Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

Jambaló blueschist and greenschist protoliths in the Central Cordillera of

the Colombian Andes and their tectonic implications for Late Cretaceous
Caribbean-South American interactions
Andres Bustamante a, *, Camilo Bustamante b, Agustín Cardona c, Caetano Juliani d,
Salviano Pereira da Silva a
a
Departamento de Geologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Av. da Arquitetura s/nº, CEP 50740-550, Recife, PE, Brazil
b
Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad EAFIT, Carrera 49 N◦ 7 Sur-50, Medellín, Colombia
c
Departamento de Procesos y Energía, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Carrera 80 # 65-223, Medellín, Colombia
d
Instituto de Geociências, Universidade de São Paulo, Rua do Lago 562, CEP 05508-080, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Whole-rock geochemistry and Nd isotopes were used to constrain the nature of the protoliths and provide clues
Jambaló blueschists on the metamorphic conditions of the Jambaló blueschists in the Central Cordillera (Colombian Andes).
High-pressure metamorphism Blueschist-facies rocks and related greenschists belong to a Cretaceous–Paleocene subduction complex. The
Northern Andes
blueschist occurs as a lens surrounded by greenschist-facies rocks, suggesting that the latter resembles retrograde
Caribbean tectonics
products of high-pressure rocks. The geochemical composition of blueschists and greenschists indicates similar
protoliths, implying that the Jambaló rocks were probably part of a unique and coherent block exposed to
different degrees of retrograde metamorphism. Th/La ratios above 0.19 and 143Nd/144Nd compositions of
0.51272 and 0.51259 indicate subduction zone sedimentary input or some crustal contamination, interpreted as
the interaction of arc-derived sediments with basalts formed in a supra-subduction zone. The Jambaló schists
may represent the youngest exposure of high-pressure metamorphic rocks along the Andes and records of Late
Cretaceous Caribbean and South American convergence.

1. Introduction
The blueschist-facies rocks are one of the significant relics of sub­
duction zones. Their exhumation may reflect serpentinization of the slab
mantle that enhances the mechanical coupling, facilitating the
buoyancy-driven exhumation with associated erosion. Also, they may
document changes in the rate of underthrusting, slab rollback, or very
oblique convergence (Ernst, 1988; Maruyama et al., 1996; Agard et al.,
2009; Guillot et al., 2009).
In several localities where blueschist-facies rocks occur, they are
usually found associated with greenschists-facies rocks, and their
petrogenetic relations were commonly the object of significant discus­
sions (Dungan et al., 1983; Brown, 1986; Oberhänsli, 1986; Bröcker,
1990; Bustamante, 2008; Baziotis et al., 2009). Examples include the
presence of lenticular blueschists within large bodies of
greenschist-facies rocks or as alternating layers. Their association is
related to bulk compositional variations that can represent their
coexistence in the transition zone between both rock facies (Maruyama
et al., 1986; Evans, 1990; Baziotis et al., 2009). In contrast, other
high-pressure terrains spatially related to greenschist-facies rocks are
characterized by medium-to low-pressure metamorphic overprinting
relationships (Yokohama et al., 1986; Bröcker, 1990).
High-pressure metamorphic records in the Northern Andes include
Mesozoic blueschists, eclogites, and amphibolite-facies rocks, which
appear as discontinuous exposures in Ecuador, Venezuela, and
Colombia. They include the Mesozoic Raspas Metamorphic Complex in
southwestern Ecuador and carry signatures of OIB and mid-ocean ridge
basalt (MORB) (Arculus et al., 1999; Bosch et al., 2002; John et al.,
2010). The Villa de Cura blueschist belt is an E-W trend belt that in­
cludes the Caribbean Mountain system of northern Venezuela, charac­
terized by arc-related protoliths (Smith et al., 1999). Finally, in the
Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes, the high-pressure meta­
morphic records are included as part of the single Arquía Complex
(Feininger, 1980; McCourt and Feininger, 1984; Aspden and McCourt,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: andresbl@aim.com (A. Bustamante).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102977
Received 7 March 2020; Received in revised form 9 September 2020; Accepted 19 October 2020
Available online 12 November 2020
0895-9811/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Andres Bustamante, Journal of South American Earth Sciences, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102977
A. Bustamante et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

