosphere. So that was you can say,
lacuna in that particular process. So this is, you can see the rupture discs and which is exposed to
the atmosphere. The prime purpose of disc was to prevent the overpressure. Now the system had
an incinerator for the destruction of hazardous plant residue at temperature (80) 800 to 1000
degree Celsius.
So they properly knew the fact that this TCDD is having problematic approach. So (they were)
the plant was equipped with the (destruct) destruction facilities, which was maintained at 800 to
1000 degree Celsius.
Now, let us have a look about the abridged MSDS of this TCDD. Now this is 2, 3, 7, 8
tetrachloro dibenzene-para-dioxin having the formula like this. This is most toxic of all dioxins
so 80 percent of emission comes from burning organics in presence of chlorine. Now this is a fat-
soluble, highly susceptible to bioaccumulation. So sometimes it may deposit in the fatty tissues
of your body. So that is why I am saying that this is the problem may come later on. You may
not observe the immediate problem, but the health issues may come on later on because this is fat
soluble and highly susceptible for the bioaccumulation.
1352
Now there are certain symptoms of exposure, this includes the Chloracne, the damage to the
immune system, pancreas etc because it is a fat-soluble tissue. A Teratogen, sometimes it may
lead to the carcinogenic ability then, this TCDD can be taken into the body by ingestion,
inhalation or skin contact. So which we had a discussion in the industrial hygiene chapter. Now
this TCDD has the minimum lethal dose of 3.1 into 10 to the power minus 9 moles per kilogram.
So you can see that how dangerous it is. Now this resistant to the destruction by the incineration
except at a very high temperature, that is why they maintained the destruction temperature at 800
to 1000 degree Celsius.
1353
Now there were (severe) previous incident involved a TCDD, in 1949 Monsanto USA they had a
large release from a pressurized reactor and 228 people they were affected. Remember we are
talking about the immediate illness, immediate fatality etc. So (the) some of them may have the
long-term problem, those might have reported or not that is a big issue. So in 1953 BASF the
Germany they 42 people they were affected. In 1960 Dow chemicals, in 1963 Phillips Duphar
Netherland a reaction run away on the pressurized TCP reactor and 30 people they were affected
and 2 died within 2 years of the accident. So you can see that the result or of this body intake
came after 2 years. So, in 1968 Coalite Chemical Production UK plant exploded and 79 affected.
In 1970 Bayer plant overheating 5 people they were affected.
1354
Now, let us have event of sequential event of this particular incident, the start of the batch took
place at around 4 pm on Friday 9 July, 1976. The reaction was charged with 2000 kilogram of
TCB, 1050 kilogram of sodium hydroxide, 3300 kilogram of ethylene glycol and 600 kilogram
of xylene. So after the reaction part of ethylene distilled off, the fraction removed was only 15
percent instead of 50 percent which was desired. So that was the first instance when the people
committed mistake. So, when you are having lesser number quantity of the material removed,
then the most of the solvent was left in the vessel and distillation was interrupted at 5 am on
10thJuly, 1976.
1355
Now this heating was discontinued but water was not added to cool the reaction mass. Again that
was a sheer negligence. So (the) because the water was not added so reactor was not brought
down to 50 to 60 degree Celsius and the temperature recorder was switched off and the last
temperature was recorded at 158 degrees Celsius. Remember the shift was ended at 6 am closer
to the plant for the weekend and that is why lesser number of people were affected by this
discharge. Now the reactor was left with the agitation turned off but without any action to reduce
the temperature of the charge.
1356
So on 10th July, around 12:30 pm the bursting disc on the reactor ruptured then the maintenance
staff those who were present on site heard a whistling sound and a cloud of vapor was seen to
issue from a vent on the roof giving rise to the formation of a dense cloud. So the release because
the reactor was a very small size, so the quantity of the release was very small, so the release
lasted for some about 20 minutes and then a maintenance foreman who was passing heard the
disc rupture because a huge sound was there.
1357
So he ran to the boiler room to start up the large fire water pump. So an hour after the release
began the workers were able to admit the cooling water to the reactor system. Now since the
reactant contents was not brought down to 50 percent, so thermal runaway reaction was
promoting at the time of shift, when the shift was over. So that was the thing when why the
pressure was continuously built up and the rupture disc was freed. And again (the) this was the
main chemical kinetics who suggested the formation of minimum TCDD within the reactor
mass.
Then, once it was escaped or the there was a release of a TCDD then the people started the
various safety measures, they started the cleanup activities and the restoration activities. So the
safety measures taken by the company and authorities were badly coordinated, there was a lot of
communication gap between these two bodies. So at least a week passed before it was publicly
stated that a dioxin pollution occurred and another week passed before the evacuation began. So
you can imagine that for almost 7 days, the people were continuously under the exposure of this
TCDD.
1358
So within days a total 3300 animals were found dead and mostly poultry and rabbits then the
authorities ordered the emergency slaughtering of those animals. Now they it was just to prevent
the TCDD from entering into the food chain and in (19s) up to 1978 over 80,000 animals had
been slaughtered. So you can anticipate or you can imagine that (how) what was the gravity of
that particular incident?
1359
The contaminated area was divided into various zones like A, B and R in the decreasing order of
surface soil concentration of TCDD. Now zone A that is the closest to the plant was completely
evacuated and fenced and 1600 people of all ages had been examined. The local population was
advised to not to touch or eat locally grown fruits or vegetable. So they have anticipated that the
TCDD may enter into the fruits or vegetables also.
Now many people they were found to suffer from skin diseases. So zone A had a TCDD soil
concentration of greater than 50 microgram per square meter and about 700 residents they were
directly affected. So this is the zone A and this is the zone B and this one is the green colored is
zone R.
1360
Now the zone B this one, this zone B had a TCDD soil concentration between 5 to 50 microgram
per square meter and about 47 residents, 4700 residents they were affected. Now this green
colored zone, this is called the zone R or sometimes this is referred as the respect zone this had a
TCDD soil concentration of less than 5 micrograms per square meter and about 31,800 residents
they were affected. Now 2 months after the disaster the Italian government, they granted a loan
of 40 billion lire, lire the time when the incident took place was the (cut) name of the currency,
which was there in Italy. Now it, nowadays it is a Euro. So they have sanctioned a loan to the
region to finance the necessary measures in 1978 and government raised its special loan from 40
billion to 115 billion lire just to decontaminate and to perform the various restoration activities
within this particular arena.
1361
Now 6 months after the accident the decontamination work began to enable the resumption of
productive activities not within the plant but outside the other activities. So more than 1 year
after the accident the decontamination work of zone A, this one was completed and government
decided to demolish, demolish most heavily contaminated houses and rebuild. So the all the
debris they were sent to some safe location to decontaminate them also.
1362
Now waste from the cleanup activities containing chemical residues and protecting cloth
protecting clothings were stored in the containment tanks designed for the storage of nuclear
waste. So you can imagine that how serious they were at the moment and just the seriousness
was attributed just because of the fact that the TCDD is extremely dangerous to mankind. In
1982 several barrels of toxic waste left in that particular plant. So after a series of unclear event
because there was so many events they are within the during the accident investigation, the
investigator found there are so many events, they were practically not clear to them since no
fatality, no proper illness, occupational illness was reported, so they left the things like unclear.
So after the series of these unclear events, 9 year after the disaster Roche which stated that the
company wanted to take the responsibility of the safe destruction of the waste, they declared that
the toxic waste had all been incinerated in Switzerland. So they transported all kind of toxic
waste whatever leftover within the plant may be in terms of raw material, may be in terms of
other contaminated debris, maybe in terms of product etc, they have taken and they have stored
in the containment tanks and they disposed and they are incinerated the things in the Switzerland.
In so government of Italy, they initiated a Judiciary case against the directors of the company. So
in 1980, the director of the production of the company was shot by a member of a terrorist
organization because they thought that they have committed some illegal activities because it
was a failure of (the) that the process protocol. So a few months later a compensation agreement
1363
was signed by the representatives of the region, President of the Italian Republic and the
company. The total amount of that agreement was about 20 billion lire. The technical director of
the company was sentenced to 5 year imprisonment in the first degree trial and then had his
sentence reduced to 2 years and was paroled on appeal.
In this particular module, we have discussed about the happening took place in the Seveso
accident and prior to Bhopal, it was termed as the most dangerous, most devastating accident
with respect to the toxicological studies. One of the major outcome of this particular incident was
that they did not follow the process protocol and that outcome was that although they were
having all kind of safety arrangements etc, but the most toxic dioxin was escaped to the
atmosphere and the result was that the company led to the closure and it took around 4 to 5 years
to decontaminate the things, though there was no fatality directly attributed to this one. Thank
you very much.
1364
Lecture 53
The Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster
(April 26, 1986)
Welcome to another case study. In this particular module we are going to discuss the Chernobyl
Nuclear Disaster which took place on April 26, 1987 and it is one of the worst nuclear disaster in
the history because of the vulnerability, because of the disaster approach, although all nuclear
(plant) power plants, they are relatively safe but this particular accident was one of the worst in
the history of the nuclear power (plant) operations. So, let us have an introduction about this
particular plant, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is in the north of Ukraine and that is close to
the Belarus border at around 120km from Kiev.
So, on April 26 1986 at around 1:00 am the subsequent to severe human error, the vapor
explosion in reactor number 4 of that particular plant led to a release of huge amount of
radioactive materials. So the accident occurred during an experiment to test a potential safety
emergency core cooling feature. So you can see the proximity of other countries and cities of that
particular plant in the figure given in this particular slide.
So the outcome of this particular accident was two workers died on the night of the same
accident and 28 people died within a few weeks. 1,15,000 people were evacuated just for the
time of incident and 2,20,000 people they relocated because of prolonged radioactivity at that
particular arena and 6,000 acre, 6,000 cases they were reported for the thyroid cancer and a large
area was contaminated because of the radio activity.
So, let us have a background of this particular accident. This Reactor Bolshoy Moshchnosti
Kanalnyy - RBMK a Russian acronym translated roughly by means of a reactor of a high-power
rich channel type. Now, this reactor cooled by water and a moderated by the graphite, this is the
protocol of radioactive power plants.
1365
Now, this is the inside of this Chernobyl RBMK type of a reactor, they were having this main
reactor with them and there are several containments, this is the main reaction vessel and the
core and there was a water tubing inside with the shielding bricks and there was a separate steam
separator through which the steam was separated with the pump and this is the actual photograph
of (that) this reactor.
Now, the reactor plant scenario says that as the reaction occurs the uranium fuel becomes hot and
the water pumped through the core in pressure tubes removes the heat from the fuel and the
water is then subsequently boiled into steam and this steam turns on the turbines to generate the
power and the water is (the) or steam is then cooled and then the entire cycle is repeated.
So, this was the total protocol of that particular process. Now, on 25th of April 1986, at 1 am the
preparation of for the test was carried out at 1:47 pm there was a lowering of a reactor power
halted at 1600 megawatts. So you can imagine that the capacity of that particular nuclear plant
was so high, so at around 2 pm the ECCS was isolated and allow around 11:10 pm the power
reduction resumed. So on 26th of April 1986, at midnight the operation shift changed and at
around 12: 28 am the power level is now 500 megawatt and kept decreasing to 30 megawatt.
At 12:40 am the operator withdrew some of the control rods and 1:00 am in the early morning
the power had rising to 200 megawatts and 1:03 am in the morning the connecting the fourth
1366
main cooling pump to the left loop of the system 200 megawatt and around 1:07 am the
connecting, they connected the fourth main cooling pump to the right of the loop system and this
was a violation of nuclear operation protocol. So, they have committed a mistake that they have
violated this protocol.
So on the same sequence at around 1:20 am there was increased feed water supply flow to the
steam drums and remove more control rods again there was a violation of this protocol and at
around 1:23 am the test was started and thereafter the automatic rod withdrawn from the core and
two groups of the automatic control rods were back to the core.
So this is the sequential order of that particular incident and the same time the power kept
increasing and then they sensed that there is something wrong in the system, so emergency
button was pushed on and power was around 300 megawatt. So the same time the first
exothermal thermal explosion took place and within 10-20 seconds the second explosion took
place.
So this is the scenario after the thermal explosion and this is the actual photograph of the
Chernobyl reactor and this is the photograph taken prior to the accident. So you can see that
everything was normal at the moment. Now, these are the couple of photographs after the
accident.
1367
Now there was a human error attributed to this particular accident because of the isolation of
emergency core cooling system there was unsafe amount of controlling rod withdrawn and the
connection of four main cooling pumps to the right and the left of the system.
So they have suggested various things like mental model, the operator did not have a good
mental model for the system itself maybe, he maybe not in a good mood etc. So the mental
stability and the psychological factor usually come into the picture, then he might have an over
confidence of the things, so by having an electrical engineer on site for the electrical test and
there was no confirmation of cues obtained from the system. So this one again contributing
factor in terms of human error, then the beta was to hide the things so many mystery signals
before the accident. So some of the signals they overlooked in due course of time while carrying
out that particular experiment.
1368
Then there was a system analysis for this particular accident, the use of the graphite as a
moderator that was a well-known protocol for the nuclear power plant. There was a lack of a
well-built containment structure, then there was inadequate instrumentation and alarms for an
emergency situation and there was no physical control that prevented the operator from operating
the reactor in its unstable (condition) state.
So usually whenever this type of thing occurs when this type of tests and other things are
performed there may be several layers of safety operations. So if anyone fails like this in this
particular case if the operator fails in that particular aspect, there may be certain other physical
control which can prevent the further proceeding of that accident.
1369
So, let us have a look about the summary of the facts on April 26 1986, the Chernobyl nuclear
power plant, the operator error caused an accident and a reactor explosion and this explosion
releases around 190 tons of radioactive gases into the atmosphere and followed by the fire which
lasted around 10 days and the if we talk about the people at stake, so 70 million people they lived
in the contaminated area and 3 million were children and there was a wind inversion it or wind
flowing at that point of time that carries radiation for very long distances. So the area in question
was large enough compared to the other cases.
1370
Now, you can see the Far-reaching of the radiation in this particular diagram here in the
Chernobyl you can see that the wind inversion took place and are and it is spreaded to in so
many areas like this.
Now there was a radioactive fallout from cesium-137 that is after the Chernobyl reactor you can
see that the red spots they represent the radioactive fallouts in this particular diagram.
1371
Now there was a Crisis Management at the point of time when the reaction took place so
immediate reaction by the Soviet government it was earlier USSR, so the radiation level on site
exceeded the dosimeters limit and assumptions of various intact reactor. So all fires were
extinguished 5 hours after the accident, but most involved fire fighters they perished later on.
Now evacuation of prepared to start only 36 hours after the accident and thus the entire town was
evacuated within 3 hours using 1100 buses. The government only admitted the accident after the
high radiation levels were measured in Sweden. So you can imagine that the radiation fallout,
they approached it to the Swedish arena. There were several other further developments in 86.
1372
The government try to hush up with the extent of disaster admitting that 30 people they had died
and 6 lakh liquidators shoveled most of the debris inside the reactor and a sarcophagus was
erected around the reactor by the December 1986. So you can see that after this accident it took
around 6-7 months to go ahead.
Now, there were certain relief operations were carried out and there were certain advantages and
(advantages) disadvantages associated with, the irrational implementation of immediate
1373
operations so the firemen they were unaware of that they were fighting, basically they were
practically unaware that there is a radioactive contamination. The local defense militia was called
to mean to clean the nuclear fuel from the roof and that is (97) 90 seconds is equal to Disability
Pension in the various kind of cash bonus. So they were awarded for this type of compensation.
The logical thing was to bury the fire and the tons of radionuclide to that remained in the ruins of
the reactor. So that was again issue, the helicopters with sand, boron to absorb the neutrons they
led to shield the radiation and dolomite which would break down into the carbon dioxide and
help some smoother the flame that was used at the time of relief operation.
The pilots and the crews they received the radiation at a rate of several hundred radiations per
hour. Now, fear that the nuclear fuel would become too concentrated and set of a true atomic
explosion destroying the neighboring three reactors because (the) this thing may be propagated
to the other reactors. So use nuclear fuel just was carried out by hand. So radioactive emission
that is started melting the floor so you can imagine that how much gravity was it. Now danger
for getting into the contact with the suppression of a pool below the reactor and the water there
would instantly vaporize and explode, so the water was taken out. So that was again the pros of
that particular accident.
1374
Now, there were several errors attributed to the sarcophagus building, there was no protective
clothing or respirator for the workers and had no shower facility where they could have washed
the radionuclide from their bodies and the most of the soldiers were later transferred to the point
throughout the Soviet Union elsewhere Soviet Union and there was no accurate number of
soldiers participated in the operation.
So there is no data available as on date to find out that how many soldiers those who have
participated in that particular rescue operation. An unhealthy environment, that is the burning of
radioactive object like cloth, tree, pets, etc, because the immediate measures they follow a
protocol to burn all kind of radioactive contaminated objects that may include the cloths, various
vegetation, animals, etc. So they decided to burn it out off but that particular environment, that
particular activity be made the entire environment unhealthy.
1375
Now, information there was an information deficiency, they manipulated to hide the health
problem. Soldiers were dislocated to different parts of the Soviet Union there was a lack of
information for the population and that of the countries that might have been affected. So the no
proper information was provided either by the Soviet Union or other authorities to the
neighboring countries or other stakeholders. So evacuations, so everybody left their houses
waiting outside to be evacuated under an invisible shower of Isotopes. So again nearby people
they were not been sensitized about the gravity of that particular accident and the gravity of the
operation been carried out at the Chernobyl nuclear facility.
1376
So, let us have a look about the various lessons learned from this particular accident. The
Chernobyl is stepping stone for a new philosophy that is new terms in the nuclear energy safety
culture. So the nuclear power plant sometimes referred as NPP is the as unit of national
importance so in each country they have given the national importance and the safety first, they
are just following the concept of safety first, so priority given to the people safety and the
environment and rather than the productivity, so they have synchronized the things in the aspect
that people safety is the first and then the environment and the productivity is the least one.
1377
The overhaul of current and the future projects with the focus on risk minimization being carried
out by various countries including India so that they can avoid the reoccurrence of such type of
accident because this particular accident may have a long-term impact to the arena in question.
Now, let us have a look about the direct casualty, so 5.5 million people still live in the
contaminated area, 31 people died in 3 months of a radiation poisoning, 134 emergency workers
they suffered from acute radiation sickness, 25,000 the rescued worker died since then the
disease caused by the radiation, the cancer affects the many others and increase the chances of a
birth defect, miscarriage and as and other genetic diseases. So these things they are having the
long-term impact and sometimes may not contribute towards the statistical analysis of direct
casualties. Now, there are several other indirect casualties because of the time frame that the
things are again catalogued by various authorities.
1378
So by year 2000 there were 1800 cases of thyroid cancers, cancer in children and others there are
high number of suicide and a violent death among the firemen, policemen and other recovery
workers may be attributed to some psychological fact because they might have suffering from
other radioactive diseases etc. Now, there was a serial environmental impact.
So, let us have a look about the area and arena those who are still impacted today, they are the
soil, the ground water, air, food, crop and other livestock. So these are the various areas where
1379
those who are affected by this radioactive contamination and is still in a generalized manner
these are the major area (whose) which are affected in case of any chemical disaster took place
anywhere in the world.
Now, here you can see (the) there are main environmental pathway of human radiation, so as we
discussed in the previous modules about the industrializing, there are four routes of entry of any
contaminants to the body structure. So you can see that in this particular figure there are the
original cloud of contaminated air and this may directly go into the body either through
inhalation, either through the dermal absorption.
Now, you can see that there may be certain water bodies or externally radiation may took place,
external radiation made through to take place through skin, maybe they are attributed to the sand,
aquatic plant, aquatic animals, etc. So as far as the human intervention is concerned, these are all
those four routes of entry to for radioactive material to the human body they took place in this
fashion. Apart from this the food and drink, animal, plant crops etc. So these are the various
routes through which these radioactive material got contaminated.
1380
Now let us have a discussion about the problems today. The sarcophagus, the after the disaster a
huge steel and a concrete structure was built around the radioactive material to cover the
problematic reactor number 4 and the sarcophagus logged in 200 tons of a radioactive corium, 30
ton of highly contaminated dust and 16 tons of uranium and plutonium. So it was falling apart.
Now, you can see that this, the new sarcophagus construction, this was completed in the end of
2018. So according to 2003 report by the Russian Atomic Energy Minister the concrete shell
1381
surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear reactor was in real danger of collapsing at any time. So a new
sarcophagus was constructed and it was completed and the end of 2018.
Now, there are several recommendations attributed to this nuclear disaster. Now, first and
foremost recommendation that have a proper standard operating procedure or a protocol for both
normal and emergency situation. Now, you can have a scheduled training and a practices for
normal and emergency situation. You must have a always a reactor expert on site. So you have
operators to confirm any cues from the system before making hypothesis or take action. Must
have our teamwork kind of environment such that everybody is involved. Now, this type of thing
attributed to the proper safety training which we had discussed in first modules.
1382
Now, there is a certain emergency protocols and safety measures so you must understand and
respect and minimize the risk. There are several International and National Emergency systems
because as we mentioned in this the previous slide that the first time the radioactivity of that
particular Chernobyl leak was detected by the Sweden so you cannot overlook the importance of
international responders.
So you have to take into the consideration for this highly involving community. Now adequate
radiation measuring technology should be in place, the nuclear power plant community for the
knowledge exchange and international scientific cooperation that is become must. There is a,
there must be a constant quality and its safety control measurement and a continuous
improvement of technology and safety measurement measures.
So, now the last point in this particular slide is the key, that communication is the key and like in
every accident there was a communication gap between the plant officials and the local
authorities. So indeed in that is Chernobyl disaster there was a communication gap between the
local authorities because it was the duty of the authorities to train the nearby people. Now, there
are other health consequences and a lesson from the medical responders. So from hermetic
nuclear reactor more than 400 radioactive isotopes they were released into the biosphere, so
about 40 of them are the potentially hazardous to the human.
1383
Now, this fallout may be deposited into the clothing, skin, and then may enter into the body
through the route which we have already discussed. There are certain gases materials or
particulate matter that may be inhaled, subsequently absorbed through the deposition in the
respiratory track. There may be certain radioactive material that falls on into the food and into
the water supply or that is transferred from hand to mouth, may be ingested.
Now, this you can analyze that the you can see that the white pattern traces in that in this
particular figure, shadow of the nuclear cloud for a day given, so you can see that how much
gravity is there for the nuclear disasters. Now, we cannot overlook the importance of various
half-life and activity of various new radioactive nuclei and the people must be aware about this
one.
1384
So in this particular table we have enlisted the various radio nuclei those who are involved in the
nuclear power production and their respective half-life and their respective activity, so you can
have a look and you can analyze that how gravities that for those radionuclide.
So, of the radionuclides released into the environment the volatile iodine is element had to be the
(large) largest radioactive. So nevertheless due to their short half-life, they disappeared rather
quickly from the biosphere. So the radio isotope or of cesium and strontium were discharged in a
1385
smaller quantity. However, they have also significantly contributed to the radiation exposure of
person living in the area due to their long physical half-life and the biological role depositing in
bones or the soft tissues of the human body respectively.