1986; Bourgois et al., 1987; Aspden et al., 1995; Maya and González,
1995; Bustamante, 2008), but with at least two different Early and Late
Cretaceous units. The approximately 120-Ma (Ar–Ar in muscovite)
blueschists with features resembling normal mid-ocean ridge basalt
(N-MORB), along with retrograded eclogites of the Barragán region
(Bustamante et al., 2012), may have been formed by the subduction of
the Farallon Plate beneath the northwestern margin of the South
American Plate (Bustamante et al., 2011, 2012; Bustamante and Bus­
tamante, 2019). The second occurrence includes blueschists of approx­
imately 62 Ma (Ar–Ar in paragonite) in the Jambaló region, whose
protolith was formed in a plume-influenced intra-oceanic arc. It records
interactions between the Caribbean oceanic crust and the Northern
Andes (Bustamante and Bustamante, 2019).
Controversy about the origin of protoliths and the meaning of
Jambaló blueschists remains in the incomplete geochemical database
due to the lack of samples available from this locality. One model pro­
poses that both the Jambaló and Barragán high-pressure rocks can be
correlated with those of the Raspas Metamorphic belt in Ecuador (Fei­
ninger, 1982; Villagómez et al., 2011; Spikings et al., 2015, 2019). This
indicates fragments of a contemporaneous metamorphic belt
representing an Early Cretaceous subduction/accretion complex. In
contrast, the Ar–Ar age of approximately 62 Ma in Jambaló blueschists
(Bustamante et al., 2011) and the different supra-subduction settings
(Bustamante and Bustamante, 2019) from geochemical evaluations of
blueschist samples indicate various metamorphic records.
This study introduces the whole-rock geochemistry and petrography
of less-studied greenschist-facies rocks associated with blueschist-facies
rocks in the Jambaló region. These results, together with the blueschist
geochemistry previously studied by Bustamante and Bustamante (2019)
and the Nd isotopes from blueschists, shed light on the nature of pro­
toliths and tectonic implications of the occurrence of the youngest
blueschists in the Andes.
2. Geological setting
The Colombian Andes consists of three mountain ranges or Cordil­
leras, separated by two major rivers (Cauca and Magdalena) that flow
into the Caribbean (Fig. 1). The Western Cordillera is characterized by
Cretaceous allochthonous volcanic and plutonic rocks formed in intra-
oceanic plateau and arc settings (Kerr et al., 1997; Villagómez et al.,

Fig. 1. (A) Metamorphic units of the Central Cordillera of the Colombian Andes were measured according to the methods of Maya and González (1995). Lithological
relationships between high-pressure rocks from the Jambaló region and other metamorphic units were modified from Maya (2001) and Maya and Vásquez (2001).
On the map, the high variability range of the eras is due to the lack of coherent and systematic geochronological data available from the Central Cordillera of
Colombia, (B) Schematic map (right) of the Jambaló region showing geological/structural relationships with other units in the area, after Maya (2001).