So, there was about 10 times more radio cesium released then the radio strontium. So the more
volatile cesium isotopes formed radioactive aerosols and contaminated a significant large area
over thousand kilometers than the strontium isotope. So that was the one of the reason why this
radioactive cloud traveled across to the other European country like Sweden etc.
Now, there are (major) main radionuclides contributing to the health effect, like iodine-131 that
these are volatile in nature, they are having the half-life of 8 days and they disappeared from the
environment in just 2 months and inhalation and ingestion may caused various problems, they
(concentrated) concentrates in thyroid, so may create the thyroid cancer etc. There is the
caesium-137, this is volatile in nature, they having the half-life of 30 years compared to the
iodine-131 (which is) which was having 8 days.
Now, they stay is a long in the environment and body eliminates this about caesium-137 in about
100 days. This is homogeneous in nature and distribution in all organs and all soft tissues, so this
is the main problem with the cesium. Now other biological effect of exposure to this ionizing
radiation that is the deterministic effect occurs when the dose is above given threshold that is the
1386
characteristic of any kind of the given effect, the severity increases with the dose and many cells
die or have a function altered like various example fibrosis, marrow depletion, cataract etc.
There are certain (stoch) stochastic or the probabilistic things they have no known threshold. The
probability of the occurrence increases limit the dose and this may result for from alteration in
only one or a few cells, like some sort of carcinogens, like the various neoplasms, genetic
disorders, various hereditary problems may occur in due course of time. So with a disaster from a
large radio logically contaminated explosion, most of the victims they suffered conventional
trauma complicated by the radiation and internal radiological contamination. So, this would also
be the case in the terrorists use is terrorists used of radiation dispersal explosive devices.
So most of the casualties would have conventional injuries resulting from the chemical explosion
and fire, other would receive the injuries during the rescue attempts because the radioactive
particles or radioactive materials clouds may get deposited to their cloths or skin etc. So very few
casualties would have in a pure radiation injury so a nuclear detonation would yield a similar
casualty distribution but on a very vastly larger scale. Usually cataracts it was developed in 13
patients by in 2001 among the confirmed by the ARS cases.
1387
So the Chernobyl reactor accident has clearly shown that the exposure to iodine isotopes may
cause an increase in the prevalence of thyroid carcinoma. So in between 1987 to 2000 about
1800 thyroid cancers have been observed in 18 million children that is less than 18 years old
living in the most contaminated area of Belarus, Ukraine or Russia, those who are involved in
that particular type of nuclear radiation.
1388
Now (increased) increase observed mainly in the children under 15 years of age and incidence
rate multiplied by 100 in the most affected areas of Belarus and northern part of Ukraine in 1992
to 1994. 95 percent and a 60 percent of cases observed among the children less than 10 and 5
years at the time of accident respectively. So the incident rate increased by 3 in adults in
especially in Belarus.
Now let us have a some other (feature) facts about the radiation, radiation burns frequent, the
burns over 50 percent of the body surface led to death in 19 of 28 cases. The internal
contamination this present in most patient, but was significant in very few. The sepsis was
uniform cause of death. Bone marrow transplantation very limited indication of remedy. Some
radiation burns did not re-epithelialize require surgery.
1389
Now, there are certain activities involved in the Chernobyl humanitarian assistance and
rehabilitation program that is called CHARP. Now, the program runs since 1990 by the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Society with the local societies. Now,
this address basic health needs of those living in the regions for three countries, those who are
affected may live like Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. The core activity is a cancer screening
provide the psychological support distribute the multivitamin to the children live in the radiation
contaminated area.
1390
Now another recovery program was developed by United Nation Development Program, UNDP
in 2001 that is called the Chernobyl Recovery and Development Program, CRDP. Now, the aim
of that particular program was to return the normal life by providing support to the government
of Ukraine for elaboration and implementation of development oriented situation for the region.
Another, aim was to mitigate the long-term social, economic and environmental consequences
and to create the more favorable living condition to promote the sustainable human development
in the affected region. So that was the main aim of the CRDP program.
1391
Apart from this, International Atomic Energy Agency IAEA, they have created and they have
employed safeguard system which is among the most advanced for any safeguarded nuclear
facility and that is implemented to all the countries those who are having the nuclear power
facilities. They have remotely monitored on-site inspection and seals to ensure that non-diversion
of any kind of nuclear material.
1392
So, in this particular module we have discussed about the nuclear disaster with a case study of
Chernobyl, and if you wish to have a further reading then we have enlisted different references
for your convenience. Thank you very much!
1393
Module 11
Lecture 54
Bhopal Gas Tragedy
(December 03, 1984)
Welcome to another module of case study, in this module we are going to discuss one of the
most worst industrial disaster of its time, that is Bhopal Gas Tragedy, this gas tragedy and
accidental investigation or case study is pertaining to the information or knowledge related to the
toxic release. Now this, the severity of this particular gas tragedy you can imagine in terms of
that changes all the parameter, it changes the all the guidelines and other protocols listed in
chemical engineering aspect. So let us have a look about this particular gas tragedy.
So this gas tragedy occurred on 3rd December 1984 in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh and the
company which was involved in this particular gas tragedy was Union Carbide Corporation and
the chemical which was responsible for the death of almost one lakh twenty thousand and the
people the involvement of one lakh twenty thousand people is responsible the methyl isocyanate
and it was released in the quantum of 27 to 30 tons.
1394
Now the gravity of this particular gas tragedy you can imagine through these photographs and
these photographs are quite disturbing but it tells you that how worst this particular accident was.
Now these are the some of the photographs and which was published in different newspapers,
different magazines of across globe.
1395
So, the result of this particular release was that half a million people they were exposed to the
methyl isocyanate gas and 25,000 have died to date as a result of their exposure and these are
some listed number more than one lakh twenty thousand people they are still suffering from
different type of ailment caused by the accident and subsequent pollution at the plant site. Now
these element includes blindness, extreme difficulty in breathing, gynecological disorder,
carcinoma etc. Now this site in Bhopal has never been properly cleaned up and it was sometimes
it is said that it continues to poison the resident of Bhopal.
1396
Now the purpose of this particular slide is that you can imagine that how severe that accident
was and why we are saying that this is one of the most worst accident in the history. So, at the
time of exposure almost 5 lakh people they were exposed and still people are suffering and you
can see that the different images of the accident.
1397
So in 2016 the local groundwater and the well water testing near the site of the accident they
revealed that mercury level between 20,000 and 5 million times of those expected cancer and
brain damage and birth defect, they are causing chemicals they were found in the water.
So let us have a look about this accident, so at the start we would like to have a brief knowledge
about the company and its management. So the Union Carbide they began its operation in India
way back in 1904, in 1983 they were having 14 plants operating in the country and at the time of
1398
accident the Union Carbide India Limited was owned by 50.9% by the American parent
company that is Union Carbide Corporation and 49.1% by Indian investors. The Union Carbide
India Limited they began operation in Bhopal in 1969 and initially this plant was formulated the
carbamate pesticides from the concentrate they used to import from United States West Virginia
plant. In 1975, they were licensed to manufacture its own carbaryl with the trade name of seven.
Now, this is the photograph of Union Carbide Bhopal facility.
1399
Now, the process which they selected was the same as the Union Carbide plant that West
Virginia but initially the MIC methyl isocyanate intermediate, they tend to import from United
States. They began the production in 1979 and initially the plant had the capacity of 5250 tons
per year, but the market was less than expected. Now this while the analyzing the root cause of
accident we can remember that the market scenario was not up to the mark for the Union Carbide
and this is one of the reason why they have cutted down several other safety measures because
the plant was running under loss.
So the production peaked at 2704 tons in 1981 and fell down to 1657 tons in 1983, so at these
level the sale of the plant had the problem of profitability and that is why they were forced to cut
the several safety measures and other trained workers.
1400
So the prior to the accident, the management structure of UCL changed and the Bhopal pesticide
plants was put under the direction of Union Carbide battery division in India and the entire
Union Carbide operation globally was taken over by DOW chemicals in 2001, but DOW
Chemical they refused to take any kind of Union Carbide’s liability in Bhopal.
So let us have the site and work, the work was works was in heavily populated area and much of
the housing development close this to the work at occurred since the site began operation in
1401
1969. So that attributed of the human value because the people they used to have a tendency to
settle down near the workplace so that the commutation time and charges may cut down, that
was the reason why the illegal settlements they were coming up the site at the vicinity of the
Union Carbide plant. So in 1984, the government gave the squatters right of ownership and the
land of to avoid any kind of eviction problem for those originally illegal settlements.
1402
So this is the site in Bhopal and this is the site of that particular Union Carbide, this is the Upper
Lake and this was a Union Carbide plant and these two are the nearby hospital and this is the
railway line.
Now you can have a more, the more specific look of this site, this was a Union Carbide plant just
into the JP Nagar and Akagi camp and Chula Kimchi and bus-stand, railway line they were two
hospitals Hamidia Hospital and Sultania Hospital.
1403
Now this is the process because this is the prima facie this is important aspect to for any accident
investigation to have a look of the process and the plant scenario. So the Union Carbide they
used to produce phosgene on sites of phosgene they used to react with the mono methyl amine
MMA to give the methyl carbamyl chloride MCC with hydrogen chloride and little bit amount of
heat being liberated. So this is purely an exothermic reaction. Now this methyl carbamyl chloride
is destructive distillation, this is subjected to the production of methyl isocyanate and HCL.
Now this is the flow diagram of the entire production facility the phosgene in mono methyl
amine, this was a reaction system where this was the chloroform quenching was given and then
this entire content is subject was subjected to the pyrolysis and through pyrolysis the product
MIC is subjected to the refining it is subjected to the MIC storage and different derivative
streams and whatever left behind like tales et cetera they are sent back to the pyrolyzer, et cetera
and hydrogen chloride and et cetera they are just as a reaction byproduct.
1404
So basically the reaction involved two reactants methyl isocyanate and alpha naphthol the
process begins with the mixture of carbon monoxide and chlorine to produce phosgene and
phosgene is then combined with mono methyl amine like in this particular slide to form MIC.
Now MIC is further mixed with naphthol to produce the end product carbonyl. So this was the
entire stream and the chemical reactions are given in this particular these lines.
1405
So phosgene was produced on site by reacting chlorine and carbon mono oxide and this carbon
monoxide was also produced on site. So that is why when the initially whatever gas was leaked
the prima facie formation provided by Union Carbide to the local authority that it is chlorine. So
the treatment of chlorine and is entirely different with methyl isocyanate. So we will discuss this
particular aspect in due course of time.
1406
Now let us have a look of the main problematic area the MIC storage system, the MIC storage
system consisted of three storage tanks two for normal use that is tank number 610 and 611 and
one for the emergency use and that was named as a tank number 619 so you can see the entire
storage battery over here, these tanks were 8 feet in diameter and a 40 feet long and the capacity
of each tank was15,000 US gallon and they are made of SS 304 and the design pressure of each
tank was 40 PSIG at 121 degree Celsius of the temperature.
Now, these are the critical parameters because when the accident took place the temperature was
on the higher side as well as the pressure was on so and the higher side and every tank or this
entire storage battery was fitted with the different types different safety measures like they were
having the vent gas scrubber, they were having the flaring tower and they were having the relief
valve vent header and these were the probable these were the cause of the release. So in a
nutshell when we will discuss all these things, let us have a primarily look of the root cause
somehow the pressure inside any tank was built up and MIC was escape through the relief of
valve vent header, which was the primarily meant for the taking care of pressure release.
Now this is subjected to the vent gas scrubbers so sometimes if any kind of they will leak of MIC
then it can be scrubbed out with the help of a caustic solution and whatever off gases they are,
that could be the flared off. So the entire assembly or entire plant they were having very good
safety norms. Now, there are two issues one is that since they know they were very much aware
1407
about the gravity of this MIC, why the proper information was not passed in on and second issue
is that why these safety devices was not actuated at the time of accident. So we will discuss this
these things in due course in this particular module.
Now let us have the autopsy of these safety devices, so there were two vent headers going into
the column, one was the pressure vent header PVH this one and which collected the MIC system
vent and the relief valve vent header this one, this is the safety device which collected the safety
valve discharge. So they were having the safety valve, so whatever discharge was there, they
used to collect through relief valve vent header and whatever the system vents are there or MIC
this is collected to the process vent header. So each vent header was connected both to the VGS
and the flare and could be routed either and though the vent is take after the VGS was a 100 feet
in height.
1408
So VGS, the vent gas scrubber had a function of handling the process vents from PVH and of the
receiving contaminated MIC in either vapor or a liquid form and destroying it in a controlled
manner. So the function of the flare was to handle vent gas from the carbon monoxide unit and
MMA vaporizer safety valve and also vent gas from MIC storage tank and MIC refining still and
the vent gas scrubber. So all the things whatever the dangerous thing they were ultimately
subjected to this flaring tower to have a destructive flaring off.
1409
Now let us have a look of methyl isocyanate and its property, so we are discussing the abridged
MSDS of methyl isocyanate. So methyl isocyanate is a colorless liquid with a normal boiling
point of 39 degrees Celsius, it has a very low solubility in water, it is relatively stable when dry
but is highly reactive and in particular it can polymerize and will react with water, now it is
flammable and has a flash point of minus 18 degree Celsius and a lower flammability limit of 6
percent volume by volume. Now, it is biologically active and it is extremely toxic in nature, the
toxicity of MIC is indicated by the fact that its TLV is very low at the time of accident, it is very
low.
1410
The this MIC is on the hazardous substance list and as regulated by OSHA that is Occupational
Safety and Health Administration, United States and cited by ACGIH, Department of
Transportation, Affluent Protection Agency and others so is on the special hazard substance list
because it is flammable and extremely reactive.
Now, this MIC is an irritant gas and can cause the lung edema but it also break down in the body
to form the cyanide, so the root of this breakage is again important and because it was the root
1411
cause of so many fatalities. Now this MIC can undergo the exothermic polymerization to the
trimer and the reaction being catalyzed by the hydrochloric acid and inhibited by the phosgene.
So it also reacts with water and iron being a catalyst for this reaction and this reaction is strongly
exothermic. Now this reaction took place in the storage facility of MIC and that was the root
cause of that particular accident.
Now its vapor is the twice as heavy as the air, the vapor used to stay close to the ground when it
release the MIC and water they react to yield the methylamine and CO2. Now we have presented
two reaction streams, one is in when the water is in excess to it produces 1, 3 dimethyl urea this
one and when MIC is in excess then it produces 1,3,5 trimethyl biuret. So upon polymerization it
gives the tri methyl isocyanate, which was the cause of that the formation of this particular
component was the cause of this worst tragedy.
So the methylamine they usually react further with MIC and other reactant they produce to give
this 1, 3 dimethyl urea. So we have presented these two reaction stream for the better look that
what was the root cause and if water is in excess, then we can have this one and if this MIC is in
excess then we can have this one.
1412
Now this is the emergency information and the hazard rating, it is extremely flammable. So the
flammability rating is given by 3 and the reactivity in is on the again on the higher side and it
was given as 2. So it is flammable and reactive the poison inhalation hazard and it is an advisory
while using MIC that do not use water because we have seen in this particular slide that it may
react with water to form the isocyanate, this poisonous gases they are produced in fire containers
may explode in fire.
1413
Now at the time of accident the various other chemicals they were dumped by Union Carbide in
Bhopal facility and these chemicals they are listed over here methylene chloride, methanol and
some of them are being used for various kind of reaction remember they used to produce
phosgene from carbon dioxide and chlorine and this phosgene is being used to produce MIC and
other products. So they maybe they might be using variety of the chemicals in the factory like
different solvents, different catalysts like trimethyl amine they were using as a catalyst some sort
of ingredients they were having the various products like carbaryl, LD carb etc.
Now in this particular slide we have enlisted that the nature of original pollution maybe in air
sometimes some chemicals they intend to pollute the air, water and soil etc. Similarly mercury,
they were having one metric ton of mercury, which is extremely dangerous substance. So it may
contaminate the water and soil so they were having a large inventory of the chemicals in the
plant and we have enlisted the amount that was dumped in by Union Carbide in Bhopal facility,
so that was in again on the excess side.
1414
So you can have a look up these haphazard dumping of hazardous materials like this so they
were not following the proper protocol of storage of for these chemicals.
Now, let us have a look about the process description, so there were five main process arena,
carbon mono oxide production with the help of carbon plus oxygen to give the carbon monoxide,
the second was the phosgene manufacturing unit this the carbon mono oxide plus chlorine to
produce the phosgene then they were having the MIC plant that is phosgene plus methylamine to
1415
produce the MIC then they were having the alpha naphthol plant to produce a Sevin that is MIC
plus alpha naphthol. So this one is the more elaborative that is phosgene plus methylamine and
the chemical reaction distillation to give the MIC.
Now there are several events attributed to the prior to the release, so in 1982 Union Carbide
Corporation team from United States and especially they were having to some safety persons
they visited the Bhopal facility so their report usually gave a favorable summary of the visit but
listed ten safety concerns including the potential for release of toxic material in the phosgene or
MIC unit area or storage area either due to the equipment failure or operating problem or some
sort of maintenance problem, they enlisted the lack of fixed water spray protection in several
areas of the plant.
1416
They notice several deficiencies in safety valves and instruments maintaining program, they
reported the deficiencies in master lag lockout procedure or application, there were several
problems they were created by the high personal turn over at the plant particularly in operation.
We have already discussed this personal turnover because of the reason plant was running in
loss. Now following this particular visit the valves on the MIC plant they were replaced but they
were degraded again. So they never noticed by why these MIC valves they were degraded again
and again.
So if they have noticed and if they have analyzed this particular aspect the problem can be
rectified much earlier than this worst accident. So at the time of accident the instruments on tank
number 610 had been malfunctioning for over a year and that was an outcome of a safety review.
1417
So between 1981 and 84, there were several serious accidents on the plant in December 1981
three workers were gassed by the phosgene and one died, but they never investigated the root
cause of this one, a two weeks later 24 workers say they were overcome by the another phosgene
leak in February 1982, 18 people they were affected by an MIC leak.
In June 1984, about 10, about 30 ton refrigeration unit cooling the MIC storage tank was shut
down and the charge of the Freon refrigerant was drained from the system. The again the reason
1418
was that they were not producing MIC in the continuous fashion, only the they were intended to
store that MIC. So that is why they turned on off this refrigeration plant. So on October the vent
gas scrubber was is turned off apparently because it was thought and necessary when MIC was
only being stored not manufactured. So in the same month, the flare tower was taken out of
service section of corroded pipe leading to being it was removed so that it could be replaced. So
the timely replacement and timely repairing of the corroded pipe was not taking place in the time
of accident.
Now another feature was that there was a difficulty being experienced in pressurizing MIC
storage tank so you can say that if they notice this type of thing in a priory, then it is a case of
near misses. So it appeared that since nitrogen was passing through the makeup valve
satisfactory the blow down valve was leaking and the preventing pressurization. So they noticed
and they try to analyze but they failed because of lack of technical competency or a lack of
knowledge. So according to the plant workers there were other instrumentation failures like high
temperature alarm had long been faulty, there were also faults on the pressure controller and
other level indicators.
1419
Now, this particular plant was because of the gravity of and the sensitivity of that particular
component they were having a very good system of alarming, they were having very good
system of safety but the question was at the time of accident none of them was working properly.
So the plant had a toxic gas alarm system this consisted of a loud siren to warn the public and a
muted siren to warn the public so that sometimes they used to operate the muted siren. Now if
they use this loud siren, then it, there may be unnecessary there may be a panicky situation for
the outside public. So that is why they were having the two different types of sirens within the
plant periphery.
Now these two sirens they were linked and could be activated from plant toxic alarm box now
the loud siren could be stopped from the control room by delinking the two so the plant worker
they stated that on the morning of 2nd December washing operation was carried out and the plant
officials they are given the orders to flush out the downstream section of four filter pressure
safety valve lines.
1420
Now, it was suggested that water might have entered into the MIC storage tanks 610. Now this
was the storage tank battery. Now they have anticipated that there were two causes, one cause
was that the water was deliberately added to this point of time for another cause that to water was
added there and leak through the relieve system back to the storage tank. So if this possibility
persists then again there was a lack of training because the primary it is required that blind or a
blank should be inserted to prevent the entry of water to the storage arena.
So on this particular hypothesis, the water evidently there leaked through the wall into the relief
vent valve header and passed to the jumper line into the process vent header and then into the
tank number 610.
1421
Now these are the jumper lines, now this is the actual figure of the jumper line.
So when it was entered into the storage tank, so let us have a containment description that is the
MIC storage tank. Now this MIC storage tank was having the diameter of 2.5 meter the length of
12 meter, it is duly supported by the safety valve with the busting disc, this is equipped with the
refrigeration unit. It is having the ground level concrete deck and we have already discussed that
1422
the design pressure was 40 PSIG and it is having the high purity nitrogen blanketing system and
there was a process vent had a line.
Now this is picture of the tank as on today, now it is just unearthed and so that it can be inspected
clearly.
Now this is the picture of a section of the tank after the incident upturned position.
1423
Now, let us talk about the release, so on the evening of 2nd December a shift change took place
on the plant at around quarter to 11:00 p.m. At 11 pm the control room operator he notices the
pressure in the tank 610 was 10 PSIG. So it was bit higher than the normal one, but it is within
the safe range of 2 to 25 PSIG. Remember the design pressure of the storage tank was 40 PSIG.
So at the same time the field operator he reported a leak of MIC near the vent gas scrubber.
1424
So at 12:15 am and the field operator reported in MIC release in the process area and the control
room operator saw that the pressure on the tank 610 was now 30 PSIG and rising rapidly, that
means the chance of runaway reaction, that is the runaway reaction. So he called the supervisor
and ran outside to the tank and he heard the rumbling sound which was coming out from the tank
and a noise from the safety valve and felt heat from the reaction, that means the exothermicity
was on the higher side. So he returned to the control room and turn to the switch to activate the
vent gas scrubber, but at this time it was not in operational mode because we have enlisted the
event prior to the accident that this vent gas scrubber was turned off because they thought that
MIC is being stored not continuously produce. So he tried to open the circulating pump, which is
again not in the operational mode.
1425
So at 12:20 a.m. in the morning the production supervisor informed the plant superintendent
about the release and a quarter to 1:00 am operation in the derivative unit was suspended due to
the high concentration of MIC. Now the high concentration of MIC is attributed to the fact that
MIC was continuously being released and the temperature was on the higher side because of the
exothermicity of the runaway reaction and the pressure was again built up. So this attributed to
the high concentration of MIC to the derivative unit.
So at 1 am an operator on this unit turned on the toxic gas alarm siren and after 5 minutes the
loud siren was switched off leaving the muted siren on, that means they declared the emergency
within the plant.
1426
So at about the same time the plant superintendent in the control room operator verified that MIC
was being emitted from the vent gas scrubber to stack to the atmosphere and turned on and
directed at the stake fixed fire water monitoring system to the knockdown the vapor. Now steam
is you continuously issued from the crack in the concrete showing that the tank was hot. Now the
reason of the steam that the water was inside the tank and a runaway reaction they that was
leading towards the exothermicity of the reaction and that was the cause of the steam generation
within the tank 610.
So one plant supervisor he tried to climb the structure to plug the gas leak, but was overcome and
falling and breaking both the legs. So that was the only injury took place within the plant
premises.