2
A. Bustamante et al.
2011). The Central Cordillera, which includes Permo-Triassic syn-tec­
tonic granitoids and amphibolites to the east (Vinasco et al., 2006; Vil­
lagómez et al., 2011), are exposed primarily as roof pendants within
Jurassic batholiths (Cochrane et al., 2014; Bustamante et al., 2016). The
Otú-Pericos Fault separates these rocks from western Triassic to Jurassic
greenschist, amphibolite, and quartzofeldspathic gneiss belts (Restrepo
et al., 2011; Blanco-Quintero et al., 2014; Bustamante et al., 2017).
These are limited to Early to Late Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary rocks
of the Quebradagrande Complex by the San Jerónimo Fault (Toussaint,
1996; Nivia et al., 2006; Villagómez et al., 2011; Cochrane et al., 2014).
The Cretaceous, which mainly consists of amphibolite-facies rocks, are
grouped into the Arquía Complex (Maya and González, 1995). They are
exposed as a series of discontinuous belts in the western flank of the
Central Cordillera, with the Silvia-Pijao Fault limiting them by the Late
Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Quebradagrande Complex
(Fig. 1). The Eastern Cordillera is composed of Precambrian to Paleozoic
amphibolite-facies and plutonic rocks and is covered with thick Paleo­
zoic to Cenozoic sedimentary deposits (Horton et al., 2010; Sarmien­
to-Rojas et al., 2006).
2.1. High-pressure metamorphic rocks in the Central Cordillera of
Colombia
As mentioned earlier, high-pressure metamorphic rocks in the
Arquía Complex are made up of several types of rocks (Fig. 1) such as
amphibolite, garnet amphibolite, greenschist, amphibole schist, and
ultramafic rocks (Maya and González, 1995). They also include
low-grade metamorphic rocks such as quartz-muscovite schist, actinolite
schist, and quartzite (Orrego et al., 1993; Maya and González, 1995).
The age of this complex is still a matter of debate at Early Cretaceous to
Paleogene ages, certainly reflecting the complex sequence of events
experienced by the continental margin during the Cretaceous (Busta­
mante et al., 2011; Bustamante and Bustamante, 2019; Avellaneda-­
Jiménez et al., 2019). These rocks are also mixed with Pre-Cretaceous
metamorphic and igneous remnants (Zapata et al., 2019), which may
represent fragments of the Pre-Cretaceous continental margin forearc
basin basement.
Two well-defined blueschist occurrences have been recognized in the
western part of the Central Cordillera in the Barragán and Jambaló re­
gions (Bustamante et al., 2011, 2012) (Fig. 1). These two occurrences
have proven to be different in age and protolith content. The Barragán
rocks are characterized by epidote-glaucophane and chlorite-lawsonite
schists, exhibiting distinct MORB-type protoliths and metamorphic
Ar–Ar ages obtained from white mica in the associated metapelites of
approximately 120 Ma (Bustamante et al., 2012). On the other hand,
Jambaló blueschists with an Ar–Ar metamorphic age of about 62 Ma
have been interpreted as plume-influenced intra-oceanic arc-like pro­
toliths (Bustamante et al., 2011; Bustamante and Bustamante, 2019).
Fig. 1 shows the geological and stratigraphic relationships of
Jambaló schists. Jambaló blueschists are exposed in structural contacts
with different pelitic and amphibole-bearing schists and granitoids in
the Jurassic to Triassic Cajamarca Complex to the east, as multiple lenses
in a body of elongated greenschist covering an area of approximately 25
km2 (e.g., Bustamante, 2008; Bustamante et al., 2017). To the west, they
are in contact with a variety of volcanic and gabbroic bodies associated
with the Cretaceous Quebradagrande Complex (Maya and González,
1995). However, the complex structural relationships and lack of
geochemical constraints of the latter unit hinder its real characteristics,
as it may also be correlated with other oceanic units formed on its
western margin. In this study, we only focused on greenschists and
blueschists.
2.1.1. The Jambaló schists
Field observations and sampling were performed near the town of
Jambaló. The region includes blueschists with various marbles, meta­
marls, quartzites, keratophyres (albitized dacites), and serpentinites.
3
Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx
These lithologies exist as lenses of several meters in size and are sur­
rounded by a “matrix” of greenschist.
Marbles exist north of Jambaló and are composed of calcite and
possibly aragonite, and to a lesser extent, dolomite. Accessory minerals
are epidote and/or clinozoisite, quartz, talc, apatite, chlorite, opaque
minerals, rutile, and titanite. These rocks are predominantly grano­
blastic with carbonate composition and show lepido-nematoblastic and
nemato-lepidoblastic textures in areas where talc and epidote-
clinozoisite are concentrated.
Metamarls are present near the town of Jambaló and are essentially
composed of epidote and/or clinozoisite (50–63%), carbonates (up to
11%), opaque minerals (up to 20%), amphibole (up to 10%), plagioclase
(10%), chlorite (7%), quartz (3%), pumpellyite (~1–5%), mica (2%),
and zircon (accessory). This lithology has a granofelsic structure and a
granoblastic texture.
Quartzites have limited occurrences north of Jambaló, near the San
Francisco region. Accessory phases are white mica (16–25%) and opa­
que minerals (trace to 4%). They also present traces (~1%) of plagio­
clase, clinozoisite, chlorite, glaucophane, zoisite, stilpnomelane, and
garnet. Texturally, they exhibit mylonitic foliation with lepidoblastic
and lepido-granoblastic habits. Structurally, it is possible to identify a
wide range of foliation (S2) created by the orientation of quartz and
mica. In addition, one can see crenulations (pos-S2) formed primarily by
the orientation of white mica crystals. S1 is identified only in garnets and
exhibits a pattern of quartz inclusions. An opaque mineral with a
different orientation from that observed in S2 and pos-S2.
Keratophyres can only be found near the Toribío area, north of
Jambaló. They are composed of plagioclase An5 (>90%) and traces of
amphibole, stilpnomelane, opaque minerals, chlorite, epidote, and
quartz. Texturally, the rocks exhibit evidence of recrystallization,
plagioclase subgrains, and folded twinning. However, this lithotype
lacks metamorphic foliation.
Serpentinites are always associated with the occurrence of blues­
chists, especially around Jambaló. Accessory phases include opaque
minerals, chlorite, amphibole (possibly actinolite), and olivine and py­
roxene relics, presenting a mesh texture.
3. Analytical methods
3.1. Whole-rock geochemistry
Sample types and mineral contents are presented in Table 1. Based
on the petrographic analysis, ten greenschist and eight blueschist sam­
ples were chosen for whole-rock geochemistry, avoiding veins and
weathered surfaces before crushing with a jaw crusher. We analyzed the
whole-rock geochemistry of 18 representative samples to constrain the
tectonic setting of protoliths. The results are shown in Table 2 and
include whole-rock geochemistry reported for blueschists in Bustamante
and Bustamante (2019) and new geochemical data for greenschists.
Rock powders (90% < 200 mesh) were prepared using a tungsten
carbide ring mill at the Institute of Geosciences, University of São Paulo,
Brazil. The analytical procedure included acid digestion of 0.25 g sam­
ple. Although tungsten carbide is a potential contaminant (Nb and Co),
experiments performed by Johnson et al. (1999) suggest that the extent
of contamination is on the order of magnitude (2%) of the detection
limit (one standard deviation equals 1.0 ppm). As with many other
scientists, Yamasaki (2018) reported that major elemental analysis
showed no evidence of sample contamination using different types of
mills. Trace element analysis was affected by W and Co contamination
from tungsten carbide ring mills, while other trends were easily
discernible.
Samples were analyzed using an Inductively Coupled Plasma-
Emission Spectrometer (ICP-ES) for major elements and an Inductively
Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS) for trace and Rare Earth
Elements (REE) at the Activation Laboratories Ltd. (Actlabs), Ancaster,
Ontario, Canada. The detection limit for SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO,
A. Bustamante et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Na2O, K2O, and P2O5 was 0.01%, MnO and TiO2 was 0.001%, and the