1427
So sometime between 1:30 to 2:30 am the safety valve on tank 610 was reseated and a release of
MIC ceased, this is attributed to the pressure lowering within the tank number 610. So at about
2:30, the loud siren was switched on again to sensitize the people around the plant premises. So
the cloud of MIC gas spread from the plant towards the populated area to the south. So whenever
you are performing any kind of accident investigation this type of meteorological information
plays a very vital role while analyzing this investigation. So there was a light wind and inversion
conditions because it was the month of December.
So people in the housing around the plant they felt the irritant effect of the gas so many ran out
of their houses and some towards the plant to inquire (with) what is wrong with this plant.
1428
So within a short period of time animals and a people they begin to die and Railway Colony
some 2 kilometers from the plant where the nearly 10,000 people lived, it was reported that
within four minutes 150 died, 200 was paralyzed and 600 render the unconsciousness and 5,000
they were severely affected. So people tried to telephone the plant but because the time you can
see that it was 4 minutes, so they try to contact the plant official but were unable to get through.
1429
So at quarter to one, magistrate contacted the plant superintendent and still the cloud of that
particular toxic gas hung around the area for three for entire 3rd December 1984. So during the
day it is stopped moving towards the city but resumed its movement in the direction during the
night. Now at that particular time, it was the duty of the plant official to provide the adequate
knowledge to the local authorities because it is one of… and practically they knew that this is the
MIC and they knew that how worst this particular chemical is.
1430
Then there was a scenario of emergency and a large number of people they were affected by the
toxic gas and a very large number fled their homes and two hospitals Hamidia and Jayaprakash
they were flooded with the people and the casualties and difficulties were compounded by the
fact that it was unknown what the gas was and what its effect were, that means the company
provided a very low information for this particular aspect. So speculation about the gas including
the suggestion that it was phosgene or a chlorine that is was the first hand information provided
by the Union Carbide India limited. So if it is a chlorine then the remedial measures are entirely
different with methyl isocyanate. So this is a purely a speculation at the time of the release.
1431
So that is why it is the company was charged that they provided very little advice in this context
and if you recall that we have discussion about the MSDS. So in MSDS, usually it gives the
information about any kind of spill or leak and what kind of the first aid treatment you require.
So initially the company provided another information that MIC causes eye irritation and it is not
lethal. However this is practically not true because MSDS gives a proper information. So on 3rd
of December doctors at Gandhi Memorial College they carried out first autopsy, which gave the
strong evidence of cyanide poisoning, then the cross investigation carried out so victims had died
of the respiratory arrest and there was no evidence of the cyanosis due to the de-oxygenation.
1432
Now you can see that some of the photographs the people have experienced at the time of
release.
1433
So the time half a million people were they were exposed and again, these are the some
disturbing photographs. So now when there was a question of remedy, so they developed a
conflict of views on appropriate treatment. The standard treatment for cyanide poisoning is
sodium thiosulfate that is hypo solution. So one group took the view that this should be given
until the cyanide poisoning was established by the analysis and other suggest that it was well
known that the in cyanide poisoning the cyanide may be metabolized leaving a little trace. So
people were fighting in with respect to the thoughts that what they need to give for the victims
because the side sodium thiosulfate on its own having service several disadvantages.
1434
So there followed a period in which the advice given was not clear, it was not until 3 rd of
February that an authoritative and unambiguous recommendation that the sodium thiosulfate be
used was issued by Indian Council of for medical research. Then at the time of incident the CBI,
the Central Bureau of Investigation they took control the site and begin a criminal investigation.
Now, the investigation was started in two fold one was the government of India they carried out
the investigation another was carried out by the Union Carbide India limited. So let us have a
1435
look about the government of India investigation the government of India undertaken the
investigation aspect and formed an investigation team led by Professor Varadarajan and he was
the chairman of council for scientific and Industrial Research at the time of accident.
So there the report refers the fact that it was reported that at around 9:30 pm on 2nd December an
operator was clearing the possible choke in relief involvement header lines downstream of the
phosgene stripping still filter by water flushing without inserting a blind that was the root cause
why this accident into place.
So this was the thing like this was the vent gas scrubber cost with the caustic and this was the
relief valve head the vent header. So he was trying to clear the any kind of possible choke and in
these lines, but he forget he probably he forget to insert a blind within this system.
1436
So a six-inch isolation valve on relief valve vent header would presumably be closed but if it had
not been leaked tight water could enter the RVVH. So it was mandatory at the time that either
the blind or a blank should be inserted because if this isolation valve is not tight enough then
water may enter into the tank 610, so water, so by this way, the water could have found its way
into the tank number 610.
1437
Refer Slide Time: 41:08)
One you can say one a debatable version was given by the Vice President of Union Carbide
Browning Jackson that a disgruntled plant employee apparently bent on the spoiling a batch of
methyl isocyanate added water to a storage tank, so this may led to the another theory that is
called the sabotage of that particular aspect. So in case if it is it was established then definitely
the Union Carbide might not be in any in a position to pay any kind of compensation towards
this particular accident.
1438
Now this is a more clear picture of the tank facility, these were the storage tanks 40 tons of in
610, 15 tons in 611 and they were in 619 was empty and water leaked into the tank number 610
causing the runaway heat-producing reaction. Now this reaction was catalyzed by the iron and
the nickel particles inside the present inside the corroded 610 tank. Now this particular storage
battery was supported by the refrigeration system and a free on refrigeration system was used.
This is the flaring tower and this was the vent gas scrubber.
So you can see the different pipelines like this one, the refrigeration system they are all
interconnected and the water curtain was given not tight enough to reach the gas and this one is
the vent gas scrubber, it is duly connected with the flaring tower for the destructive
decontamination of various of gases being collected from various parts of the plant. So in this
particular module we have discussed about the Bhopal gas tragedy, the introductory part of the
Bhopal gas tragedy then we had a discussion about the process and we discussed about the
release aspect of methyl isocyanate and we have started the discussion about the various
investigatory aspect of this particular gas release.
In the next module we will discuss the investigatory part of this book the release of MIC from
the Bhopal gas group Union Carbide Bhopal facility in detail, thank you very much.
1439
Lecture-55
Bhopal Gas Tragedy - Investigation
Welcome to the case study related to the Bhopal gas strategy investigation part. And this is
the 2nd part of this Bhopal gas tragedy because we have divided this particular module into 2
steps because it is one of the most worst industrial disasters of its time. So, in the last module
we had discussion about the plant site, the process involved, what kind of scenario there was,
the scene related to the release of most dangerous methyl isocyanate. So, in this particular
module we will conclude about the investigation that was carried out by 2 agencies, one was
attributed to the Union Carbide investigation team and 2nd was the Government of India.
1440
1441
So, let us start with the remaining part of Union Carbide investigation. So, the team from
Union Carbide Corporation, they arrived on 6th of December, 3 days after the incident and
they were charged in terms of 2 aspects. One is to assist the save disposal of the remaining
MIC in the plant and 2nd was to investigate the accident and what went wrong. So the 1st
task that was related to the safe disposal of remaining MIC was completed by 22nd of
December and the team returned home on 2nd of January to carry out a series of
experimentation to find out that what went wrong.
Now, this investigation team, they were having the controlled access of the plant because
CBI, they took the charge of the entire plant. Now, the team was allowed to the limited access
of the plant record and personnel, so that it cannot alter any record that is the securing
evidence aspect. And they were permitted to talk to certain persons, but they were not
allowed to interview staff directly involved in that particular incident.
So, they were allowed to take the samples from the tank number 610, that was the main
culprit tank, but they were not allowed to open it and inspect the tank and its piping to take
the samples from elsewhere on the plant. So, on their return to West Virginia, the
investigators, they carried out a series of programs of some 500 experiments established that
what had occurred. So, the most abundant component in the residues was MIC trimer, other
than DMI, DMU, trimethyl uric and trimethyl biuric, et cetera.… There was also the
contamination of iron, chromium, nickel and approximately the proportion, whatever the
proportion they are having in SS 304 steel and some 5 percent fluoride.
So trimeriazation, that obviously occurred but it was unclear that what other reactions might
have taken place in that particular arena. So the investigators can read out the experiments in
which the principal material believed to have been in the tank, namely methyl isocyanate,
chloroform, water, iron and they heated up to 200 degrees Celsius.
1442
1443
So, the development of reaction scheme which accounted for the production of starting from
these materials. So, the plant record, the Tank number 610 contained prior to the incident
contained 40 ton of liquid. Now the team estimated that tank 610 had originally contained
1000-2000 pounds of water and 1500 to 3000 pounds of chloroform. But still the source of
water was uncertain. So, the chloroform could be accounted for by the fact that MRS, MIC
refining steel was operated at a temperature higher than its normal one. So the preparation
during the preparation for shutdown MIC, a higher chloroform content has been sent to tank
number 610 rather than 619.
So, this was the committed mistake at that point of time. So, the iron could have come from
the corrosion, given high chloroform and water content at a high temperature. So the scenario
which the investigators invoked can be explained in the sequential manner, which is as
1444
follows, the tank 610, initially it was maintained at 15 to 20 degrees Celsius, that was much
desired and does not have any kind of adverse effect. Some 1000 to 2000 pounds of water
entered the tank in a manner which is unknown. The exothermic reaction between MIC,
which we had earlier discussed in the previous module, that started between MIC and water,
this led to the increase in temperature and also pressure due to evolution of carbon dioxide.
So, whatever carbon dioxide that was involved in the time, was responsible for the pressure
built up within this pressure vessel. So, the higher temperature and pressure of chloroform
cost the accelerated corrosion. And the iron, usually thus produced from the tank, catalysed
exothermic trimeriazation of MIC. So, they have carried out a series of calculations, this
showed that the reaction of some 40 percent of MIC would generate enough heat to vaporise
the rest one. So, this gives rise to some 36,000 pound of solid in the tank but only estimated
10,000 pounds, they were found in that particular tank.
So, the temperature reached was estimated as in the excess of 200 degrees Celsius as opposed
to the desired one. Now, these conditions would have been attained during the course of the
venting. So, with the safety valve lifting, because it was designed to lift at 40 psig, the initial
discharge would have been 10,000 pound per hour.
1445
So these reports put forward the hypothesis that the water was directly introduced into the
tank 610, either deliberately or by mistake through the process vent line, nitrogen line or
other piping. So it refers that washing operation on the filter pressure safety valve lines and
states that this section of line had not been inserted a blind or not been isolated. So, that was
one of the reasons why this water was introduced into the tank number 610. So, report draws
attention to a number of factors which contributes to accident.
This includes the fact that refrigeration had been discontinued. Previously we had a
discussion that the refrigeration unit was turned off, just because they thought that MIC is
being stored rather than produced continuously. That a blind was not used to isolate the lines
being washed out, it is primarily, it was required as per the MSDS and as per the safety norms
of that particular plant. MIC refining steel was operated at a higher temperature than the
1446
normal temperature. So, if they would have been noticed this particular aspect, then they
could have made the corrective measures, so that the temperature of the MRS would have
been corrected down.
They had shut down the VGS vent gas scrubber, just because of the reason that MIC is not
being produced continuously it is being stored. The flare was out of commission, obviously
the region that we have already discussed. So, just to cut short the measures of economy, they
have reduced the number of safety operations and those attempts led to this dangerous or
devastating accident. So, the Union Carbide officials, they had carried out a press conference
and they suggested that the water may come from the nearby utility station which supplied
water and nitrogen in that particular area.
So, if someone had connected tubing of water line instead of nitrogen line, either deliberately
or intending to introduce nitrogen into the tank, so this could account for the presence of the
water, that will lead to the sabotage. Later on Union Carbide officials they agreed that there
was no direct evidence for this particular hypothesis. But they agreed that water was
introduced in that particular tank number 610. So, apart from this, the high moisture content,
and there was aerosol in the discharge when evaporation gave rise to the heavy gas, which
rapidly sank to the ground. So, this was the reason the weather egged on the process.
And weak wind which frequently changed direction, which in turn helped the gas to cover
more area and shorter period of time about 1 hour. And the weak vertical turbulence also
caused the slow dilution of the gas, thus allowed the poisonous gas to spread over
considerable distance. So the precise numbers of the death and injuries at the Bhopal gas
tragedy are still uncertain. The scale of the accident was such that it led to much confusion.
The people have continued to die of the effects over a period of years. The Indian
government estimate of the death toll about 2 years after the event was 1754 that the
compensation was paid off. By 1989, this had risen to 3150 and by 1994 approximately 4000.
1447
1448
The other figures given are 30,000 permanently or totally disabled 20,000 temporarily cases
and 50,000 with the minor injury. So, one report says that in 1985, states that the number of
people treated in states hospitals had been given an approximately 1,70,000. Some 1,30,000
were treated in Bhopal, various hospitals of Bhopal mainly for lung and eye injuries. Some
40,000 in 22 other district and around 12,000 of 1,70,000 were in the critical condition. And
out of this 484 died. So, the disaster led to various sets of court proceedings and government
of India instituted criminal proceedings against Union Carbide Corporation.
And they became the party to the proceedings in United States courts. In 1987, Union
Carbide Corporation made a final settlement with government of India of about 470 million
US dollars. Now the victim did try to challenge this in the federal courts of United States but
the US Supreme Court ruled that they lacked legal standing to do so.
1449
Now let us have a discussion about the various safety measures in Union Carbide Corporation
plants in the USA and in India. The Union Carbide plant in West Virginia was better
equipped compared to the plant in Bhopal. There were a number of critical differences in
levels of design and operations of the Bhopal and the institute plans. Now these are some of
the enlisted comparisons between the institute West Virginia plant USA and the Bhopal,
Madhya Pradesh.
The capacity, they were having the higher production of MIC matched with higher processing
capacity and MIC not stored for long period of time. Whereas in Bhopal they were having
high production capacity of MIC but low processing capacity, further processing that is in
1450
terms of a derivative plant. And MIC stored in the large quantity for a long period of time, so
that is the difference between the West Virginia plant and Bhopal plant.
Then emergency scrubbers, MIC stored tank, they kept with emergency scrubbers to
neutralise any escape of MIC designed to operate at the emergency condition. However in
Bhopal plant, at the time of accident, no emergency caustic scrubber to neutralise the MIC
leak was present. About the computerised monitoring, the computerised monitoring of all the
instruments like gauges, alarms, et cetera. and the process to support the visual observation
was in place in West Virginia plant.
Whereas, in Bhopal there was not at all a computerised monitoring of instruments and
process, relied solely on the manual observations. As far as cooling system is concerned,
MIC field storage tanks, the used cooling system based on chloroform in West Virginia plant.
Whereas in Bhopal plant the MIC tanks used cooling system based on brime. They are highly
reactive with MIC. The refrigeration unit was also there in both the plants, in West Virginia
plant the refrigeration unit to control temperature in the tank was never turned off, whereas in
Bhopal plant, the refrigeration unit had been turned off since June 1984.
The nitrogen pressure, the MIC was always maintained under the nitrogen pressure, whereas
in Bhopal plant the MIC tanks had not been under the nitrogen pressure since October 1984.
So, they have put all these cut short measures to save certain amount of money. In West
Virginia plant, they were having an elaborated 4 stage emergency plan to deal with any kind
1451
of toxic releases, fire, et cetera including a general public alert link to the community police,
River and the rail traffic and local radio station.
Whereas in Bhopal plant, no system to inform the public authorities or the people living
adjacent to the plant and there was no emergency plan shared with the communities living
adjacent to the plant. So, if you remember the accident chronology, then there was a
communication gap between the plant officials and local authorities. About the maintenance
plan, the maintenance program to determine and evaluate the replacement frequency for
valves and instrumentation and alarm system, whereas in Bhopal there was no evidence of
any effective instrumentation maintenance program and safety valve testing program, largely
it was ineffective.
As far as the lab analysis is concerned, lab analysis of MIC was conducted to test quality and
a cheque for contamination prior to the storage processing or distribution in West Virginia
plant. But in Bhopal, there was no lab analysis being carried out for the quality check and that
was uncertain, the MIC stored for longer period without testing of any kind of contaminants.
The training, the extensive employee training program was in place in West Virginia plant,
whereas in Bhopal, the operators put in charge without sufficient training.
1452
1453
1454
Now, you can have a look at the photographs taken shortly after the accident. This is a pipe
rack is shown in this arena and the partially buried storage tank, there were 3 in total for MIC
located in the mid of the photograph, if you are able to locate them. Now this is the
photograph of 20 years later, the Flora covers the tank 610 which has been removed from the
earthen mound and this is a photograph near the filter area. Some of the critical components
are identified in this particular photograph.
This is the valve to process vent meant header and this one is for the filter area. Now this is
the actual photograph of the spring relief valve and this one is the ruptured disc. So, this is a
photograph of tanks 611 entry piping, ruptured disc is on the centre here somewhere here.
Spring relief valve is behind the Flora that has grown over the years. Now this is the
1455
photograph of the scrubber system that is the scrubber which we were talking about. This is
the flaring system, which was disabled at the time of accident.
These are the corroded tanks with unknown contents lying below. So, this is again a very
crucial information for the accidental investigation. These are some of the photographs of
jumper lines, et cetera you can see. Now, this is a remote photograph of gas vent scrubber and
this is the gas vent scrubber stack. Then the people analyses about the possible reasons of this
accident.
1456
So one of the main reasons for the tragedy was found to be the result of the combination of
human factor and incorrectly designed safety system and not follow up of all those safety
norms been laid down for MIC storage. So, a portion of the safety equipment at the plant had
been on operational for 4 months and rest failed. So, there was a serious lapse on the part of
the government. The officials responsible probably had not mandated any safety standards at
that time. So, Union Carbide, they failed to implement of its own safety rules, which was at
the time of accident they used to follow in West Virginia plant.
So, the Bhopal plant experienced 6 accidents between 1981 to 1984, at least 3 of which
involved MIC or phosgene, so they have sensitised or they have sensed that there are some
problems going on either with the MIC or phosgene. Now there were several stakeholders of
this particular plant and accident, the Union Carbide, the victims of the gas attack, those
employees plus persons, local government, the member of community, the CEO of Union
Carbide, the Greenpeace group.
1457
1458
Now, before the disaster, we have synchronised the accident chronology, the Union Carbide,
they were compelled to cut off the costs and increase profits. The victims of the gas attack the
safe working conditions and they were demanding for equal pay. The local government, they
ensure the safety of employees and prevent the environmental damage. The members of the
committee, they ensure that the environment is clean for the livelihood. The CEO of Union
Carbide was intended to increase the profit as much as possible and the Greenpeace group
that ensure the plant is not polluting the environment.
So, the responsibility of the stakeholders are just like this. Now, after the disaster, we are just
comparing the involvement of all stakeholders. So, after the disaster, the Union Carbide was
intended to pay as little compensation as possible and escape all its responsibility. The
victims of the gas attack, they require the fair compensation. The local government, they
ensured that the victims get the fair compensation and assign responsibility for cleaning up
the pollution caused by the plant.
The member of the community, they were intended to help clean up the pollution, the CEO of
Union Carbide, they were escaping their responsibility and still they are escaping their
responsibility. And the Greenpeace group, they make sure that Union Carbide Corporation
cleans up the pollution. There were several legal actions against the Union Carbide. In
December 1984, the legal proceedings were started against Union Carbide Corporation, the
United States and the Indian government, local Bhopal authorities. So, in March 1985, the
government of India passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in March 1985 in Parliament, making
the government of India to act as the legal representative for the victims of the disaster that
helped in leading to the beginning of legal proceedings.
1459
In 1985 the United States government called for an enquiry into the Bhopal gas disaster by
Henry Waxman, a Californian Democrat. In March 1986, the Union Carbide Corporation
offered a settlement figure, providing a fund for Bhopal victims of between 500 to 600
million dollars over a period for 20 years. In May 1986, the US Federal government
transferred the litigation to Indian courts from United States. In 1988, 355 million US dollars
was claimed by the gamut of India from the Union Carbide Corporation.
In November 1988, the Supreme Court told both sides to come to an agreement and start with
a clean slate. And in 1989, Union Carbide Corporation, they agreed to pay 470 million US
dollars for damages caused in the Bhopal disaster. So, October 2003, the Bhopal Gas Tragedy
Relief and Rehabilitation Department awarded a compensation to 554,895 people for injuries
received and 15,310 survivors of those killed in the Bhopal gas leak. In June 2010, 7 ex-
1460
employees of the company were sentenced to 2 years imprisonment and fined rupees 1 lakh
Approximately, comes out to be 2000 US dollars, that is after 26 years of leak.
1461
Now, we have to learn some lessons from Bhopal that the development control at the major
hazard installations, we have to look into this and a very large number of people were at risk
from the plant at Bhopal, may be attributed to the encroachment or other settlement problems.
There was a major problem attributed to the management of major hazard installations. There
was a highly toxic substance at stake. There was a possibility and it is very rarely but there
was a possibility of runaway reaction in the storage because usually we observe that runaway
reactions in the reactors but this is somewhat unprecedented run away reaction took place in
the storage arena.
Nobody were taught about the water hazard in the plant and that was attributed to the Bhopal
gas tragedy. Relative hazard of the material and process and storage, so no one ever thought
about this kind of approach, so these are the some lessons which we may learn from the
Bhopal gas tragedy. Apart from this, there are several other things which we need to address,
like relative priority of safety and production, because you can observe that the Union
Carbide, they gave the priority to production rather than safety and ultimately happened that
they have to wind up their own business from India.
So, time of accident, the plant was losing the money and the lists a number of measures
which had been taken, apparently to cut the costs. We have already discussed those measures
which were involved for the cutting of those costs. Some of them like the manning cuts and
the cessation of refrigeration, et cetera. The outcome of this particular Bhopal gas tragedy is
that there must be certain limitations on the inventory in the plant. The proper set pressure of
the relief devices must be put forward.
1462
They have disabled the protective system, so some mechanism should be there so that once
the protective system is disabled, then the production lineup should be modified accordingly.
The maintenance of the plant and equipment and instrumentation was on the poor ground. So,
there may be a possibility or there may be some approaches or there should be some approach
adopted for the proper maintenance of these plant equipments. Standard operating practices
should be implemented for the isolation procedure while the maintenance has been carried
out or housekeeping being carried out.
1463
And there must be certain control of plant and process modifications so that all the standard
operating practices could be followed. Apart from this, as we discussed that there was some
communication gap between the authorities and the public, so UCIL, they had not provided
full information on the substances on the site to the authorities. The emergency services,
workers are members of the public, they exposed to the hazard. Many workers interviewed
and said that they had no information training about the various chemicals those who were
being stored, those who were involved in the process area.
So, the training and experience, when these 2 aspects were in questions, so Union Carbide
was lacking behind. Then they were not having the adequate planning for the emergencies.
So the response of the company and the authorities to the emergency suggests that there was
no effective emergency plan. So, within the plant work defects revealed by the emergency
includes the hesitation about the use of the siren system and the lack of escape routes. So, this
again because if you see the sequential order, sometimes they opened the loud siren and then
muted and, then they turned on the muted siren and so on. So, they were in a bit of confusion.
So, this was not at all done, in consequence the people exposed did not know what the siren
mean for what action to take. The hospitals did not know what they might be called on to
handle and so on. So, likewise the essential action on the actual emergency is to inform the
authorities what has happened and what the hazards are. So, on the morning of the accident,
the hospitals were in practically dark about the nature and effect of the toxic chemicals whose
victims they were trying to treat. So, practically there was no information available at the
time of accident.
1464
So, the lapses on the part of Union Carbide, they were having the improper design of
chimneys without consideration of the weather conditions in all seasons. So, you see that
major quantity was release through flaring tower. Now, they were having the improper design
and maintenance of safety equipment. They were not following the safety norms and
regulations as they were supposed to follow by the Union Carbide Corporation plant in the
United States. So, the decision to neglect the flair system in need of repair that was again a
crucial issue and it was a lapse on the part of Union Carbide.
They were not fit with the adequate emergency planning and community awareness. They
were having the lack of awareness of the potential impact of MIC on the community by the
people operating the plant. And there was inadequate community planning allowing a large
1465
population to live near hazardous manufacturing plant. So, that was again a major issue and
just a year or less than a year ahead, the State government gave the legal rights for those
illegal quarters.
Now let us have something related to the basic green chemistry principles. So, these
principles would have averted the disaster if they had been followed. Now, one thing is that
to eliminate or reduce the production of hazardous chemical, that is the 1st protocol.
Hazardous chemicals produced should not be stored or should be consumed in the course of
the reaction, just to avoid this type of thing. The inventory size must be as low as possible.
So, the inventory of hazardous chemical is inevitable, should be in a small containers and not
on one large containers.
1466
So that reduces the chance of any kind of hazardous scenario. There are certain other
suggested solutions that alpha napthol on carbonyl group edition followed by the reaction
with methyl amine would eventually give carbaryl. So, this process does not generate or
require handling the phosgene. So, the process does not require any kind of MIC. So, this
practically process is inherently safe. So, the Union Carbide could have adopted this
particular process rather than utilising the phosgene, et cetera.
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So, these are some toxic materials in the soil and water, benzene, dichlorobenzene, Polly
Nuclear aromatic benzene, et cetera. So, additionally this dichlorobenzene and
trichlorobenzene were found in the soil and water samples and they were analysed in the
vicinity of Union Carbide plant and within and outside the plant. So, lead, nickel, copper,
chromium, hexachlorocyclohexane, chloro benzene, they were found in soil samples. So,
Mercury was found to be between 20,000 to 60 lakh times the standard level in soil.
So, that is extremely dangerous scenario and may lead to the carcinoma. There are certain
ethical issues before the disaster. Workers were forced to use the English manual, even
though only a few understand the language, that was a major problem, they were not
practically trained or they did not have the knowledge about the various safety issues. And 70
percent of the plants employees were fined for refusing to deviate from the proper safety
regulations, replacing the leaked pipes, et cetera. So, this was again one of the ethical issues.
As of 2008, Union Carbide Corporation had not released information about the possible
composition of the cloud gas. So, they withhold that particular type of information. Now,
several internal studies which exhibit severe contamination, they were not made public. So,
this is again the ethical issue. One of the another reason is that environmental change. In 1950
the population of Bhopal was around 70,000, 1956 it became the state capital, in 1984 the
population was around 695,000.
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So, the national government and international agencies should focus on widely applicable
techniques for the corporate responsibility and accident prevention as much in the developing
world context as an advanced industrial nations. And this was lacking behind in the Union
Carbide Corporation because they did not follow the same safety norms, those who were
applicable in West Virginia plant. So, the local government clearly cannot allow the
industrial facilities to be situated within urban areas, regardless of the evaluation of land use
over time.
Now, industry and government need to bring the proper financial support to local
communities so that they can provide at medical and other necessary services to reduce
morbidity and mortality and material laws in case of any industrial accidents. Existing public
health infrastructure needs to be taken into account when hazardous industries choose sites
for manufacturing plants. Now, the legislation and regulation, they need to evolve in active
consultation with all stakeholders laying emphasis on emergency requirements and increasing
standards with appropriate emphasis on actual functioning of safety mechanism and inclusion
of an active safety culture.
So, multinationals, by virtue of their global purpose, organisation and resources, should be
treated as a single monolithic agents, rather than as a network of discrete or non-
interdependent unit. Now, there were certain alternatives before the disaster. The 1st
alternative was try to increase the product sales. So, they will keep all the productions, et
cetera. And 2nd was cease production and dispose of MIC chemical gas, that is safe for the
local residents, the cost of disposing the gas is very large quantity.
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1472
The 3rd and the last alternative was to cease production, keep the MIC chemical but continue
to perform the regular maintenance. Now usually this does not cost too much and it is
relatively safer for the local residents. But they did not follow this one. Another things, which
is alternative after the disaster, that is compensate to the victims. So, the increasing the
compensation to help people survive, that was one of the prime motto. And providing at least
20 years worth of medical expenses. Although the DNA sequencing or gene structure is
concerned, this timeframe is very small.
Another alternative is that properly clean up the site and provide safe drinking water for the
nearby people, so that the new generation will not be poisoned. So, the recommendation
before the disaster, obviously the alternative 3 is recommended. And the management should
elect to cease the active production on the plant but continue regular maintenance. And MIC
or methyl isocyanate is a highly reactive and deadly gas that remained in the tanks after
production was cut off.
So, the reason was why there was no market in India for the Union Carbide's pesticides and
therefore they follow that the plan should seize the operations. And with the safety of Indian
citizens at mind, regular maintenance should continue to prevent any kind of disaster. Now,
there are several recommendations following the disaster.
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The victim needs to be better compensated although the era is gone. Now they have endured
much suffering and deserve better treatment than they have received to date. Provide
compensation for at least 20 years worth of medical expenses as oppose to the 5 years
originally offered and that was the part and parcel of the settlement. The key component of
new compensation settlement, the consultation with the victims. And the victims should have
a say in compensation levels, as they were the ones who have suffered.
Another is that the Fully cleanup the Union Carbide site which is not at all being done as on
date. The chemicals left behind by the Union Carbide continue to cause environmental
damage and poison the new generation. There are enough sufferings had occurred in India
and the upcoming generation, they should not be oppose to the deadly chemicals that is one
of the desired level. So, it needs to be made certain that the soil and water near the plant, they
are not contaminated with the chemicals. So, we can avoid, once we follows these things, we
can avoid such type of things, thank you very much.
1475
Lecture-56
Nuclear Radiation
Welcome to another module of nuclear radiation. Now, we are very much aware about the
severity and the dangers of these nuclear radiations. And sometimes these nuclear radiations,
in different ways, they become the part and parcel of various chemical industries. Maybe
attributed to some x-rays, maybe attributed to UV light, IR et cetera. So, there are different
aspects associated with the chemical industries.
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So, before we start with the gravity of this nuclear Radiation, let us have a look about the basic
definition. So, as the start includes the Radiation term, so 1st thing is the Radiation. Now, what
is radiation? Radiation is the transmission of energy through space or a material away from a
source, like Electromagnetic waves, cosmic waves and sound waves. So, we know that all
radiations are harmful for living body. The effect of a particular radiation can be understood
by 1st examining its effect on atom, the basic building block of a particular matter.
Now atom, it is the smallest particle of any matter, it is composed of proton, electron and
neutron. And atomic number, the number of protons inside the nucleus of atom, so, every
element has its unique atomic number, hence atomic number determines the element. So, these
are the some basic things which we must understand before we go further for this particular
module. Apart from this, the mass number, that is the total number of protons plus neutrons in
that particular element. Then neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of
electrons.
There is ionisation or ionising radiation. The radiation with enough energy to remove tightly
bound electrons from the orbit of an atom. So, when imparted over it, causing the atom to
become charged or ionised. So, ionising radiation is produced by unstable atoms and unstable
atoms have either access energy or access mass or both. So, this access energy is liberated in
the form of radiation.
1477
Now, there are 2 forms of things, waves or particles. So, waveform, the best way to understand
the waveform is to consider it in the form of photons, which are charge less bundles of energy,
that travel in a vacuum with the velocity of light. The particulate form, that is a special form of
ionising radiation which consist of atomic or subatomic particles, that is electrons, protons, et
cetera which carry the energy in the form of kinetic energy.
Let us take the question that direct or indirect ionisation, so direct ionising radiation, alpha and
beta particles, they are considered as direct ionising, as they carry a charge and hence can
directly interact with the electrons of an atom through electrostatic force of attraction or
repulsion. The indirect radiation or ionisation, they are gamma and x-rays are considered
indirect radiation as there electrically neutral and hence they do not directly interact with the
atomic electrons. So the neutrons are also considered under the indirect ionising radiation.
Nucleus when it travels in the form of radiation can also be a significant health concern.
1478
The alpha particles, they are the cluster of 2 neutrons and 2 protons. So, about 7300 times
heavier than the mass of electron and they cannot penetrate even the layer of dead cells at the
surface of skin. Radium and plutonium, they are the 2 examples of alpha emitters. Then there
beta particles, the electrons or positrons, these positrons are produced by radioactive decay of
nucleus, so these electrons are positrons travelling at a very high energies and very high-speed.
They can cause severe burns to the skin. The radio isotopes emits beta particles are present in
fission products from nuclear reactors.
There are certain gamma particles. They are the more energetic form of electromagnetic
radiation, made of photons, produced from the radioactive atoms and are produced from the
hottest and the most energetic object in the universe, such as supernova explosion, neutron stars
1479
and the pulsars, et cetera. They are artificially produced from the nuclear fission reaction, such
as nuclear reactors.
1480
X-rays, very common in chemical engineering, they are produced when the electrons are
suddenly decelerated upon collision with metal target. These x-rays are called the baking
radiations. Now, if the bombarding of electrons have sufficient energy to knock out the
electrons from the inertial of target metal atoms, then the electrons from higher state of energy
level drops down to fill the vacancy and hence the result in emitting x-ray photons, that is called
the characteristic of x-ray.
So, the higher the energy of x-ray all gamma ray, deeper will be the penetration inside the body
and creating a large number of ions inside the body. So, one mega-electron volts gamma ray
can completely penetrate the body. Now let us have a look about the radioactivity. So, if the
nucleus is unstable for any reason, there are variety of reasons, so it will emit and absorb
particles. And there are many types of radiation and they are pertinent to everyday life and
health, as well as nuclear physical applications.
So, too many protons in a nucleus lead to emit positron, the positively charged electrons,
changing a proton into a neutron. Now, too much of energy leads a nucleus to emit the gamma
rays, now leading towards the stabilisation of nucleus without further change. And if you have
too much of mass, leads the nucleus to emit an alpha particle, discarding 2 protons and 2
neutrons. Next thing is that activity of radio isotopes. So, this measures how many atoms
undergo the radioactive decay per unit time. And the SI unit is (Bq), that is equal to the
radioactive disintegration per second.
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The other unit is the Curie, (Ci), that is equal to 3.7 into 1010 radioactive disintegrations per
second. So, we have discussed the radioactive decay, so let us have a look about the radioactive
decay, so the specific activity and half life of any radioactive material. The basic equation for
the radiative decay is given by
−𝒅𝒏
= 𝝀𝒏
𝒅𝒕
where n is the number of radioactive atoms and t is the time and lambda is the radioactive decay
constant in the unit of second inverse. So, if we integrate the above equation using the time t
equal to 0 and n equal to n0, that is the number of radioactive atoms present at arbitrary time 0.
And t equal to t, n equal to n, we get
𝒏
= 𝐞𝐱𝐩⁡(−𝝀𝒕)
𝒏𝟎
So, for half-life, that is n equal to n0 upon 2 and T denotes the half life time, then
𝒏𝟎 /𝟐
= 𝐞𝐱𝐩⁡(−𝝀𝑻)
𝒏𝟎
So, therefore
𝟐
𝑻 = 𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑/𝝀
𝝀
Where
𝑵𝑨
𝒏𝟎 =
𝑴𝟎
where NA is the Avogadro's number and 6.023 into 10 to the power 23 and M 0 is the atomic
weight. So, as lambda is constant for entire process, so it can be defined as
𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝝀=
𝑻
So, for anytime t
−𝒅𝒏 𝑵𝑨 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑 𝑵𝑨
=𝝀 =
𝒅𝒕 𝑴𝟎 𝑻 𝑴𝟎
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So, this represents the radioactive decay. The energy released during decay can be governed
through Einstein equation
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
Where C is the velocity of light, energy may also be calculated through decay equation, that is
E is equal to change in the mass of atom into atomic mass unit amu and 1 amu is equal to 931
MeV.
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So, let us take an example of reactions, that is this
210 206
90Po 82Pb + 2He4
This atomic mass balance equation can be calculated by the left-hand side, this is the atomic
mass 210. And the right-hand side 206 and this is having 4, helium. So, for right-hand side, it
is 210.038 and the total mass loss is 0.011, therefore energy is equal to 931 into 0.011 is equal
to 10.2 M EV. Now let us have a discussion about the effect on living organisms. Now, ionising
radiation in a smaller amount does not pose any significant effect over the human body, now
sufficient dose per unit mass is a key factor. That is dose versus the response.
So, for significant biological effect, energy absorbed per unit mass of the body with which the
radiation is interacting, this must be determined. So, SI unit for the absorbed dose is equal to
Gray (Gy) is equal to 1 joule per kilogram mass. The older unit, this is rad, which stands for
radiation absorbed dose. And that is, there is a correlation factor between the grey and rad, this
is equal to 1 Gy is equal to 100 rad. So, biological equivalent dose, now these effects does not
only depend on the amount of the absorbed dose but also on the intensity of the ionisation in
living cell caused by the different type of radiations.
So, neutron, proton and alpha radiation can pose 5 to 20 times more harm than the same amount
of the absorbed dose of beta gamma radiation. So, the SI unit of this particular is Sievert Sv.
The other unit is rem, that is Roentgen equivalent man. Now Roentgen, who invented the x-
ray. So, 1Sv is equal to 100rem.
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Now the living tissue is made up of molecules which is a combination of different types of
atoms. The functioning of molecule depends on the composition as well as the structure of
atoms. The ionising radiation has sufficient energy to change to alter the chemical bonds inside
such molecules which results to damage the tissues. Exposure, this is measured in Roentgen R,
the amount of x-ray or gamma radiation that produces ionisation resulting in one electrostatic
unit of charge in 1 centimetre square of dry air.
Now if the ionising radiation emits the electron directly from the DNA or from the
neighbouring molecules and disrupts the DNA, then it is called direct action. Now, if the
electron strikes the ordinary water molecule which results to produce the free radical, the free
radical interacts with other molecules at a very fast and may lead to disturb the crucial DNA
1486
molecule. Now, this is termed as indirect action. So, the fatal dose in this particular case is 600
R.
Now, there are certain acute asthmatic effect. So, when a person is actually exposed, the relative
immediate effect has been observed. Now the severity depends on dose and type of radiation.
Death usually results from damage to bone marrow or intestinal wall. The acute radio dermatitis
is common in radiotherapy, chronic cases occur mostly in various industries.
Now this is the table reflects the acute dose effects. So, if it is in the range of 0 to 25, no
observable effect. If 25 to 50 R, minor temporary blood changes. 50 to 100 R, simple nausea
and vomiting and reduced White Blood Cells. 150 to 300 R, increased severity of these type of
activities and diarrhea, loss of appetite, et cetera. 300 to 500 R, increased severity of these
1487
above this thing, haemorrhaging, depletion, death may, sometimes death may occur. And if it
is greater than 500 R, the symptoms appear immediately, then death has to occur. So, it is
extremely dangerous.
Now, let us have a discussion about the delayed asthmatic effect and genetic disorders. So,
delayed effect includes cancer, leukaemia, cataracts, life shortening from organ failure,
miscarriage, et cetera. Now, these effects does not depend the threshold for radiation but
depends upon the dosage. Genetic effects are irreversible and are always harmful for the
patient. Now, there are critical against which are listed for this type of activity, that is
lymphocytes, bone marrow, gastrointestinal, gonads and other fast-growing cells. Now, thyroid
gland is considered critical as many nuclides concentrate in such particular gland.
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The radiation emergencies, the scale and type of radiological and nuclear emergencies may
range from an isolated occupational or medical overexposure of a person to a major catastrophe
with the global dimensions. Now, regardless the scale or a cause of the accident, there is a
common denominator, that is human health. So, international health regulation in 2005
included Cisco radio nucleus hazards and countries should meet the core National capacities
requirement for the response to radiation emergency.
The public health sector must be prepared to respond and to provide the medical care to the
injured. There are OSHA limits for the whole body limit is 1.25 rem per quarter or 5 rem or 50
mSv per year. Hands and feet limit is 18.75 rem per quarter, scale of whole body limit is 7.5
rem per quarter,
total life accumulation = 5 X (N – 18) rem
where N is equal to H. So, one can have 3 rem per quarter if total life accumulation not
exceeded. Now, this is, this particular table reflects the maximum permissible dose equivalent
for occupational exposure.
Now here you are having combined whole-body occupational exposure, like prospective
annual limit, 5 rems in any one year. The retrospective annual limit, 10 to 15 rems in any one
year. Long-term accumulation, N -18 into 5 rems, where N is the age in year. Skin, 15 rems in
any year, the hands, 75 rems in any one year, that is 25 per quarter. The forearms, 30 rems in
any year, or you can say 10 per quarter, the fertile women, with respect to the fetus, 0.5 rem in
the gestation period and population dose limits are 0.17 rem average per year.
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There are certain community emergency radiations. So, radiation above background that is 0.01
to 0.02 m rem per hour signifies the possible presence which must be monitored. So, radiation
above 2 milli rem per hour indicates the potential hazard. And evacuate site until controlled is
always advised under such scenario. Now, there are different type of nuclear reactors and the
principal type of reactors we are going to discuss in this particular slide.
There are gas cooled reactors like Magnox reactor, advanced gas cooled reactor, high-
temperature gas cooled reactor, there are certain heavy water reactor like CANDU reactor,
steam generating reactor, there fast breeder reactors, there are certain lightweight reactors,
those are pressurised water reactor and boiling water reactors. So, let us have a look about a
Magnox reactor. The Magnox reactor was built in United Kingdom from 1956 to 1971 but have
now been suspended or superseded with additional advanced systems.
Magnox Rector is named after the migration alloy used to encase the fuel, which has natural
uranium metal. Fuel element consisting of fuel rod encased in Magnox can are loaded into the
vertical channels in a core constructed of graphite blocks. This further channels, they contain
the control rods like strong neutron absorbers which can be inserted or withdrawn from the
core to adjust the rate of fission process and therefore the heat output. So, the whole assembly
is cooled by blowing carbon dioxide gas passed into the fuel cans, which are specially designed
to enhance the heat transfer.
Now, these hot gases then they are converted water to steam in steam generator. And early
design used steel pressure vessel which was surrounded by a thick concrete radiation shield.
So, in later design a dual purpose concrete pressure vessel and radiation shield was used. Now
let us have a look about the advanced gas cooled reactor. So in order to improvise the cost
effectiveness of a Magnox reactor, it was necessary to go for a higher temperature to achieve
higher thermal efficiency and higher power density to reduce any kind of capital cost.
So, the entailed, the increase in cooling gas pressure and the changing from Magnox to stainless
steel cladding and from uranium metal to uranium dioxide fuel. So, there is change the all
aspects of, all key points of the Magnox reactor. Now, this in turn led to the need for an increase
in the proportion of uranium 235 in the fuel. Now, the resulting design known as the advanced
gas cooled reactor or AGR, now they still uses the graphite as the moderator and thus in the
later part of Magnox design, the steam generators and gas circulators are placed within the
combined concrete pressure vessel or radiation shield.
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Now, there are heavy water cooled and moderated reactors. The only design for having water
moderated reactor in commercial use is CANDU. This is designed in Canada and subsequently
exported to other countries. So, in this CANDU reactor, the enrichment, and reached uranium
dioxide is held in zirconium alloy cans loaded into the horizontal zirconium alloy tubes. The
fuel is cooled by pumping heavy water through the tubes under very high pressure to prevent
any kind of boiling. And then to a steam generator to raise steam from ordinary water. So, this
is also known as natural or light water in the normal way.
The necessary additional moderation is achieved by merging the zirconium alloy tubes in an
unpressurised container,that is called the Calendria that is containing more heavy water.
Control is affected by inserting and withdrawing the cadmium rods from Calendria and the
whole assembly is contained inside the concrete shield and containment vessel. There are
certain fast reactors, so as of today the commercially successful reactor system or the thermal
reactors using a slow thermal neutrons to maintain the fusion chain in the chain reaction in
uranium 235 fuel.
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Now, even with the enrichment level used in the fuel for such reactors for the largest number
of atom present, they are uranium 238, which are not feasible. No, consequently when these
atoms absorb an extra neutron, their nuclei do not split but are converted into another element
called plutonium. The, plutonium is fissile and some of it is consumed in situ, while some
remain in the spent fuel together with the unused uranium 235. Now, these components can be
separated from the fission product waste and recycle to reduce the consumption of uranium in
thermal reactor by say up to 40 percent.
Although clearly thermal reactor still require a substantial net feed of natural uranium. So, it is
possible however to design a reactor with the overall produce is more fissile material in the
form of plutonium than it consumes. So, that is why they are called the fast reactors. So, this is
the 1st reactor in which the neutrons are unmoderated and hence the term is fast. The physics
of this type of reactor dictates core with a high fissile concentration, typically around 20 percent
and made of plutonium. Now in order to make it breed, the active core is surrounded by the
material that is largely uranium 235, left over from the thermal reactor enrichment process.
Now, the material is referred as fertile because it converts the fissile material irradiated during
operation of the reactor. So due to the absence of any kind of moderator and high fissile content
of the core, heat removal requires the use of a high conductivity coolant, such as liquid sodium,
et cetera. So, sodium circulated through the core heats the secondary loop of sodium coolant
which then heats water in a particular steam generator to raise the steam. And this steam is
being used for the power generation.
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Now let us take the assessment of nuclear hazard. So, nuclear industry for long made use of
probabilistic risk assessment technique to ensure that the hazard must be identified.
Considerable efforts is devoted to the treatment of the accident, sequence and scenarios. And
there are number of natural and man-made threats which may hazard nuclear plants such as
explosions, hydrogen fuel explosion, earthquakes, et cetera. So, when sufficient information is
not available, the resort maybe had to the use of expert judgement. And it may be used to obtain
the failure and even threats or the formulation of accident sequences.
So, as nuclear power plant operates under the computer-controlled, quality assurance of
software and hardware is essential. While doing inventory analysis and Fault tree analysis for
conducting probabilistic risk assessment, the estimation of human error is very important. Now,
each accident scenario needs to be associated with the defined source term, so that the
dispersion of radioactive material may be modelled. Like example gas dispersion model, two-
faced desperation model.
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Now, there may be certain recommendations may be attributed to this particular aspect. Like
all aspects of the design and operation of nuclear power plant need to be carried out to high
standards. This leads to the generation of system of quality assurance standards. High quality
inspection is an integral part or an essential part of nuclear industries. These include caustic
emission monitoring, ultrasonic and leak detection methods, risk-based inspection, et cetera.
One of the most important inspection techniques is the fracture mechanics.
Seismic quantification is also an essential part of the regular inspection to judge the threats of
any kind of earthquakes. Now, nuclear industries, they always explored in details the factors
like ageing of instrument, residual or remaining life assessment, et cetera, there are so many.