129A
loss on ignition (LOI) was 0.01%. For trace elements, the detection limits
BS

+
+

+
+
+

+
+

+
varied between 0.005 and 10.000 ppm depending on the element
analyzed. The results of the geochemical analysis were processed using
GCDKit4.1 software (Janoušek et al., 2006).
125M
BS

+
+

+
+
+
3.2. Whole-rock Sm and Nd isotopes
125K

Two blueschist and one greenschist samples were analyzed at the

BS

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
Geochronology Laboratory, University of Brasília, Brazil. Sm and Nd
isotopic compositions were analyzed by Thermal Ionization Mass
Spectrometry (TIMS) using a Finnigan MAT 262 mass spectrometer
125I
BS

+
+

+
+

+
+
+

+
+

+
+
(provided with seven collectors) in static mode. Prior to isotopic mass
spectrometer analysis, the chemical extraction of Sm and Nd was con­
ducted using the conventional cation-exchange technique with
124J

approximately 100 mg of the whole-rock powder. A detailed description

BS

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
of the analytical method can be found in Gioia and Pimentel (2000).
124G

3.3. Mineral analysis

BS

+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

X-ray mapping was performed using a CAMECA SX-100 Electron

Microprobe at the Centro de Instrumentación Científica, Universidad de
123A
BS

+
+

+
+

+
+
+
+
+

Granada, Spain. Elemental X-ray maps of Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Fe, K, Mg, Mn,
Na, S, Si, Ti, and Zr were obtained for sample #118 under the following
operating conditions: 15 keV and 300 nA, focused beam, 4–8 μm step
121B

(pixel) size depending on grain size, and 30 ms/pixel count time. Images
BS

+
+

+
+

+
+
+

+
+
+

+
+

were processed using XMapTools software (Lanari et al., 2014, 2019).

128A

4. Results
GS

+
+

4.1. Petrography
127B
GS

Stratigraphic relationships are rarely exposed and faulted contacts

+
+
+
+

+
+

between geological units are common. However, on a regional scale,

blueschists are embedded as lenses in the greenschist-facies matrix.
127A
GS

+
+

4.1.1. Blueschists
Blueschists are fine-to medium-grained rocks characterized by
Rock-forming minerals of the used samples in this study. Greenschist (GS) and blueschist (BS).

124C

metamorphic foliation. The prograde metamorphic mineral assemblage

GS

+
+
+

consists of glaucophane (30–50%) + white mica (including paragonite

and minor phengite) (10–36%) + quartz (5–12%) + epidote/clinozoisite
(1–30%) ± chlorite (1–12%) ± carbonate (up to 3%). Accessory and
121C
GS

retrograded minerals include albite, opaque minerals (including pyrite,

+
+
+
+

+
+

ilmenite, and magnetite), titanite, zircon, garnet, rutile, apatite, and

stilpnomelane. Glaucophane occurs with a partial replacement on the
114
GS

rims of barroisite and actinolite (Fig. 2A), and on the cleavage planes,
+
+
+
+
+
+

fractures, and rims of chlorite (Fig. 2B). Inclusions of epidote and/or

clinozoisite, opaque minerals, zircon, and rarely rutile are present.
110
GS

Although glaucophane orientation defines the main foliation (S2), it also

+
+
+
+

exists in a decussate arrangement (Fig. 2C). White mica also defines the
major foliation (Fig. 2D). Quartz is typically scattered throughout the
107B

sample and occurs as inclusions in carbonates, chlorite, and white mica,

GS

+
+
+
+
+
+

or as a pressure shadow around glaucophane. Epidote and clinozoisite

are also common. They are predominantly xenoblastic, and in some
107A

cases, subidioblastic. Some idoblastic crystals are rarely disseminated

GS

+
+
+
+

+
+

throughout the rock samples. Carbonates exist as xenoblastic grains or as

inclusions in glaucophane. In samples containing garnet, amphiboles are
gulf-shaped, have boundaries of corrosion, and may be associated with
107
GS

+
+

+
+

pressure shadows.

4.1.2. Greenschists
Epidote-clinozoiste

Greenschists are also fine-to medium-grained rocks characterized by

Stilpnomelane
Glaucophane

metamorphic foliation, which are locally folded. They include albite

Pumpellyite
White mica
Amphibole

Magnetite
Rock type

Sample #

(44–68%), chlorite (8–35%), quartz (up to 17%), white mica (2–15%),

Ilmenite
Chlorite

Apatite
Sphene
Calcite
Quartz
Table 1

Garnet
Zoisite

Zircon
Albite

Rutile
Pyrite

opaque minerals (up to 13%), epidote and/or clinozoisite (1–8%),

zoisite (up to 8%), biotite (up to 4%), titanite (1–3%), carbonates (up to

4
 A. Bustamante et al.
Table 2
Major and trace elements of the Jambaló greenschist (GS) and blueschist (BS). *Analyses after Bustamante and Bustamante (2019).
Rock type Unit Symbol Detection Limit Std GS GS GS GS GS GS GS GS GS GS BS* BS* BS* BS* BS* BS* BS* BS*