So, in this particular module, we have discussed about the nuclear radiation and in different
modules we will discuss one of the most worst nuclear disasters that is called the Chernobyl.
So, if you wish to have the further reading, then the series of references are listed in this
particular slide, thank you very much.
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Lecture 57 - Process Safety Management
Welcome to the new module of Process Safety Management. Now, this process safety
management is a very important aspect of chemical process safety because in different
models we have studied about the various aspect of chemical process safety: identification,
training, toxicological studies. So, this particular aspect refers to the integration of all kind of
various activities being associated with the chemical process safety. So, in this particular
module we are going to study with the basic principle of process safety management.
And occupational safety, health administration of United States, they are a very lead agency
in the development of process safety management, so we will discuss about what did the,
OSHA development and process safety management. Then we will discuss about the key
elements of process safety management and later on we will summarise all the aspects which
we will discuss in this particular module. So, let us have a first question to be asked by
anybody that, what is the process safety management?
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So, in a nutshell, the process safety management is the application of various management
practices, principles, et cetera and system to the identification, understanding and control of
various process hazard to protect the environment, to protect the employees, to protect the
facility, assets, etc. So usually it integrates the different technology available for the process.
It integrates the operating procedures or protocols and sometimes it may referred as a
standard operating practices. And then it integrates the standard management protocols.
So, there is a difference between the operating protocols; it usually reflects with the
measurable parameters like pressure, volume and temperature. And there are certain standard
management protocols. So, we will discuss this thing in due course of time. So, it originally it
was developed by American Institute of Chemical Engineers, that is an apex body of all
chemical engineers. And they are having one centre for process safety refineries.
And it was in association with the two institutes, one is the American Petroleum Institute
API, this is responsible for producing or responsible for making all kind of guidelines for
various refineries. And the Chemical Manufacturer’s Association, those who are responsible
the responsible, care for all kind of chemical activities. So, they developed a management
system for various hazardous processes.
1500
Now you cannot overlook the importance of those hazards as reflects in this particular
photograph. Maybe the fire hazard, maybe the toxicological hazard, maybe the explosion
hazards, et cetera.
1501
So, the question arises that, because in the first slide we had a discussion about that the
OSHA, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, they are responsible for the
development of process safety management. So, the question arises, why did OSHA develop
the PSM? Now, OSHA developed this process safety management in the following contexts:
like the various past disasters. So, they took the cognizance of all those disasters those who
have taken place in the history. Then they are also taking the cognizance of the current
disaster and they are responsible for the perceived weaknesses in the PSM program.
Now while we are considering the past disaster, so we are having different disasters which
are enlisted in this particular slide. Like in Bhopal, it took place in 1984 and that was
attributed to almost 20,000 deaths and just because of methyl isocyanate release.
Then the Pasadena in Texas in 1989, attributed to 23 deaths and 132 injuries, that was a
petroleum explosion. Then Cincinnati, Ohio in 1990, there were 2 deaths and just because of
an explosion. Then, Sterlington in Lafayette in 1991, 8 deaths and 128 injuries just because of
chemical release.
1502
So based on this particular aspect in 1991, OSHA and Environmental Protection Agency
respectively, they released the standard for PSM and risk management protocol or program.
That applies to those companies that are usually affected by those standards. So, process
safety management is a regulation by OSHA and intended to prevent an incident like in 1984,
Bhopal. And one more objective is, this particular process safety management is to prevent
the release of any kind of toxic material, any kind of reactive material, any kind of flammable
material or explosive chemicals. So it is having a very wide spectrum of all these things.
1503
Now, let us have a look of this PSM versus RMP. Now let us discuss about that what is the
difference between these two aspects. Now, PSM that is Process Safety Management is like
hazard communication or HazCom, whereas RMP that is like Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorisation Act (Sara). So the PSM protects the workforce, they protect the contractors
those who are involved in that workplace, they protect the visitors to that particular facility
those who are maybe casual visitor or maybe the regular visitors because sometimes these
visitors they used to pay visit to the facilities, maybe educational tour, maybe some sort of
other sampling, et cetera.
So basically in a nutshell they protects the workplace. Whereas RMP, they protects the
community, maybe within the plant periphery or outside, they protect the general public
around that particular facilities. So, like in Bhopal, the general public outside the facility was
severely affected. They protect adjacent facilities such as school, hospitals, et cetera.
1504
Now, the process safety management it consists of 14 integrated elements. Now this because
this PSM is an elemental approach, so let us have a discussion about those elements. One is
the application of this PSM, employee's participation, the process safety information, process
hazard analysis, operating procedures, there are employee training and something related
with the contractors, then the pre-start-up of safety review, the mechanical integrity, hot work
that is non-routine work authorisation, then management of change, any kind of technological
development, et cetera, incident investigation, emergency planning and response and there
are certain compliance audits. So let us have a discussion about those elements for process
safety management standard. So let us explore some of those elements.
1505
Now, first that let us discuss about the various OSHA guidelines under the head of those
elements. So, OSHA developed various guidelines and various protocols, one is this
1910.119(a), that what facilities are covered? So, under this Act a listing of toxic and reactive
highly hazardous chemicals which present a potential for catastrophic event at or above the
threshold quantities are listed. So, you need to identify and then you need to list those
elements.
Now the second aspect is to adequately address this particular section, identify what brings
you into the coverage by the standards, maybe material safety data Sheets, et cetera and
specifying which processes at the facility are covered and why. So, it covers the basic
approach of that facility.
Then a process which involves a flammable liquid or gas on-site in one location, in quantity
of say 1,000 pound or 4,535 kilograms or more. So, they specify this particular limit.
1506
Now, OSHA defines "on-site in one location" for the process safety management of highly
hazardous chemicals standard. They interpret on-site in one location to mean that the standard
applies when a threshold quantity of highly hazardous chemical, those sometimes referred as
HHC, they exist within an area under the control of an employer or a group of affiliated
employers. So, sometimes some conglomerates, they too, they usually participate in different
industrial activities. So, they cover this particular aspect also in this particular guideline.
So, it also applies to any group of vessels that are interconnected or in separate vessels that
are close enough in proximity, that the highly hazardous chemicals could be involved in
potential catastrophic release. Now, consider what you can do to get out of those situations.
One thing is that to reduce the inventory of any kind of highly hazardous chemical. Run a
1507
cost oblique benefit analysis, that means you need to optimise this thing. Then you receive
smaller shipments, you may break up storage locations within the plant to reduce the amount
on hand to below the threshold quantity, that is sometimes referred as TQ.
You may have improvised or enhanced inventory control and you may substitute the listed
with non-listed one so that you can have other better alternative for those who are dangerous.
Now, let us have a discussion about that what types of industries involve in this particular
aspect. So industries that process chemicals such as food processing with anhydrous
ammonia over the threshold quantity. Then industrial organics and inorganics, paints,
pharmaceuticals, adhesives, sealants and fibres, petrochemical facilities, paper mills.
Now, see the chemical engineering is a very versatile field, so you may have a large spectrum
of industries associated with the chemical engineering. Not only our day-to-day affair but
also in the broad spectrum.
1508
Like 25th May 2004, an accident took place because of the pool chemical process in plant,
attributed to chlorine and a mass evacuation was needed to protect the neighbours. And
interestingly enough, that this was not a PSM covered facility. Now, the pool chemicals were
not commercial or reagent grade, so the process was exempted. So, you would be very
specific about this listing of PSM.
Another guideline is 1910.119(c). So, this reflects the employee participation. So, the
employees are required to be an active part of the process and your written programs need to
be documented that what roles of employees play, what are their involvement in the
development of the programs and the continuing participation in that particular process. So,
usually an inspector will attempt to verify the participation of those employees by
1509
interviewing them at random so that they can check that whether the industry is following the
norms or not.
Now, consultation or participation with the training and supervision to determine the
frequency and contents of initial and refresher training. Sometimes the consultation or
participation to develop and review the operating and maintenance protocols. Sometimes the
consultation or a participation in incident investigations regarding the covered processes, et
cetera.
1510
The next aspect is covered under subsection d, that is the process safety information. Now,
the intent is to provide the complete and accurate information concerning the process which
is essential for an effective process safety management program and for conducting process
hazard analysis. There are some dead trees and acronyms for information related to process
safety, like material safety data sheet, in the industrial hygiene module we have already
discussed this one.
The piping and instrumentation diagram referred as P and I diagrams, block flow diagrams,
these are the very good source of information. The material and energy balance calculations,
this we need to perform by any engineer those who are involved in the process industry. The
relevant consensus standards and the materials of construction.
1511
Now, next is that sometimes you may need to carry out the process hazard analysis. That
what is the impact of that particular process with respect to the hazard or risk.
Now, the intent is to require the employer to develop a thorough, orderly, systematic
approach for identifying, evaluating and controlling processes involving highly hazardous
chemicals. There are certain minimum requirements for this particular analysis that the
setting a priority order and conducting analysis according to the required schedule. Using an
appropriate methodology to determine and evaluate the process hazard. And these
methodologies and the protocols, they are very standard in nature and based on the theoretical
aspect of chemical engineering.
1512
The performing the process hazard analysis by a team with expertise in the engineering and
process operations. And the process being evaluated and the process hazard analysis
methodologies used. Now these minimum requirements include about this PHA, that is
addressing process hazard, previously incident with the catastrophic potential, engineering
and administrative control, consequences of failure of control, human factor and qualitative
evaluation of a possible safety and health effect of failure of controls on employees.
Now, establishing system to address, finding and recommendation and assured solution of
recommendation and documentation, develop a written schedule and communicate action to
employees because the employees, those are the first stakeholder of that particular protocol.
So those employees who work in the process might be affected by the action. This is the next
aspect of PHA. Other are like updating and revalidating this process hazard analysis at least
every 5 years but it is not necessary, it may be reduced, it may be on the higher side,
depending on the process conditions.
Now retaining process health analysis and updates for the life of the process. So, OSHA has
suggested a format for the analysis. One thing must be remembered that do not start process
until all informations are gathered. Use a software tool to guide, record or manage process
and these softwares are easily available in market.
The next subsection is the operating procedures. Now the intent is to provide the clear
instruction for conducting activities those involved in the covered processes that are
consistent with the process safety information. So, the operating procedures, that must be
1513
addressed for each operating phase, operating limit, safety and health consideration. And
sometimes the system and their function information also plays a very vital role.
The next subsection under this head deals with the employee training. Now usually it helps
employees and contractor employees understand that the nature and cause of the problem that
might arise from the process operating conditions and increases the employee awareness with
respect to the hazard particular to a process. And also an effective training program
significantly reduces the number and severity of incident arising from the process operation.
That can be instrumental in preventing small problem from leading to a catastrophic release.
So sometimes you refer as the near message, they do not convert into the major accident.
Minimum requirement includes like initial training, sometimes a refresher course, sometimes
continuing education and sometimes the documentation. So, these are the minimum
requirement for this employee training program.
1514
The next thing is attributed to the contractors. Now, the intent is to require employers who
use contractor to perform work in and around processes. Sometimes those contractors may
involve with highly hazardous chemicals to establish a screening process, so that to handle
such type of scenario usually they hire and use contractors who accomplish the desired job
task without compromising the safety and health standards or safety and health of employee
at the facility.
And the role of contractor is sometimes, because sometimes they are the casual workers and
sometimes they are very specialised persons and if you are having a very limited opportunity
for those operation, then you may hire them for a very short period of time. Because
sometimes it may not be feasible to hire those contractors on a regular basis. So, if they are
1515
handling such hazardous jobs, then certainly the protocol must also be enlisted. So the
contractor must assure that contract employees are trained on performing the job safety, of
the hazard related to that particular job and applicable provisions for the emergency action
plan. So, because every action supported by the emergency action plan, so the contractor they
should ensure that their employees they are well trained for that particular assigned job.
The next subset is the pre-start up safety review. Now, the objective is to make sure for new
facilities and for modified facilities when the modification necessitates a change to process
safety information. Certain important considerations are addressed before any kind of
hazardous chemicals they are introduced into the process. So, this type of aspect must be
ensured by the employer.
There are certain minimum requirements for these pre-startup safety reviews, these are the
construction and equipment is in accordance with the design specification. The safety
operations, maintenance and emergency procedures are in place and adequate. For new
facilities, the process hazard analysis has been performed and recommendation resolve are
implemented. The modified facilities meet the requirements. So, these are the certain
minimum requirements for this one.
Now next is the mechanical integrity, this is just for the sake of an example. If you are
dealing with the pressure vessel, then definitely you must know that what is the strength,
whether they do meet the design pressure or not, etc. So, the mechanical integrity of any
process is very important. So, the objective is to assure that equipment used to process, store
1516
or handle highly hazardous chemical is well designed, constructed, installed and maintained
to minimise the risk of releases of any kind of chemicals.
Now this requires that mechanical integrity program be in place to assure the continued
integrity of process equipment. Sometimes they may require a certification from the
competent authority that these vessels or these equipments, they are under the mechanical
integrity supervision and they are well tested for the process which is going to, that particular
process is going to use that particular vessel or equipment.
So the different elements of mechanical integrity program, this includes the identification and
categorisation of equipment and instrumentation. The development of written maintenance
procedure, and sometimes this written maintenance procedure may be clubbed with the
standard operating protocol. The training of a process maintenance activities, the inspection
and testing of different kind of equipments those involved in the process. The correction of
various deficiencies in equipment that are outside acceptable limits defined by the process
safety information. And the development of a quality assurance program. So, these aspects,
they are the integral aspect of this mechanical integrity program.
1517
Now, apart from this, the employer shall develop and maintain a master list of all equipments,
specifically covered by those standards. And the equipment that is important for the safety of
the process. So, it must be properly categorized. Like pressure vessel and storage vessels, the
piping system including valves and other piping components, sometimes control that might
be including monitoring devices and a sensor, alarm and interlocks, et cetera. Relief and vent
system and devices, emergency shutdown protocols, et cetera. So, these are the listed.
Apart from these the pumps, rotating equipments, sometimes heat exchanging equipments,
electrical generation or power distribution equipments, uninterruptible power supplies,
emergencies power supply equipments, there are certain fire protection equipments, so these
are the part and parcel of the mechanical integrity.
1518
Now next is the hot work or the specified work. The objective is to require the employer to
control and in consistent manner, non- routine work conducted in a process area. It is just like
that you need to carry out the welding, then you need to get the proper permit to do so in
within sometimes it may be a flammable zone and sometimes it may be a very controlled
zone. Now, specifically this is concerned with the permitting of this such kind of work,
operation associated like welding, cutting in the process area.
There are certain minimum requirements, those include that the employer issue a hot work
permit for hot work operation conducted on or near a covered or controlled process zone. The
hot work permits shall document compliance with the fire prevention and prevention
1519
requirement and sometimes there is one standard requirement given by the OSHA, that is this
one. Now they have the trained fire watchers, that is aligned with the fire extinguisher or a
fire response training, so that in case of any eventuality they may approach to the problematic
zone for the remedy.
The next is the management of a change. The intent of this particular thing is to require
management of all modification to equipment, procedure, raw material, processing conditions
other than the replacement in kind by identifying and reviewing them prior to implementation
of these changes. Because ultimately the management who usually takes all kind of decision
for any kind of alteration.
1520
So, there are again certain requirement for this management of change, that is establishing the
written protocol to manage change, sometimes addressing the technical basis impact on
safety and health modification to operating procedures, necessary time period and
authorisation if sometimes required, informing and training employee those who are affected.
Sometimes updating process safety information and operating procedures or practices, so
these are the integral part of management of change.
Now, this particular section deals with the incident investigation. Now this is the incident
investigation because sometimes it may happen that some untoward incident may take place,
than how to handle or how to investigate? Now sometimes you begin with the stipulated time,
let us say at 48 hours, then investigate the incident and the near misses, that information may
be available through the master log or other reviews or sometimes the records being available
at the plant site. Then it is required that retain all those reports for 5 years, follow up the
system for recommendations, sometimes those reports suggest certain recommendations.
So during investigation you may analyse that was there any follow-up for those
recommendations or not. Then they must submit the report with the conclusion and proper
recommendation. Now, all these things they do happen when you are having a team with a
process knowledge. So, the formation of the team is quite essential, so once you form the
team, then you start with the stipulated time, then investigate the accident and near misses
and then review the reports and past recommendations and then you submit the report. So,
this is the integral part.
1521
As far as this particular guideline is concerned, the employer is required to investigate each
incident which resulted in or could reasonably have resulted in the catastrophic release of
highly hazardous chemical at the workplace. So, it shall be initiated not later than 48 hours
following the incident. And while we had discussion about the formation of investigation
team, so this investigation team must include a person knowledgeable in the process
involved, they may include the contractor if any for the work of the contractor where the
contractor work is involved.
Other person with appropriate knowledge of the process in question. And report must be
produced with the following things like date of incident, date of investigation began,
description of any incident, then the factors that contributed to the incident and the
recommendation from the investigation to avoid any kind of reoccurrence of that particular
incident in future.
1522
The employer is required to establish a system which promptly address the incident. Report
fighting and a recommendation, documentation of all kind of resolutions and in situ
corrective actions or follow-up corrective actions. Now, these incident reports shall be
reviewed with all affected persons whose job task are relevant to the investigation and
retained for almost 5 years. The next is the emergency planning and responses. Now the
objective is to require the employer to address what action employees are to take when there
is an unwanted release of any highly hazardous chemicals or incident.
The employer must establish and implement an emergency action plan and include the
procedure of any kind of handling small releases. They develop an early warning method for
the release, they must train the employees for the meaning of alarms, develop the emergency
1523
evacuation written plans, evacuation map and the assembly points must be well-defined, et
cetera.
The next subsection that is the compliance audit. The objective is to require the employers to
self-evaluate the effectiveness of their process safety management program by identifying the
deficiencies and assuring corrective actions.
So there are again like other points, there are certain minimum requirements are like audit at
least every 3 years, maintenance of audit report for at least the last 2 audits, audits conducted
by at least one person knowledgeable in the process, the documentation of an appropriate
responses to each finding and that is the deficiencies found must have been corrected. So,
there is much more to with the PSM. So, now this the OSHA, PSM National Emphasis
Program for Refineries and Chemical Facilities and the severe violator enforcement program
et cetera, so these all the things which are attributed to the violation and this OSHA program.
1524
Now, let us have a look of the summary of this process safety management. Now, this
process safety management is a comprehensive, or difficult standards. Although it was
promulgated in 1991, the catastrophes continue to occur. The recognition of this fact that
OSHA has developed a National Emphasis Program for Refineries and Chemical
Manufacturers, so that they are very much aware about the catastrophes associated with these
chemical plants.
So, more emphasis they are planned for all kind of, all PSM sites. So, in this particular
module we have discussed about the different elements of process safety management, what
is the process safety management, how we can apply these, what is the employer's
responsibility, what are they management, et cetera. Now, again if you wish to have a further
1525
reading of these process safety management aspects, you can have a look of these references
enlisted in this particular slide. Thank you very much.
1526
Lecture - 58
Personal Protective Equipments
Welcome to the new module of personal protective equipment. These personal protective
equipments are integral part of Chemical Process Safety. And usually they act as a barrier
between the contaminants and the human being. So, without these personal protective
equipments, we cannot have the complete process safety aspect in any kind of process. So,
and moreover as far as the different guidelines and statutory requirements are concerned, they
are being mandatory by the various government organisations and various government or
state government either state government or central government.
So, let us have a look about those personal protective gears which in due course of time we
may use during any kind of hazardous process or any kind of operations which may involve
the life-threatening or involve the occupational injury or less to the human being. So in this,
the right-hand side of this particular photograph, this gives a brief idea that how many type of
personal protective equipment we can use in any kind of chemical process. Like eye safety
shields, you may have skullcaps, the collar buttoned shirts, fire resistant gloves of tissues, so
this gives a brief idea about the different kind of personal protective gears being used in
process industries.
1527
So, let us have a look about the personal protective equipment, usually they are the
equipment, they protect the user against any kind of health or safety risks whatever it may
involve during the course of any process or any work. Now it may include several items like
safety helmet, gloves, eye protectors like goggles, high visibility clothings, sometimes safety
footwear, safety harnesses, etc. And it also includes respiratory protective equipments, now
these type of, some of these equipments wave already discussed in industrial hygiene chapter.
Now, even where engine and controls and safe system of work have been applied, some
hazards might remain. Because there are 2 aspects, one is that several processes, they have
inherent safety issue aspects, safety barriers, etc. Now, if because of any process compulsion
and because of certain process parameter aspects, some of the contaminants may escape from
those processes or equipment, etc. So, they may harm the human beings, those who are
involved in and around processes. So, these processes, personal protective equipments, they
act as a barrier.
So, these type of things, they include injury, the problems which are also there in that
particular process, they may include the injuries to lungs, maybe from the breathing
contaminated air, sometimes this contaminated air may have toxic components. The head and
feet, like from falling any kind of materials, so that is why the head gears are being used. The
eyes, from flying particles or splashes of any kind of corrosive liquids.
Sometimes the skin, that is from the contact with any kind of corrosive materials through the
skin, the contaminants may get absorbed to the body system through the skin and it may
1528
become part and parcel of the blood vessels. So, it may create a future problem of health. The
body, that is from extreme heat or cold sometimes, because of the process requirement, the
temperature may go up to 50 degrees Celsius, 55 degrees Celsius. Or sometimes it may be
subzero level. So, you may require a personal protective gears to overcome such kind of
scenario.
So, in a nutshell the personal protective equipment is needed in all the cases which we have
discussed right now to reduce the risk.
Now, let us have a look, a brief look about where safety equipments are required. Like in case
of fire safety, although the system may have inherent sprinkler system, system may have
inherent ventilation system. But to protect human beings, you may require some fire suits,
splash suits, sometimes breathing equipments, etc. Similarly as far as road safety they are
concerned, you may require certain gears like helmet, kneecaps, etc or gloves etc.
When you are involving yourself in acidic environment or you are doing something with
toxic substances, so you may require the hand gloves for hand safety. Similarly there are so
many aspects associated with the laboratory safety like fume hoods, safety goggles, hand
gloves, etc. Apart from this when you are involved yourself in the toxic environment, then
you may require the respiratory safety. Some of these respiratory safety aspects or
equipments we have already discussed in different modules.
Similarly if the path is rough and there may be certain inhibitors for the smooth way, then
you may have, you may require the safety boots or shoes. So there are a large number of
1529
these personal protective equipments are available. Only thing is that you, when to use these
safety equipments, and that is a big question. Now, when the process safety is in question,
there are certain regulatory guidelines being laid down by either OSHA or respective national
agencies. And they fix the responsibility of employer as well as the employee.
So, let us have a look about the employer's responsibility. So, usually in global context views
to follow the OSHA guidelines and they were prepared in 2003. So, this suggests that it is the
responsibility of the employer to provide the personal protective equipment that worker needs
and to maintain or repair it whenever it is required. So, the employer must also provide the
workers with the training to use the personal protective gears that has been provided and
make sure that the worker know how to take care of this personal protective equipment.
So, this may be the part, integral part of the training because if you are having any safety
gears and you do not have any clue about the uses of that particular safety gear, then it may
become the liability. So, to overcome this problem, this part is being covered by the
guidelines and moreover because it is sometimes a life-saving guard. So, the workers must
know how to take care of those personal protective equipments because without those
equipments or without those gears, the life may be at the stake.
1530
So, let us have a look about the basic part these regulations and standards. We have already
listed the different numbers of these OSHA guidelines and you can have a look of those
further readings through the OSHA website. Now these regulations and standards are
subdivided into different categories like general guidelines or general regulations, the
regulations related to clothing, although in clothing the National Fire protection Association,
there provided there guidelines.
Then OSHA has suggested different eye and face protection guidelines under the head of
different regulations.
1531
Then there are certain regulations attributed to head protections, then foot protections, and
similarly one guideline is attributed to the electrical protective devices because sometimes
electrical shocks, electrical threats may be at the workplace. To prevent this type of thing,
they have suggested guideline for electrical protection.
Then there are certain hand protection guidelines being laid down by the OSHA. Then
hearing guidelines, sometimes hearing plugs, etc. Then respiratory guidelines, the respiratory
guidelines because sometimes the toxic substances or any kind of flammable vapours, they
may occur at the workplace. So, respiratory problems may occur in due course of time. So, to
overcome this type of things, the regulations being provided by the OSHA.
1532
Now let us have a look about all these guidelines in a bit detail. So, let us have a look about
the clothing aspects. Now the effectiveness of clothing with regard to safety and health is
affected by different factors. So, we have enlisted 3 factors, one is related to the insulation.
The high insulation is generally desired in the cold weather and not wanted when the
temperature are high because your body temperature is around 37 degrees Celsius.
So, if the temperature at outside his extremely cold, then we may suffer health hazard, may
be reflected in terms of occupational illness, sometimes occupational injury and even fatality.
So, to overcome the broad-spectrum related to the insulation and these insulations are not at
all desirable when the temperature are high. The reason is that it may hamper your efficiency
or you are working capability.
Now, next is the permeability, this is the measure of resistance to what vapour movement
throughout the clothing. So, this is again also an integral part of your personal protective
equipments because it gives proper wetness to the skin, so that the efficiency may not be on
the negative side.
Then the ventilation, the ability of ambient air to move throughout the fabric itself or through
the garment opening. So, this ventilation aspect is again very crucial because it prevents the
suffocation or uneasiness of the worker at the workplace. Others are like flame resistant
clothing. These flame resistant materials, they are self-extinguished on removal of the
ignition sources. So, this clothing made of flame resistant material is known as flame resistant
clothing or sometimes referred as FRC.
This will not continue to burn in such situations nor will melt like some synthetic fabrics etc.
So, the most widely used fire resistant material is sold under the trade name of Nomex, it is a
very common fire resistant material. Pyrolon is another commercially available fire resistant
clothing.
1533
There are certain impervious clothing, these impervious clothing provide the protection from
Splash and should be worn during the jobs where it is possible to come in contact with highly
acidic or highly corrosive materials. So, such job may include like breaking lines, sometimes
breaking lines may create the corrosive materials, etc. Sometimes the opening of any
equipment may create a problem that requires the wearing of impervious clothing.
Another is a job where liquid material could splash or spare. So, these are some of the
examples where you have to be with the impervious clothing.
1534
There are certain hazards related to the eye and face protection and because sometimes
splashing, sometimes the dust particles, sometimes any kind of gas or vapour or corrosive
material or acidic fumes, etc may create a problem for eyes.
And through face, because the skin to the face is very sensitive and sometimes the material
may get absorbed to the blood vessels and may create further problems, sometimes itching
problems, etc. So, to overcome such kind of scenario, there is an utmost need of eye and face
protection. Now let us have a look at various hazards associated with this kind of problem.
This may attributed to the chemical or sometimes metal splash, sometimes dusty particles
may get deposited to the face or sometimes may go to eyes, then projectiles, gas and vapours,
radiation, etc.
So, to prevent this there are certain options available to you and it is clearly visible in these
pictures. You may use the safety spectacles, goggles, you may have to face screens like this,
face shields, sometimes visors, etc.
Now, OSHA has fixed a guideline for these eyes and face protection because whenever your
eye is in trouble, then definitely you will not be able to do much and it may be covered under
the occupational injury. And sometimes it may be desired that once you are safe, then you
need to go ahead with the safety of other people, those who are working in that arena.
So, giving the major impetus to this, the OSHA has suggested the guideline and they
suggested that eye protection should be used when there is a reasonable probability of eye
injury. So, this requirement is enlisted in this particular guideline and which can be
1535
summarised below. Remember whenever you are using this type of protectors, then there
may be a slight chances that you are compromising with the efficiency of workmanship.
So, the guidelines summarised that employers must ensure that each affected employee use
appropriate eye or face protection when exposed to eye or face hazard from flying particles,
may be attributed to molten metals, liquid chemicals, acid or caustic liquid chemical gases or
vapours, those may have some toxicity also or a potential injuries light radiation. Sometimes
UV light or infrared light or x-rays, they might occur at the workplace. So, these eye and face
protection devices are used to protect and they create the barrier between those radiations and
yourself.
So, let us have a look about this guideline, that employer must assure that each affected
employee uses eye protection, that provides the sight protection. When there is a hazard from
flying objects also, sometimes flying objects may create a problem, so these eye protectors,
they are very helpful. Now, detachable sight protectors like clip on, side-on-side shields, etc.,
they are admitting the pertinent requirements of this section, there also acceptable under this
head.
Another aspect is that the employers must assure that each affected employee who was the
prescription lenses while engaged in the operation, that involves the eye hazard wears eye
protection, usually that incorporates the prescription in its particular design or wears Eye
protectors that can be worn over the prescription lenses without disturbing the proper position
of the prescription lenses or protective lenses.
Now, this type of scenario may occur when there are certain special cases when the lenses or
sometimes the goggles, they are very special type, like the plastic lenses, etc. So, if those
plastic lenses you are using and if you are subjected to a very high temperature, then there
may be some deterioration to those lenses. So, these barriers will not act up to that level for
which they are designed. So, that is why this guideline comes into the picture. Another aspect
that employers must ensure that each affected employee, uses equipments with filtered lenses
that have a (())(19:07) number appropriate for the work being performed for the protection
from injuries like radiation.
Now, sometimes it may happen if anybody is having some sort of defect in the eye, so they
may have to use the proper goggles, they may have to use the proper shield or proper filters
to avoid any kind of occupational injury.
1536
Apart from this, we are having certain head protectors helmets, the common name is helmet.
Because sometimes if anybody is moving here and there from the plant and sometimes
anything may be because of some malfunctioning, maybe because of some negligence may
fall down to his or her head. Now, head is a very sensitive part and you can say the Control
Panel of your entire body. So, if anything took place, then definitely it may lead to the injury,
occupational injury, even the fertility. And sometimes it may create further problem like
paralysis, etc.
So, keeping in view of the gravity of this aspect, there are certain guidelines associated with
the head protections. So, let us have a look about the gravity of those hazards associated with
the head. The impact from falling or flying objects, risk of head bumping, hair getting tangled
sometimes in different machineries, sometimes there may be a chance of chemical drip or
splash. Sometimes climatic or temperature changes may take place, so that will impact to the
entire body. So, there are several options available for the protection of head, like industrial
safety helmets, bump caps, hair nets, firefighter helmets, etc. So, these are the options
available.
1537
Now, the hardhats are being commonly used in the industrial facilities. Suppose if you visit
any big establishment, then it is mandatory that you have to wear the hardhats prior to enter
into the main arena and this is being made mandatory by all the government regulatory
bodies. So, these hardhats are made of a rigid plastic as a pack with millines, reinforcement
ridge. And different styles are available, those made in the form of a traditional cowboy hat.
Although these traditional cowboy hats are not permissible in the process facilities because
they do not solve the basic purpose to prevent the workers for occupational injuries. And
these hardhats are more common in various construction sites.
So, inside, what is inside the helmet? Inside the helmet there is a suspension that spreads the
helmet's weight over the top of head and that also provides space of approximately 30
millimetre between the helmet's shell and the wearer's head. So that if an object strikes the
shell, the impact is less likely to be transmitted directly to the skull. So, you can say in other
words that it acts like a cushioning aspect, so that the effect to the skull can be minimised.
Now, this suspension generally has an adjustment knob or strap, so that the hat can be used
for different head sizes. And apart from this, the distance between the head skull and the
helmet's inner shield, it creates a slight ventilation to the hair so that itching or other
negativeness may not occur in due course of use.
1538
Now, the American National Standards for industrial safety, they suggested their own
guidelines for these head protection. And they provided that how to select the appropriate
type of helmets for different types of services. Now, it classifies type I for top protection and
Type II for lateral impact protection. Because whenever you are using these type of barriers,
again they are compromising and they challenge the efficiency of worker.
So, this ANSI, they also have 3 classes to do with the electrical insulation rating, like class G,
that is applicable for the general aspect helmet and they are tested for 2200 volts. Class E,
that is for the electrical one, they are tested to withstand for 20,000 volts and class C, this is
related to the conductive aspect, they provide no electrical protection. So, they have again
further classified all these things for the better protection.
1539
Now, let us have a look about the safety glasses. So, in general the safety glasses should be
worn whenever a person is working outside at a process facility. Working in doors with any
kind of hazardous chemicals and in most non-office work areas, because office work areas,
they are well protected and there is no need to wear all these safety glasses. Now the
prescriptive lenses must comply with the overall safety class policy.
So, the ANSI, they have suggested there the guidelines for the use of these safety glasses. So,
as far as the regulatory guidelines are concerned, these safety glasses should meet the
requirement of the guidelines given by ANSI.
1540
Apart from this, there are chemical goggles. Now the chemical goggles, they are used to
protect against any kind of splashing liquids, flying solids and other harmful materials.
Example of work that may require the chemical goggles, they are like light chipping, dusty
work, sometimes you are involved yourself in the cutting of wires, using of grinders,
sometimes if the blades are not well tight, then some material may splash to your face or it
may harm your eyes, etc.
Sometimes handling mineral wools or fibre glasses, that may create these fine particles may
entrap in the eyelashes and a create further problem, that is why chemical goggles are used.
Sometimes handling of hazardous liquids/vapours. So, these may create a problem, so to
overcome such type of scenario, the chemical goggles are being used. Sometimes you may
encounter in heavy noise which encompasses the limits being prescribed by the various
regulatory bodies, like moving machinery, sometimes the belts, sometimes the chains, etc.
So it creates a lot of hazards and sometimes it may create hearing problem, if you are in the
prolonged use of those environment. So, to overcome this type of problem, there are certain
ear protectors.
So, ear protection, nowadays it has become the integral part of chemical process safety. Now,
let us have a look about the hazard associated with this ear protection. Noise, this is a
combination of a sound level and duration of exposure. We have discussed this thing in the
industrial hygiene chapter. And this, a very high level of sound, which is beyond the
1541
prescribed limit, they are always hazardous even for a short duration. So, sometimes it may
create the hearing losses also.
So, there are several options available to overcome this type of problem and if you visit any
industries, you may find that if there is any noise hazard, you may find these types of
earplugs or headphones, etc. They have become the part and parcel of the industrial facilities.
So, these are earplugs, earmuffs, semi-insert or canal caps, they are being used by the various
industrial establishments to overcome this noise problem.
Now, each type of hearing protection device has its advantages and disadvantages. The
advantage of foam and PVC earplug they are small and very lightweight because the one
thing must be mentioned before you go ahead, that whenever we are using the barrier, it
should not be so heavy, there are certain requirements and it should not much compromise
with the worker's or person's efficiency. So the advantage of foam and PVC earplug we were
talking about, they are small and lightweight and they are very comfortable in various hot
environment.
And you can easily use with other safety devices, like the full mask helmet if you are using,
then we can easily use these ear protectors. Now, there are several disadvantages also
associate it with these earplugs. Like they may work lose and require the occasional refitting
sometimes because if they are not sturdy and if they are not closely enough, then they may
lose. And you have to pay attention during the working paraphernalia. Now, they require the
specific fitting instructions and sometimes they frequently sweat. So, these are the problems
with the earplugs.
Now, earmuffs, they are again another type of hearing protectors. And there are certain
advantages of earmuffs, those who are not present in the earplugs, like they are easy for the
employer to supervise the wearing of device. Now generally they are having the flexibility to
fit all the head size. So, you may say that one size fits all and it fits better for a longer period
of time. But simultaneously they are having certain disadvantages. So, the disadvantages of
earmuffs are, they may fit tight on the head. Sometimes they are uncomfortable in the warm
environment because they cover the larger area compared to the earplugs.
Now, problems occur when used with other protective equipments like if you are having a
fullface shield or if you are having the helmets with you, then there may be a problem to fit
1542
those earmuffs within the helmets or within the full mask helmets, etc. So, they may create a
problem.
Apart from this, we are having certain regulatory requirements for the hand protection,
because sometimes these hand protection, sometimes you cannot overcome or sometimes you
cannot avoid the scenario when you may need to use the highly dangerous materials through
your hands. So, or sometimes there may be a chance that the toxic material or any kind of
solvent, they may become, may get deposited at your hand surface and it may get absorbed
into the body structure.
So, to overcome this type of problem, there are certain hand protectors in the form of gloves
being used. So, let us have a look about the hazards of these hand protection. Sometimes
abrasion, sometimes you may feel that temperature extremes like if you are working in a hot
environment, then that may create a problem. And sometimes you are involved in any kind of
hazardous operations where the cuts and punctures to your body may take place, especially
hands. So, to overcome this problem you may require to use the hand gloves.
There may be a chance that you may have impact of various chemicals, those who may be
corrosive, those who may be toxic in nature. So, you may have to look into the preventive
measures of your hands. Sometimes electrical shocks may take place and that is why the
rubber sleeves are being used to protect your hands, etc.
Then the radiation, sometimes vibration and sometimes the more critical one is the biological
agents like pathogens, etc. Then definitely you must use the barrier between the hand and
1543
those agents. And sometimes you are involved yourself in the prolonged immersion in water,
then definitely the adverse effect may take place in your hands. So, these are the various
hazard listed for the hand protection.
Now, there are various options available with those who are illiterate or those you can see in
this particular picture. Like gloves, sometimes gloves with cuffs, sometimes sleevings that
covers the part or all the arms. And these are made of different materials to cater the need of
the process. Like chemicals, biological agents, electrical shocks, the requirement may be
different with each other. So, based on the requirement they may have made of different
materials like a natural rubber, polyvenyl alcohol, nitrile, neoprene, PVC, etc. Then cotton,
wiremesh, Kevlar, welding, leather, so, based on the requirement these gloves are made of
different materials.
So, let us have an example that like leather palm gloves, they are often worn when carrying
out heavy-duty work. Now the resist heat, spark, sharp and sometimes they resist the rough
objects and provides some cushioning agent below. But they provide the minimal protection
from hydrocarbon liquid. So, all these gloves are case-sensitive. You cannot say that you can
use these gloves for each and every operation.
Similarly impervious gloves, they are made of materials such as neoprene, PVC or nitrile.
They are used when handling hydrocarbons or corrosive chemicals such as acid and caustic,
etc. The gauntlet type of gloves which extend above the cough and protects the wrist and
forearm should be worn when there is a possibility of any kind of splashing. The cotton
1544
gloves, they protect against dirt and abrasion, but are not heavy enough for the use of rough
or sharp materials because the stability or strength of the material is not up to the mark, to
end such kind of things.
Similarly latex gloves provides the maximum dexterity but provide a limited protection. So,
they are used in light service such as laboratory work and to keep oil, grease and liquid off
the skin. So, again they are having very we can say broad spectrum of uses. The welder
gloves, they are made from the treated leather and that provides the protection against heat
because it is a high temperature, welding sparks, splutter and hot slack.
The insulated gloves, they used in the laboratory for handling distillation pots and other hot
objects. Electrician gloves protect against any kind of electrical shocks, sometimes high-
voltage lines, sometimes other lines. So, they acts like a barrier to prevent these electrical
shocks.
The metal mesh gloves, they resist the sharp edge and they prevent cuts. The leather gloves
shield hands from the rough surfaces, the venyl and neoprene gloves, they protect hands
against the toxic chemicals because these toxic chemicals may get absorbed in the body
system, so again sometimes blistering may take place, sometimes cuts, sometimes it may
create the wounds, etc. So, the Venyl and neoprene gloves, they protect hands.
And one more think must be noticed, that these gloves should not be reactive with those
chemicals for which you using them. Rubber gloves, they protects when working around any
kind of electricity works, the padded cloth gloves provide protects from sharp edge, slivers,
dirt, any kind of vibration that may take place during the process arena.
1545
There are certain hit resistant gloves, they protect the heat flames, latex disposable gloves,
they protect from any kind of germ and bacteria, there are certain lead lined gloves, they
protect hands from any kind of radiation sources while we are working with say x-rays or
with UV lights, then they protect the body structure.
Now, we can have a look about the foot protection. So, shoes, there are very common, so the
shoes used in the process facilities, they should be notched or grooved to prevent slipping on
oily wet surfaces. Now they should have a heel to assist to the climbing ladders, but
sometimes it is not desired when you using on a flat surface. Boots or shoes with the steel toe
caps should be used when dropped object could crush a person's foot.
1546
So, these are very common things, industrial shoes, they are very common like you can see
that there are Colin shoes, air shoes, ground work shoes, gumboots, industrial safety shoes,
sometimes rapid Ultra nitrile shoes, Safari shoes, so these are the shoes being used for a very
specific use. So, for different type of operations, for different type of requirements can you
can use the variety of shoes.
So, let us have a look about the hazards associated with these foot production aspects. Now,
wet, hot and cold conditions, sometimes in a static buildup like you are working and if your
shoe or if your body is having the charge particles, then you may create the problem of
electric static buildup. Then slipping, cuts and punctures, falling objects, heavy loads, metal,
and chemical splash, vehicles, etc they may create a problem in the industrial facility.
So, to overcome or to protect this problem, there are options available, like safety boots and
shoes with protective toecaps and penetration resistant aspect with midsole Wellington boots,
specific footwear like foundry boots, chainsaw boots, etc. So, these are the various options
available to protect your feet from damage. Because once it is injured, then definitely it may
become the case of occupational injuries.
1547
So, there are certain guidelines being prescribed for the use of these foot protection. Now, the
soul should be notched or grooved to prevent slipping on oily or wet surface. And you can
easily observe that normal domestic shoes, they are also being notched and grooved to
protect, to prevent any kind of slipping on the surface. Now, the boots and shoes should have
all resistant sole and heel. Rubber boots or over shoes can be worn to protect the feet and
shoes from excessive water, oil, muck or corrosive material.
Now the Footwear of the different types should not be worn, like tennis and deck style, D
plug and hiking style shoes, the crepe shoes, smooth leather soles, sometimes the Western
style or narrow throat boots, lace up and zipper style boots higher than 8 inches, sometimes
slip on boots higher than 12 inches. So you cannot generalise the soles or shoes for every
aspect.
1548
Now you can have a look about the different or you can say the anatomy of the safety shoes.
They may have special ankle protection, they are insulated, well insulated, so that any kind of
heat impact, that might not occur in the body system. They are made of special materials, that
may be made of leather, rubber, card, wood, to protect against the slipperiness, oil, heat,
chemicals, electrical hazards.
Sometimes you may have a full cushion in sole, so that it provide the easiness for those who
wear these shoes. There are certain protectors for the Puncture and sometimes spring steel
insoles, sometimes include the protective lip around this area. They are having the cushions
between the toecap and the foot for the comfort and insulation and that too is applicable for
cushioning of this aspect also. This is the safety toe, this must be the standard for impact
objects falling on toe and for the compression weight pressing on toes, etc.
There are outlined for the toecaps for showing the position, there may be certain outlines, for
instep protection, there are certain instep protection at this juncture also, this is made of
aluminium, steel, maybe fibre or plastic to protect the top of the foot and front of the ankle.
1549
Now, steel toe shoes, they protect from falling objects, from impact because in this particular
figure we have discussed different types of toes. And the metatarsal shoes, they have special
guard that run from the ankle to the toes of the shoe and protects the entire foot. The
reinforced sole shoes have metal reinforcement that protects the foot from punctures and the
latex or rubber shoes, they resist chemicals and provide extra traction on slippery surfaces.
The PVC shoes, they protects against the moisture and improve traction. The butyl shoes
protect against the most of the ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, acids, salt and alkalis. So,
sometimes you may encounter this type of chemicals at your workplace. So, to protect your
feet, the butyl shoes are being used. Venyl Footwears, they protect from the solvents, acid,
1550
alkali, salt, water, greases, sometimes blood, etc. The nitrile shoes, they resist from the
animal fats, oils and chemicals. So, you can see there are a variety of shoes.
Then electrostatic dissipating shoes, they conduct static electricity to flow that are usually
grounded. The electrical hazard footwear, they are insulated with the tough rubber to prevent
shocks and burns from the electricity. There are certain disposable shoes including slippers,
clear polyethylene or nonwoven booties used in the dust free work areas. So, these are again
the variety of the shoes being used for various facilities.
Now, let us have a look about the respiratory protections. Although we have already
discussed couple of things in the industrial hygiene module. So every attempt should be made
to make sure that workers are never exposed to toxic or harmful vapour. There will be times
when some form of respiratory protections are needed and if only the precautions are there.
Now this particular aspect discusses the various types of protections that are available and
how we can use those protections. Like one is we are having the fixed breathing air system,
these respiratory protective equipments, they should be used in the areas that do not have a
save breathing environment. Or where there is a possibility of an unexpected release of toxic
gas or particulates.
Second aspect in this the fixed breathing system is that when respirators are used in the
atmosphere, where the concentration of toxic gases could approach for immediate damaging
to life IDLH, they standby personal carrying the SCBA, the self-containing breathing
apparatus, they should be present along with the suitable rescue equipments such as harness
1551
and hose, etc. See, again whenever you using this, either SEBA or IDLH protectors, then
again you are compromising with the efficiency.
Now, there are air purifying respirator. So, these respirators contain material that traps and
purifies the air that the worker is breathing. Now they can trap either solid materials,
particulars or dusts, or toxic gas depending on the material used in the filter. Now, respirator
of this type can be a single or a multiple, that is replacement cartridge, you can put into the
respirator for the multiple use. So, when this cartridge exhausts, then you can remove it and
reinsert the newer one or regenerated one.
1552
So, in general these respirators in the category that they do not provide high level of
protection and should not be used when the concentration of toxic gas is close to IDL H. And
moreover some sort of preventive measures need to be taken to overcome the problem of the
excessive release of these toxic gases at workplace.
Another one is supplied air respirators. So, these supplied air respirators, they are connected
via hose to a supply of air. Now the air can come from a compressor or from a cylinder, if a
compressor is used, it is essential that the air supply cannot become the contaminated by the
fumes in that area. Because sometimes the compressors may take air from the atmosphere
and that atmospheric air may get contaminated with the period of time because of the release
of the toxic material.
So, the respirator of these type are safer than any type of system that purifies air, because
they do not rely on trapping or containing hazardous chemicals. Also because they operate at
a positive pressure, a perfect fit is not imperative.
The self-containing breathing apparatus SCBA, they are similar to the supplied air
respirators, except the air is supplied from a cylinder usually carried by the worker. So, they
used for a very short duration task, emergency rescue, escape and process control procedures.
The air supply is generally rated for 30 minutes, but this time is reduced if the work being
performed is extraneous. Now, this SCBA’s should be inspected before each use, emergency
unit should be inspected at least monthly so that the oxygen pressure is maintained up to the
mark.
1553
There are certain chemical canisters rebreathers. The chemical canisters rebreathers, they are
used only for emergency egress. The canisters contain special chemicals that evolves oxygen
when contacted by the moisture and carbon dioxide in exhaled breathe. The CO2 and
moisture, they are retained. Now they are suitable for high concentration of contaminants and
oxygen deficient atmosphere. But they are negative pressure respirators that rely upon a
perfect face to mask seal, which limits their use to emergency situations only.
Now before use, the respirator should be checked for the correct fitness before every use and
employee should not wear the items such as facial hair or eyeglasses that could prevent a
good seal. Employee who wears the prescription glasses while working should be provided
1554
with the specially designed units. And all respirators should be inspected before each use to
assure all parts are present and in good working order. And there should be no cracks in the
rubber or lenses and head straps should be properly elastic. These are the general advisories.
The hoses should be checked by being stretched and then looking for cracks. A check of
lakes should be carried out by covering the mask with the palm of the hands and then
inhaling gently. If the mask is pulled towards the face, then the fit is good. And league check
is particularly important for the negative pressure respirator. Now, the pressure SCBA tank
should be specified and the regulator pressure should be about the same as of the cylinder and
the low-pressure alarm should be checked. Now, if the pressure is on the higher side, then
again it may create a problem to the person those who are using it.
So, in this particular module we have discussed several personal protective equipments, how
to use them, there are various guidelines are associated with these personal protective gears
and not limited, but the use, one thing should be remembered while we use these equipments,
that we must avoid the generation of such unsafe scenario. Because whenever you are using
these kind of barriers, you are always compromising the efficiency.
1555
So, as far as the further readings are concerned, we have enlisted a couple of references for
your convenience. Thank you very much.
1556
Lecture - 59
Safety: Laws and Regulations
Welcome to the module of Safety Laws and Regulations. Now the laws and regulations are
integral part of any chemical process safety aspect because these laws and regulations they
not only guard the workers or people those who are adjoining, but also they are the
custodians of environment, and also they provide the latest safety guidelines for the industry
also, so that any kind of economic losses, any kind of human fatality, any kind of
environmental damage can be avoided.
So from time to time the different regulating agencies including the government, state
government or central government, they used to amend these laws and regulations based on
the feedback and based on the impact of various industries to the environment as well as
human aspect so they need to update those laws and regulations.
Now, because one of the preamble of these law and regulations is that the right to live or right
to take healthy a air, right to take safe drinking water, these are the fundamental right of
every citizen of any country. So based on these types of requirements, different government,
state government or central government, they frame the regulations, they frame the different
laws to protect the interest of their citizen.
Now here, based on the requirement of every state in Indian context, they are free to frame
the law which are for the beneficiaries of their citizen. But while framing these laws the
government also take into account that it should not hamper the employment opportunity of
their citizens, so there is a need to balance these two aspects and then to frame the laws
because ultimately as I discussed that these laws are also the guiding factor for the industry to
work upon.
1557
So let us have an introduction about this aspect, the Constitution of India this provides a
detailed provision for the rights of the citizens and also lays down different types of principle
of governance of the country, they are called the Directives Principles of the State Policy. So
occupational safety and health is one of the subjects allotted to the Ministry of Labour and
Employment under the Government of India location of business rules.
So Ministry of Labour and Employment, and nowadays the National Integral Ministry of
Environment and Forests, and different regulatory bodies like CPCB, et cetera, they frame all
those safety and health or environmental rules for the safe guard of the citizens of India. So
the industrial safety and health branch of the ministry, they discharges the overall functions
related to policy decisions and laying down the guidelines for country adoption of those
legislations.
1558
Now there is a national policy on safety, health and environment at workplace, so this was
declared on 28th February 2009 by the Ministry of Labour and Employment. Now the basic
purpose of this policy is to establish a preventive safety and health culture in the country
through elimination of the incidents of work-related injuries, diseases, fatalities, disasters,
and to enhance the well-being of employees in all the sectors of economic activity in the
country. Now remember when we talk about injuries, disease, fatalities, disasters, et cetera.
When these types of guiding factors are being framed by the regulatory body then it is
abiding factor for industry to follow up so that they can frame their safety design safety
manuals, processes according to those guidelines as laid down by the regulatory body so that
the fatality is either within the industry or injuries within the industry or illness within the
industry as well as the outer can be minimized.
Now there are certain features of this policy that it recognizes the safe and healthy working
environment as a fundamental human right. It aims at enhancing the well-being of the
employee and the society at large by eliminating work-related injuries and diseases. It
enumerates the goals to be achieved and brings into focus the objectives of continuous
reduction in the incidence of work-related injuries and diseases. So we can see that these are
the general guidelines of this policy and all the sub policies can be framed accordingly, or
you can say this is the mission statement or a vision statement of this policy.
1559
Now there are major occupational safety and health legislations, so let us have a look about
those major legislations. So there are 4 main legislations that cover the occupational safety
and health at workplace. So first in this category was established way back in 1948 and that is
called The Factories Act 1948. Now they covers the factories wherein the enforcement of
safety at workplace by the Chief Inspector of factories in the respective States. Then later on
the Mines Act came into picture and the Mines Rule came into the picture in 1952 and 1955
respectively for the mining industry, where the enforcement is by the Director General of
Mines Safety DGMS under the Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India.
Now remember, whenever we are framing these rules, they are purely based on the present
and partially the future context. So whenever any kind of technological advancement, any
kind of environmental demand they may take place in due course of time then there may be
an utmost need to change or reframe those act or laws. So based on this factor there are
certain amendments and certain new laws they came into existence in due course of time.
1560
So in 1986 the Dock Workers (safety, health and welfare) Act was passed by regulatory body
like Parliament followed by the notification of Dock Workers (safety health and welfare)
Regulations 1990 dealing with the major ports of India and the enforcement is by the Director
General of Factory Advice Service And Labour Institutes under the Ministry of Labour and
Employment, Government of India, so they have framed the rules and regulations for the
various dock workers.
Then The Building And Other Construction Workers Regulation Employment Condition of
the Service Act 1996 was framed covering the construction workers at construction sites
where in the enforcement is by the Director General Labour Welfare in the central sphere and
1561
by the Labour Commissioners and factory inspectors in the States and union Territories, so
these are the various legislations.
Apart from other acts being implemented and those are very specific in nature for the
different industries. Like you can see there is an Indian boiler Act that was established in
1923. Later on it was amended in 2007, now this act is to consolidate and amend the law
relating to steam boilers because boiler is a pressure vessel, so to cater the need of any kind
of safety operation or safety-related issues this Indian boiler because once it bursts then
definitely it may be catastrophic for the worker those who are adjoining and sometimes it
may hamper the adjoining areas nearby the factories.
And if you recall, there was a major pressure vessel failure took place at NTPC (())(8:51)
plant. So to overcome such types of problems, The Indian Boiler Regulation Act 1950 was
again amended in 2010 and The Boilers Rules of respective States. So every state they are
having their own boiler rules and boiler certification aspects or certification schools so that
they can not only prevent the pressure hazard, but also the environmental hazard too.
Apart from this, The Motor Transport Workers Act 1961, which was amended in 1986. Now
the opportunity of this act to provide for the welfare of motor transport workers and to
regulate the condition of their work, so this act is supplemented by the motor transport
worker rule 1964.
1562
Another act was passed in 1983 that is Dangerous Machine Regulation Act, now this act to
provide for the regulation of trade and commerce in production, supply distribution and the
use of the product of any industry producing dangerous machines with the view of securing
the welfare of labours operating any such machine and for the payment of compensation for
death or badly injured or suffered by any labour while operating any such machine and for
metal connecting with incidental thereto. So this act was again amended or supplemented by
The Dangerous Machine Regulation Rules 1984 which was again amended in 2007 by the
Parliament.
1563
Another is the Motor Transport Workers Act 1961 because sometimes within industry there
may be certain issues related to the transportation, so this act was amended in 1986. Apart
from this there are several other acts being passed by the regulator body for the welfare of
either workers or the persons or by general public like Plantation Labour Act 1951, this was
amended in 2010 and rules there under The Beedi Cigar Workers that is the condition of
employment Act 1966, which was amended in 1993.
The Shops and Commercial Establishment Act, The Explosives Act 1884 amended in 1983,
there was a Petroleum Act which was established in 1934. The Inflammable Substances Act
which was passed by the Parliament in 1952, then there was there is an Insecticides Act, in
1968 it was passed and it was amended in the year 2000.
Apart from this The Oil Field Regulations and Development Act in 1948, The Petroleum and
Natural Gas Regulation Board was established by the act of Parliament in 2006. The
Environmental Protection Act to keep the safeguard of the environment of any industry that
was amended in 1991. The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Act it was amended in
1988, previously it was constituted by the Parliament.
The Water Prevention and Control of Pollution Cess Act 1977 and which was duly amended
in 2003. The Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act in 1981 and it was amended in
1987. The Public Liability Insurance Act because sometimes whenever there is any kind of
incident takes place then definitely they will have a fixation of liabilities and there are so
many insurance companies they are playing in cross-country.
1564
So those who take care of all kinds of compensation so that the economic losses to the either
employer or employee can be minimized, so government of India they constituted Public
Liability Insurance Act 1981, it was amended in 1992. Then in 2010 The National Green
Tribunals Act to safeguard the environment was passed by the Parliament in 2010.
Another is Atomic Energy act 1962 amended in 1987, then Electricity Act which was passed
in 2003 and it was duly amended in 2007 and The Disaster Management Act that was passed
in 2005.
1565
Now, let us have a look about the compensation to employees. Now the compensation aspect
is extremely important because whenever any kind of injury or fatality or any kind of hazard
takes place, then definitely the health aspect, physical fitness aspect or life aspect of any
employee obviously it will be at the stake. So in that particular case to fix the responsibility
of the employer The Workman Compensation Act was passed in 1923, so which was in 2009
amended to The Employees Compensation Act.
Now it provides for the payment by certain class of employers to their employees
compensation for injury by accident, this covers all employees including the contract
workman that meet with an accident or they are affected by any kind of occupational disease,
injury, illness, et cetera. Now the act specifies the compensation payable to the employee for
a type of permanent disablement depended on the salary and the age of the employee, so
there is a factor through which they can decide that how much compensation needs to be paid
for any particular employees in case of any injury or in case of any say fatality or illness, et
cetera.
Now this act also provides compensation to be paid to the dependents of the employee that
meets with the fatal accident and sometimes this is a very usual practice in industrial
establishment. So the act provides for each state government to appoint a commissioner to
decide on any dispute on the amount of compensation being paid by the employer to the
employee. So the state governments they form the redressal aspect by appointing of the
commissioner.
1566
Now, let us have the look about The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Chemical Rule 1989. Now the preamble of this particular act was that in 1980 the growth of
chemical industry was tremendous by the establishment of different refineries, petrochemical
plants, et cetera, so there was a dire need to fix up the rules and regulations to cover all kinds
of hazardous operations including storage of chemicals, et cetera and that was the need of the
time when the Bhopal accident in 1984 took place. So the government of India they framed
the rule to regulate the different operations of hazardous chemicals.
Now this rule was amended in 1994 and 2000 and called as The Manufacture, Storage and
Import of Hazardous Chemical Rule 2000. So the objective of this particular rule is to
provide the procedure and safeguards for handling of any kind of hazardous chemicals at
workplace, maybe industries, storage, pipeline, maybe process, et cetera. And to lay down the
requirements for the industry and authorities to manage the chemical emergency.
Now the previous slides we have discussed that they not only put forward the guidelines, they
not only put forward the regulations, but also gives an idea of the employer so that they can
become safe and they can design their process with respect to the safety operations.
1567
So there are certain provisions made by the government in this particular rule that is the
notification of major accidents that is rule number 5. The occupier shall notify and furnish
report if necessary to the concerned authorities if major accident occurs, because in past
several accident they did occur and the employer or the plant officer they did not report the
proper things to the local authorities or authority. Now another provision is that the
concerned authorities should undertake full analyses of the accident & send requisite
information to the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
Another provision is related to the site notification that is rule number 7 as on date. The
occupier shall not undertake any industrial activity unless he had submitted a written report to
1568
the concerned authority. Now if any chemical is liable to reach the threshold then the activity
should be notified accordingly, so threshold we have already discussed. In case if it reaches
the threshold that means there are certain malfunctioning in the process, so any kind of
runaway, any kind of hazard may take place so it should be notified accordingly to the
authorities.
Another provision is that updating the notification that is rule number 8 that occupier should
notify if any activity is done following changes in the threshold quantity of the hazardous
chemical. So they are attributed to the safety reports and safety audit reports that is rule
number 10, and on-site emergency. So occupier should prepare and keep up to date on-site
emergency plan including all factors such as modification in the industrial process or
industrial activity. So occupier means the owner or the officials of that particular industry.
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Another provision is that they must submit the data to the authority for any kind of off-site
plan, they must disclose all kind of information relevant to the safety of the worker. They
must follow certain rules and regulations as laid down by the government from time to time
under the hazardous chemical import rule.
So any person responsible for importing hazardous chemical in India shall provide at the time
of import or within 30 days from the import that is the name and address of the person
receiving the consignment in India so that they can fix the responsibility, the port of entry in
India because in India we are having several ports, at which port they are going to receive the
material, so that the necessary precautions can be taken place at that particular port.
Now mode transportation from exporting country in India, the quantity of chemicals being
imported, the complete product safety information, so these types of things should be
reported to the concerning authorities. Then there is a thing related to the monitoring and
implementation mechanism.
Now concerned authorities identify their roles and responsibilities defined in various sections
for monitoring and implementation. Now in this particular case, industrial authority need to
prepare the safety report and get safety audit conducted and submit report to the concerned
authorities. And the concerned authorities their responsibility is to review and monitor the
implementation of recommendation of that particular audit. So the authorities related to the
industrial establishment, they need to prepare and submit an on-site emergency plan in case
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of they are dealing with the hazardous substances so in case of any eventuality they must
prepare themselves for any escape or any safety aspect.
The notification of major accidents by the occupier to the concerned authority which after full
analysis and the requisite information by the Ministry of Environment and Forest. Now
concerned authorities will prepare and keep up to date and off-site emergency plan containing
details specified in various schedules and sometimes it may be required to carry out the mock
trial once in a year or by 6 monthly or quarterly, et cetera, that may be decided from time to
time by the concerning authorities.
Now concerned authority shall serve an improvement notice in case of person has entered
into the previous of these rules and requiring that person to remedy for any kind of
contravention. So this type of approach is again essential and this has been laid down in rule
number 19 of this particular act.
Now there are lists of specific chemicals and criteria, so various schedules and different parts
they give the criteria for identifying any kind of toxic, flammable, explosive chemicals and
other parts related to the hazardous chemicals because sometimes several accidents they took
place just because of the involvement of hazardous chemicals like in Bhopal, et cetera.
Now schedule 2 lists 25 chemicals and 5 categories along with the two set of threshold
quantities as qualification for applicability of various rules to isolate storage because
sometimes when we are handling such type of hazardous chemicals then you may need to
isolate them, so this schedule gives an idea about this.
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Now schedule 3 lists 179 chemicals in part 1 and 6 categories along with 2 sets of threshold
quantities as qualification for applicability of various rules to the industrial establishments.
Now these are the stable reflects, different type of parameters of toxic chemicals, now you
can see that the degree of toxicity, then oral toxicity attributed to LD50 in terms of milligram
per kilogram, then dermal toxicity with respect to LD50, then inhalation toxicity with respect
to lethal concentration 50 having the unit of milligram per litre. So extremely toxic, highly
toxic, toxic, so the ranges are given with respect to these toxic chemicals.
Then there are certain guidelines attributed to the flammable chemicals, so flammable gases
which at 20 degree Celsius at standard pressure of 101.3 kilopascals, they are ignitable when
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a mixture of 13 percent or less by volume with air or have a flammable range with air of at
least 12 percent point regardless of the lower flammable limits. Now there are extremely
flammable liquids, the chemicals which have flash point lower than or equal to 23 degree
Celsius and boiling point less than 35 degree Celsius.
There are certain very highly flammable liquids, the chemicals which have flash points lower
than or equal to 23 degree Celsius and initial boiling point higher than 35 degree Celsius.
There are highly flammable liquids, the chemicals or liquid which have a flash point lower
than or equal to 60 degree Celsius but higher than 23 degree Celsius. There are certain
flammable liquids, the liquids those who are having the flashpoint higher than 60 degree
Celsius but lower than 90 degree Celsius, so this is the categorisation of the flammable
chemicals.
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Now there are certain things related to the explosives, we have already discussed the
explosives in the recent module. So explosive means a solid or a liquid or pyrotechnic
substance or a mixture of substances or an article which is in itself capable of by chemical
reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and such a speed as to cause
damage to the surrounding.
One best example is the firecrackers, now which is designed to produce an effect by heat,
light, sound, gas or smoke or a combination of these, as a result of non-detonative self-
sustaining exothermal chemical reaction.
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So, based on the data collected you must prepare the database generation of the report, so you
must list the major accident hazard units. Then the safety reports, safety audit reports, et
cetera, then on-site, off-site emergency plans, list of various hazardous chemicals imported
into the country, the list of major accidents involving those hazardous chemicals, so this
covers the entire database.
Now another rule is the chemical accidents or emergency planning response rules in 1996.
Now the objective of this particular rule is to provide the administrative structure at different
levels, maybe central, maybe state, maybe district or maybe local level for effective planning,
preparedness and response to the chemical accidents. Now the provision of this rule, the
Constitution and Function of Central crisis group, the Constitution of central crisis group alert
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system, the Constitution and function of state crisis group SCG, then the Constitution and
function of district and local crisis group may be DCG and LCG.
Now there are certain list of specific chemicals and criteria. So hazardous chemicals covered
in this rule are, any chemical which satisfy any of the criteria laid down in part 1 of schedule
1 and is listed in part 2 of the schedule. So any chemical which is listed in the column 2 of the
schedule 2 which you can have from this particular rule, any chemical listed in column of
schedule 3, different schedules are given for identifying the toxic flammable and explosive
chemicals and those chemicals are listed in schedule 1 para 1.
Similarly, different categories along with the quantities have been specified in this particular
rule and which are listed in schedule 3, so they have listed almost 179 chemicals with respect
to this listing.
The next aspect once you have enlisted these chemicals and monitoring and implementation
mechanism. So CCG monitors the post-accident situation arising out of major chemical
accidents, conducts the post-accident analysis review, district off-site emergency plan and
review the progress report to state crisis group. Now this state crisis group reviews the off-
site emergency plan in the state, monitors the post-accident situation and review the progress
report being submitted by district crisis group.
Now further, this district crisis group they review the onsite emergency plan prepared by the
industrial employer or occupier, monitor chemical accidents and they conduct the full-scale
mock trial of chemical accidents each year. So this local crisis group because after district
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crisis group the local crisis group comes into the picture. So LCG locates the population
likely to be affected by any chemical accident or any chemical industry proximity and
conduct one full-scale mock trial of chemical accident in every 6 months.
Now preamble of all these rules was The Factories Act 1948, so after independence it was
thought that we will be subjected to the industrial growth and when we are subjected to the
industrial growth then we need to frame several rules which are related to the safety, which
are related to the industrial harmony of any establishment so the government framed they
passed The Factories Act 1948.
Now the salient features we are going to discuss in this particular section, so let us have that
first question that what is Factory Act. Premises where on 10 or more percent are engaged if
power is used or 20 or more persons are engaged if power is not used in a manufacturing
process.
Now because the baseline of all those rules of this 1948 Factories Act, so objective of this
1948 Factories Act was that this act has been enacted primarily with the objective of
protecting workers employed in the factory against industrial and occupational hazard. Now
it directs the owner of the occupier with certain obligations to protect the workers and to
secure them of their employment in conducive to their health and safety.
Now the question arises once you the frame the rule, then where it is applicable? So this act is
applicable to any place wherein the manufacturing process is carried out with or without the
1577
aid of power source, not withstanding that the number of persons employed less than 10 with
the aid of power, and less than 20 working without the aid of power.
Now the person working there in are not employed by the owner thereof, but are working
with the permission or under the agreement with such owner, so it covers the contractual
workers also. So whenever we are talking about any kind of process then question arises that
what is the manufacturing process? So the manufacturing process means any process used for
making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, packaging, oiling, washing, cleaning,
breaking, demolishing or otherwise treating or adopting any article or substance with a view
to its use, sale, transport, delivery or disposal, so you see that there is a wide coverage of all
industrial operations.
It covers the pumping of oil, water, sewage or any other substance or generating,
transforming or transmitting power or composing types of printing, lithography, photogravure
and other similar process or bookbinding, et cetera, so these are the various processes being
enlisted.
Apart from this, the construction process, reconstruction process, repairing, recto fitting,
finishing, breaking et cetera. Preserving or sorting of any articles in the cold storage, et cetera
so they cover the entire manufacturing aspect under this law. There are certain important
features attributed to this in a particular law that is the power to exempt during public
emergency. Now power to exempt any factory or any establishment or a class or a description
of factories from all or any of the provision of this act during the public emergency. The
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notification is issued in the official gadget, the maximum time period for the exemption is 3
months.
Another section deals with the approver licensing registration of different factories, so
making an application to the government or a Chief Inspector along with the duty certified
plan and specifications required by the rules they send to the State government and the Chief
Inspector by a registered post and no orders is communicated to the applicant within 3
months from the date on which it is so sent when the permission due to be granted. If the
application is rejected, then appeal can be made to the government within 30 days from the
date of such rejection. This is extremely important that is the general duties of occupier, so
occupier shall assure the health, safety and welfare of all workers while they are at work in
that industrial establishment.
Now see, if you recall the latest amendment to the different rules, everywhere it is the
responsibility of the occupier to ensure all these aspects which we have discussed in this
particular line. Now every occupier shall prepare a written statement of his general policies
with respect to the health and safety of the workers. Now bring such statements and any
revision thereof to the notice of all the workers, so you cannot amend all those things with
respect to your own interest when you are an occupier. Another is that inspecting staff, the
State government may appoint any authority may be the chief inspector, maybe the additional
Chief Inspector, joint chief inspector, deputy chief inspector, et cetera.
Now they will prescribe their duties and qualifications and every district registration, be an
inspector for his district, every inspector is deemed to be a public servant within the meaning
of the Indian panel code.
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There are certain powers they were attributed to inspectors like enter the factory premises for
investigation, they can examine the premises. They can enquire into any accidents or
dangerous occurrence. Require the production of any register, record or any other document
they can seize or copy it, they can take the measurements and the photographs so they have
you can say N number of powers for safeguard of the employees.
Another feature was attributed to that particular rule was the disposal of waste and effluents.
Now there should be a proper arrangement of disposal of waste and effluents, now every
organization should follow the rules imposed by state government and central government
from time to time, so this is mandatory for the occupier. Another thing was attributed to the
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ventilation and temperature, say there must be a proper level of ventilation, temperature and
humidity, and it is the responsibility of the occupier to maintain it. Then they will make a
provision for reducing any kind of excess heat that may be because of the mechanical or
because of the chemical.
Another thing attributed to the dust and fumes, so effective measures should be taken to
prevent the inhalation or accumulation of dust and fumes. Now if any exhaust appliance is
necessary for it, it shall be applied as near as possible to the point of origin of the dust and
fumes or other impurities so we can say that they suggest the guidelines for the safety
designing. There must be certain provisions for the artificial humidification, if humidity is
developed artificially, keep it in limits so that the workers cannot exhaust. The water used for
humidification should be clean so that any kind of contamination to the workers be
prevented.
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Another section deals with the drinking water aspect. So they ensure that there should be
adequate supply of drinking water within the factory premises. Now drinking points to be
marked as drinking water, nowadays the proper pictorial figures they are being used for
marking of such drinking water. Now they should be at least 6 meters away from washroom,
Urinals, latrines, spittoon, et cetera. For workers greater than 250, (cold) cool water facility is
also be implied or implemented within the factory premises.
Then there was a section related to the fencing of machine, so every moving part of a prime
mover and every flywheel connected to a prime mover whether the prime mover or flywheel
is in the engine-house or not. The headrace and the trailrace of every water wheel or water
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turbine, any part of the stock bar which projects beyond the headstock of lathe, and every
dangerous or moving part must be securely fenced and that was being mandatory in this
Factories Act 1948.
Another section dealt with the machine in motion, so examination of machinery in motion
only by specially trained adult male worker wearing tightfitting clothing so that any kind of
hazard may be prevented, so no women or children should be allowed to work that was the
provision being made in that Factories Act 1948.
Another section dealt with the employment of a young person on dangerous machines, so no
young person that is between 14 to 18 years of age should be allowed to work on dangerous
machines. And later on the rule has been made that the young person below the age of 18
should not be employed in any circumstances in any establishment.
1583
And under the section 35 there was a provision for the protection of eyes, so it was
mandatory to provide the goggles if workers have to work on something stretching to the
eyes. There was a section related to the dangerous fumes that prohibited to employ worker in
place where the dangerous gas, fumes is supposed to be present. Then the practicable
measures should be taken for the removal of any kind of gas or fumes that was being
mandatory under section 36.
So in this particular module we have discussed about various laws, rules, regulations being
applicable for various kinds of chemical processes in Indian context and we discussed that
how these rules and regulations they are beneficial not only for the person those who are
working within the establishment or living at the periphery but they also provide a very
guiding tool for proper the designing of any kind of chemical process establishment.
1584
So, in case if you have further queries or reading then you may refer to the references which
are listed in this particular slide, thank you very much.
1585
Lecture 60
Nuclear Disaster-Earthquake
Welcome to this last module of our entire course and earlier we had a discussion about various
man-made disasters or hazards, and sometimes nature too play a very vital role in terms of
different hazards and these hazards are extremely dangerous with respect to either fatality or
injury or sometimes even illness. Now, since all the chemical plants, they are also very much
subjected to these kinds of natural hazards, so we thought that we must have at least one module
related to the natural hazards.
So, welcome to this Earthquake module. In this earthquake, this is one of the most, you can say
dangerous or catastrophic, natural hazard, and this plays a very vital role in terms of number of
fatalities, in terms of injuries, et cetera, so let us have an introduction about this type of hazard.
This is one of the principal natural hazard from which the process plants worldwide are at risk
and in Gujarat various refineries are situated and they are at the risk of this kind of earthquake
hazard.
Although there are certain design implications, there are certain structural aspects being
implemented to prevent damage those may be attributed towards this natural hazard but still
they are at the risk. Now, in India due to its geography and topography, they have a serious
large-scale natural disaster, one of them is the major disaster is earthquake, although the flood,
cyclone, they are also very vital, but this is having the much gravity compared to the others.
Like in Bengal earthquake, about 3 lakh fatalities took place in year 1737, Kangla earthquake
reported about 20,000 fatalities in 1905, Latur earthquake about 7800 fatalities in 2001. So,
you can see that there are large number of fatalities those are attributed to this earthquake apart
from the property damage, apart from the injuries, et cetera. So in Gujarat 2001, about 25,000
fatalities were there, in Kashmir 2005 about 86,000 fatalities were there including Pakistan and
these are some of the major disasters recorded in India.
So, India is having a high risk towards the earthquake, more than 58 percent of India’s land
area comes under the category of moderate to severe seismic hazard. In past, India has
experienced 10 major earthquakes that have resulted in more than 30,000 deaths. So of the
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earthquake prone areas, 12 percent is prone to very severe earthquake, 18 percent to severe
earthquake and 25 percent to the damageable earthquake.
Now, what is earthquake? This is the shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of
energy, and usually associated with the fault or breaking of rocks. Now, continuing adjustment
of position results in after-shocks and it is better to understood that through Elastic Rebound
Theory that explains how energy is stored in rocks.
So rocks bends until the fractural strength of the Rock is reached and rupture occurs, and the
rock quickly rebound to an undeformed shape. So by this movement the energy is released in
terms of waves, they are called the seismic waves and that radiates outwards from the fault, so
this is the reason why earthquake usually takes place.
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So, in the previous slide we had several words, so it is good to have the basic definition of those
words like seismic waves, this is energy moving outwards from the focus of an earth quake.
Focus: the location of initial slip on the fault, where the other quick origins. That is the concept
of epicentre: spot on earth’s surface directly above the focus.
There are various forms of seismic waves, one is the P waves; it is also called the compression
or push-pull waves. It propagates parallel to the direction in which the wave is moving and it
can move through the solid and liquid. There is S-wave that is called the Shear wave, it
propagates perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is moving.
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Another is the surface waves sometimes referred as L waves or long wave, so it moves in a
complex manner with several ups and downs and side to side motion. Now, it pose most of the
damage to the structures and buildings, so while designing any chemical process plant because
sometimes it may happen that if you store any flammable material or any toxic material,
because of the earthquake if that particular material is released to the atmosphere then the
damage or fatalities or injuries may be manifold with respect to the earthquake.
There are certain properties attributed to these seismic waves, like velocity, this is the function
of the physical properties of the rock the wave is travelling through. The velocity increases
with the rock density, velocity changes when passing from one material to another, may be
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increased or decreased. Liquids like S-waves, they do not get transmitted through the liquid
and P-waves they are usually slow down. Now, why this is important? If we know the velocity
of waves, we can infer the type of rock it travels through and it is how we can map the interior
of the Earth so that is why it is extremely important.
Let us have characterisation aspect of earthquake for a particular location, the distance “r” of
epicentre is the epicentral distance and the distance to the focus is the focal distance, so that
𝑅 2 = ℎ2 + 𝑟 2
Where “R” is the focal distance or slant distance, “h” is the distance between the focus and the
epicentre or focal depth and r is the epicentre distance which you have already discussed.
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So, the uses of a modified focal distance defined as
𝑅 2 = ℎ2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑘 2
Where “k” is the modifying factor. Esteva in 1967 has given an estimate of K is equal to 20.
Now, another aspect is the magnitude and the magnitude scale, the symmetry of earthquake is
defined in terms of its magnitude and intensity. The more objective is the magnitude which is
measured by the total energy in the seismic wave. The scale of the representation of the
magnitude of an earthquake was devised by the Richter and magnitude is commonly quoted in
terms of the values on the Richter scale.
The value is the measure of the ratio of the maximum amplitude recorded for earthquake in
question to the maximum amplitude for the standard earthquake with both measurements made
on a standard seismograph located at the standard distance from the earthquake and the
instruments being Wood-Anderson seismograph of defined characteristics, so this is through
which you can measure this magnitude scale.
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The magnitude M of an earthquake may be measured locally in which the case is denoted by
sometimes ML because L stands for local, or the distance point trough the surface waves when
it is denoted by Ms where s is the surface wave. The to differ and in order to overcome this
difficulty Gutenberg introduced the concept of undefined magnitude m or m b, which depends
on the body waves, b stands for body waves.
So, the magnitude quoted in the literature are frequently not fully defined. The relation of
Richter for the magnitude of local earthquake is given by
𝑀𝐿 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝐴/𝐴0 )
Where A is the maximum amplitude in mm and A0 is the maximum amplitude of the standard
earthquake, and ML is the local magnitude under the standard condition described. So, the value
of A0 that is the standard one assigned to the standard earth quake is 0.001 millimetre.
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The Richter scale is the logarithmic one and the earthquake which is one unit higher to the
scale has an amplitude 10 times as great as that below it. So, the Richter magnitude scale is
open ended with no over or upper limit. The scale point 0 is an arbitrary one. So, the number
of equations which has been developed for the surface magnitude MS and the body magnitude
mb, relating these equations or these quantities to the characteristics of the seismographic
record. Sometimes it is necessary to convert one type of magnitude to another, and that too
widely used approximate relations are those given by.
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One is given by Richter in 1958 is this one that is
𝑀𝑆 = 1.59𝑚𝑏 − 3.97
And
𝑚𝑏 = 2.5 + 0.63𝑀𝑆
Now these 2 magnitudes agree at the value of about 6.8, below this m b is larger and above it
Ms is larger. Now, this is a very much guiding factor while designing, layouting any kind of
chemical plant, so that it falls under specific zone then definitely with the help of this particular
equation we can design, so that we can put on more earthquake resistant material design aspect
in that particular layout.
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Now, there is also an empirical equation by Gutenberg prescribed in 1956, this is
𝑚𝑏 = 1.7 + 0.8𝑀𝐿 − 0.01𝑀𝐿2

Let us have a look about the energy aspect because this earthquake is attributed to the energy
aspect, so the relationship between the total seismic wave energy and the surface wave
magnitude was the subject of series of studies by Gutenberg and Richter who produced between
1936 and 1956 and a number of correlations being developed in the due course of time.
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So 1956 Gutenberg-Richter equation for energy quoted by Gutenberg is
𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝐸 = 11.8 + 1.5𝑀𝑆
where E is the total energy.
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So Gutenberg has also given the relationship between the total energy and other magnitude.
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐸 = 9.9 + 1.9𝑀𝐿 − 0.024𝑀𝐿2
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝐸 = 5.8 + 2.4𝑚𝑏
So in this particular equation you can see that there is a relationship between the total energy
and other magnitudes like ML, mb, etc. So an earthquake which is one unit higher on the Richter
magnitude scale has an energy some say 27 times as great as that below it, so you can imagine
the magnitude of energy associated with any kind of earthquake.
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Now, let us have a look about the frequency and return period. So correlation between the
frequency and the magnitude of earthquakes was obtained by Gutenberg and Richter. Now,
this equation is given by the rector in 1958 as
𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝑁 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑀
where “N” is the frequency of earthquakes exceeding that magnitude for a year and a and b
both are constants. So, this equation generally referred as Gutenberg written equation for
frequency. So, various workers have used this Gutenberg-Richter equation to correlate the
frequency of earthquakes for different regions and period.
Another is the relation of Esteva and Rosenblueth in 1964 between the intensity and the local
magnitude of the focal depth and this equation is given by this correlation.
𝐼 = 8.16 + 1.45𝑀𝐿 − 2.46𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ℎ
Now, this relation is given by the Richter in 1958 between the peak ground acceleration and
intensity.
𝐼 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔10𝑎 = −
3 2
So here, a is the ground acceleration, which is having the unit square centimetre per second.
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Now, sometimes measuring earthquake is a bit tricky issue and for this, seismometers and
seismograph both are being used for measuring the earth quake. Now, seismometers these
instruments detects the various seismic waves, whereas the seismograph they records the
intensity, height and amplitude of those seismic waves. So you can see this particular graph
where you can put the seismograph is given, so you can see that intensity, the reason like
Alaska, Golden Colorado, Bogotá so they have recorded different ways, et cetera, so this is the
sample example of seismograph.
Usually, whenever we are involved in measuring of those earthquakes, earthquake is measured

in 2 ways; one is the magnitude with respect to Richter scale. This measures the energy released
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by fault movement related to the maximum amplitude of the S waves measured from the
seismogram. Logarithmic scale, quantitative measurement is also been taken place. So for each
whole numbers there is a 31.5 times increase in the energy. For example, for an increase from
5 to 7 on Richter scale, the increase in energy is given by 31.5 into 31.5 because 5, 6, 7, so it
is 992 times, almost 992 times.
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Second aspect is intensity that is related to the Mercalli scale. Now, it determines the intensity
of waves that we feel, usually assigns an intensity at a particular location. Now, scale one is
when it is not felt to 12 then buildings nearly is destroyed, so hence it measures the destructive
effects of an earthquake. The intensity usually is a function of energy released by fault, geology
of the location, surface substrate, this can magnify the shockwaves, et cetera.
So, let us have a look about the earthquake damage this maybe the ground failure, construction
sometimes it may get collapse. Fire may broke out from the ruptured pipelines may be in terms
of when these pipelines are subjected to the petroleum product pipeline or sometimes gas
pipelines, et cetera, sometimes electricity, etc. so fire may broke up and the results may be
1601
catastrophic. Landslides in the hilly mountain sometimes it may create extremely dangerous
and afterwards of earthquake. The liquefaction, the water saturated, unconsolidated materials
flow, Tsunami that is seismic sea waves which can grow up to 65 to 70 meters in height.
So, let us have a discussion about the earthquake risk and protection. So one is the long-term
method that is related to the prevention aspect, you must have seismic hazard map, you may
divide different types of seismic zones. The probability analysis sometimes is based on the
historical earthquake data, sometimes geographical earthquake records, sometimes slip rates
on active faults, frequency and magnitude of recent earthquake also gives proper information
related to the long-term methodology.
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Another one is the short-term one, they are related to the foreshocks usually increase in
magnitude than the original one sometimes, the ground deformation sometimes, fluctuation in
water well levels, changes in the local radio wave characteristics. Sometimes anomalous animal
behaviour like fly, insects move opposite to the direction of the earthquake, dogs and cats they
create sounds, et cetera, so they can sensitise about different types of waves coming out from
the earth.
Now, why the earthquake prediction? So, an earthquake prediction helps in developing various
decisions like it helps in the evaluation of the property value, sometimes declined value, if your
1603
establishment is in the earthquake free zone then definitely you will see certain appreciation in
the value. Now it helps in the declination of the tax revenue for the earthquake prone areas.
It develops a significant financial changes with reduced availability of insurance, mortgages

and the changes in the mind of investment pattern for definite locations, et cetera. For
earthquake predicted site, temporary or permanent relocation of population may be the possible
depending upon the potency and frequency of this hazard. Sometimes those particular area may
be avoided under the city plan, sometimes work activities disturbed and can be seized which
develops temporary or permanent unemployment for that particular location.
Along with that the level of business activity in those area will also get affected, sometimes
periodic trainings and informative session must be provided in every organisation for
awareness and developing mitigation strategy for such kind of hazards. Now, let us have a look
about the earthquake mitigation. Now most earthquake related injuries, deaths results from
collapsing of walls, flying glasses, falling objects, collapse of any kind of storage activities, et
cetera.
So it is advisable for a person to move a little as possible to reach the place of safety, now pick
a safety place in each room of your house or office or industrial establishment or school, et
cetera. This could be furniture such as study table or a desk or against the interior of wall away
from any kind of window. Now, brace yourself in and inside corner away from window, move
in inner wall or corridor or sometimes door frame of the structural frame or inner core of the
building are its strongest points at least likely to collapse.
So they will also back the impact of any falling object that means you are dissipating the energy
of those falling objects. So in an apartment building, the safest place is by the Central reinforced
core of the building, which is usually located by the elevator wall. You may choose a shelter
which shall provide air space if collapses, if your furniture shelter moves stay under it, follow
it around the apartment.
Sometimes you know watch the following objects like plaster breaks, light fixtures, pots, fans,
et cetera, so usually stay away from the tall shelves, cabinets and other furniture which might
slide or topple over. Stay away from the windows, sliding glass doors, mirrors, etc. Grab
anything handy, don’t be alarmed if the fire alarm or sprinkler go off. If you are outside exterior,
if you are in the moving care, stop smoothly and stay in your car.
1604
Now there are certain earthquake resistant buildings, so buildings are designed to withstand
vertical forces. So if earthquake only moves the ground vertically then the building might suffer
little damage because all structures are designed to withstand vertical forces associated with
the gravity. But the rolling waves of an earthquake exert extreme horizontal forces
understanding structure. Now, sometimes these forces cause lateral acceleration which
scientists measure as G forces.
Now, when the building and the ground shear, the building’s natural frequency, they all said to
be in resonance. Now resonating amplifies the effect of an earthquake and causing building to
suffer more damage so even symmetrical buildings must withstand significant lateral forces.
So engineers counteract these forces in both the horizontal and vertical structure systems of the
building. These diaphragms are the key components of any kind of horizontal structure so this
includes the floors, roofs of level so while designing any kind of establishment you must look
into all this aspect.
Sometimes the cross-bracing, this uses the 2 diagonals if you see in this particular figure, this
cross bracing uses the 2 diagonal members in X-shape like this. This is a popular way to build
wall trusses. Now instead of braced frames or in addition to them, engineers may use the shear
walls, vertical walls that stiffen the structural frame of a building and help resist the rocking
forces.
1605
The shear walls do, however limit the flexibility of the building design. Now, to overcome this
downfall, some designers opt for the moment resisting frames like this. Now in these structures,
the columns and beams are allowed to bend, but the joints or connectors between them are
rigid. So as a result, the whole frame moves in response to a lateral force and it provides an
edifice that is less obstructed internally then the shear wall structure.
Some base isolation are also there, it involves floating a building above its foundation on our
system bearings, springs or padded cylinders, hydraulic movements, et cetera. So, based on
this concept, there is a concept of Active Mass Damping. Now, this increasingly more earth
quake resistant buildings, designers they are installing these damping systems like high-rise
1606
buildings, et cetera. So this Active mass damping, for example, they rely on the heavy mass
mounted on the top of the building and connected to the viscous dampers that act like shock
absorbers like in this.
Now let us have a case study that is the accident took place in Wenchuan earthquake in China
2008. It was the day of May in 2008 2:28 local time. Wenchuan area in Sichuan province that
is the heartland of China there was a major earthquake took place and this earthquake killed
almost 70,000 people, injured about 3.74 lakh and rendered almost 50 lakh homeless. So the
economic loss was attributed to be around 5 million buildings they collapsed while 21 million
buildings suffered damage, about 140 billion US dollars was reported in terms of economic
losses.
1607
Now, the Sichuan province is a major hub of various chemical process industries and especially
for fertiliser industry due to the abundance of phosphate rock in that particular proximity. Now
in 2010, a study was carried out to analyse the effect of this earth quake on industrial facility.
So 18 industrial facilities including the fertiliser, pharmaceutical, cement, oil storage and
chemical process industries have been selected for this one.
So this study was characterised into different parameters, so one is that building and other
structures. So the older facilities having suffered more extensive and more severe damage than
those built more recently according to the latest design code. Sometimes government prefers
to have these type of design codes and they are modified in C2. Now, the significant influence
1608
on the plant is resulting towards that appreciation of the cost of the plant, the main cause of the
workers death and injury was structural damage and collapse of warehouse, office and
manufacturing building.
Now falling debris from collapsing buildings and other structures was the main source of
equipment damage and the loss. Now the loading by the quick forces like soil liquefaction
induced damage was evident in some of the sites. And in one facility numerous silos suffered
heavy damage because of the cracks, because of the soil liquefaction. So stack towers made of
unreinforced bricks typically they suffer the complete collapse or failure of the upper part
where earthquake acceleration was highest.
Another thing related to the pipe and equipment, so much of the loss at the visited chemical
facilities comes from the damage to pipes and equipment. And this was caused by the direct
loading by the earthquake or indirectly by falling debris from the collapsing building. So one
must look into this aspect while designing any kind of piping network in earthquake prone area.
Now debris was the main cause for equipment damage and loss as well as for the pipes severing,
the crushing the buildings housing machineries.
The shaking load also resulted in breaking of flanges connections between the pipe and
equipment. And pipes were also severed, bent or crushed when connected tanks were displaced
or building collapsed and often leaving the disconnected pipes hanging in mid-air, et cetera, so
this again is a very dangerous aspect. The tanks and vessels, they suffer the damage due to
debris, in fact foundation damage or failure or toppling under the influence of earthquake load,
so all the material which was there had come out from those tanks.
They studied about the lifeline, so extensive damage to the outage of the electric power, gas,
water supply system, forcing maybe industrial plants or interrupted production, et cetera. So
the power supply to the most of the affected area was restored within a week of the disaster,
the water distribution network suffered badly from the damage to the tanks, reservoirs,
numerous (())(30:22) in the water pipeline.
It took around 2 weeks or more to re-establish. Now industrial facilities even if undamaged by
the earthquake could only resume operation once the water supply was restored due to the loss
of cooling capacity. So in case if they started immediately then something may be more
catastrophic.
1609
Now let us study about the hazardous material release, so various plants they experienced
ammonia leakage, again it was extremely dangerous. The phosphorus burning was also
reported after the collapse of a chemical factory, now immediate effect was adult material
released is unclear and controversial because sometimes this type of clear data may not be
available because it is very difficult when large number of fatalities are at stake so it is very
unpredictable find out the actual reason of those hazardous material released.
So rivers found polluted with ammonia, sulphuric acid and other chemicals. So and the last of
this particular case study there are a couple of lessons learned like natural disaster can have
devastating impact on the industrial facilities, casualties, environmental losses, economic
losses in addition to the interaction in business. Newer buildings and constructions of
earthquake resistant structures do help in handling of such situations.
Realistic assessment of expected earthquake is the step to mitigate the risk, the collapsed
building and debris resulting are the major reason of casualties, so efforts should be made to
lessen these situations. Now in this aspect one thing we must remember that the man-made
disaster or man-made accidents we can always prevent by proper designing, proper knowledge,
proper technical competency, so you can always either prevent or you can minimise but the
natural disaster or natural cause we cannot prevent it because it is highly unpredictable in
nature, highly uncontrollable.
So this is the thing I mean by this way you can minimise the aspect of danger, you can minimise
the aspect of catastrophe by proper designing by proper lay outing, by proper taking care of all
1610
the aspects. So in this particular aspect we have discussed about the earthquake issues. As a
reference we have taken with respect to the natural hazards or natural calamities which may
pose any chemical plant at the stake.
If you are interested then you can see different references which we have enlisted in this
particular slide. So as we are coming to the end of this particular subject that is Chemical
Process Safety So in the particular subject we have studied all the basic aspects of chemical
process safety, what are the root causes of Chemical Process Safety, what are the different
things which are attributed to safe operation of any chemical plant.
We covered the man-made hazards to the natural hazards, we have gone through different
remedial measures, how to prevent fire, how to the prevent explosion, what are the different
integral part of any kind of toxic logical studies, et cetera. We have covered various numerical
aspects, also we have covered different case studies which are the major hazards or major event
in the chemical safety timeline.
So, I hope that this particular subject is very much informative and we have covered all the
aspects of this particular subject. With this I am summing up, thank you very much for your
patience and thank you very much for your understanding, thanks.
1611
THIS BOOK IS
NOT FOR SALE
NOR COMMERCIAL USE
(044) 2257 5905/08 nptel.ac.in swayam.gov.in

Safety and Accident Loss Statistics Analysis

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INDEX

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Now it is unrealistic to expect elimination of all initiations, it is practically impossible if you

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An incidence rate can also be based on lost workdays.

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Now if you recall, if we have a gas generating system, then

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