Sample # W-2a 107 107A 107B 110 114 121C 124C 127A 127B 128A 121B 123A 124G 124J 125I 125K 125M 129A

SiO2 % 0.01 52.58 59.27 49.06 58.12 48.53 55.16 50.94 49.53 48.4 49.77 49.37 51.74 50.42 56.9 52.01 53.28 53.06 56.33 51.42
Al2O3 % 0.01 15.34 15.58 16.55 16.99 16.02 16.48 17.67 15.25 16.94 18.59 16.38 15.59 17.76 15.62 18.06 17.15 19.77 17.77 14.41
Fe2O3 % 0.01 10.72 7.08 11.52 7.78 11.45 9.12 6.96 11.21 11.39 9.43 10.84 9.66 9.75 9.5 8.84 9.12 10.87 8.14 9.53
MnO % 0.001 0.168 0.156 0.18 0.096 0.16 0.174 0.118 0.16 0.16 0.09 0.16 0.441 0.139 0.123 0.145 0.24 0.08 0.103 0.129
MgO % 0.01 6.37 3.18 7.29 3.31 6.65 5.91 6.13 6.8 8.25 5.39 5.33 3.49 3.27 4.02 4.48 5.41 2.59 4.68 5.33
CaO % 0.01 10.92 2.99 6.65 4.7 7 4.6 8.87 7.84 4.31 6.57 7.59 5.76 11.6 2.94 3.48 3.67 1.74 1.64 3.95
Na2O % 0.01 2.22 6.67 3.86 3.56 2.79 1.86 2.33 4.48 2.25 4.85 3.91 4.78 2.62 4.49 5.57 5.07 3.36 5.65 5.18
K2O % 0.01 0.63 1.59 0.51 1.19 2.42 1.36 0.13 0.09 1.76 0.41 0.25 0.31 0.35 0.83 0.69 0.5 2.91 0.65 0.16
TiO2 % 0.001 1.088 1.02 1.196 0.821 1.04 0.778 0.68 1.97 1.3 1.15 2.06 1.428 1.462 1.71 1.478 1.53 2.08 1.167 1.838
P2O5 % 0.01 0.13 0.34 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.16 0.09 0.18 0.15 0.29 0.51 0.29 0.41 0.29 0.23 0.21 0.15 0.13 0.23
LOI % 0.01 – 1.97 3.57 3.52 3.4 4.77 4.69 2.2 4.8 3.2 3.3 6.6 2.58 3.8 4.18 3.5 3.2 3.74 7.84
Total % 0.01 – 99.85 100.5 100.2 99.65 100.4 98.61 99.76 99.69 99.72 99.69 100.1 100.4 100.2 99.15 99.74 99.78 99.99 100
CaO/Na2O – – – 0.45 1.72 1.32 2.51 2.47 3.81 1.75 1.92 1.35 1.94 1.21 4.43 0.65 0.62 0.72 0.52 0.29 0.76
CaO/Fe2O3 – – – 0.42 0.58 0.60 0.61 0.50 1.27 0.70 0.38 0.70 0.70 0.60 1.19 0.31 0.39 0.40 0.16 0.20 0.41
Sc ppm 1 36 15 41 27 36 34 33 40 33 26 34 29 20 27 25 30 31 28 37
V ppm 5 276 107 384 239 315 315 184 282 298 268 262 214 184 238 185 252 170 194 278
Co ppm 1 42 21 29 26 51.3 22 32 34.6 34.5 45.5 27 33 36 32 51 34.4 39.5 34 35
Ni ppm 20 70 20 30 – 57 – 70 143.3 41.3 49.2 59.3 30 70 – 30 59.7 3.5 30 30
Cu ppm 10 100 60 70 40 21.5 50 20 2.8 40.6 42.9 7.5 – 50 – – 3.3 1.1 50 30
Zn ppm 30 90 70 100 70 39 160 50 37 48 58 96 70 80 130 130 125 41 110 130
Ga ppm 1 18 15 19 18 12.5 21 13 17.2 16.1 18.4 23.9 17 25 20 22 18 24.7 19 20
5

Rb ppm 1 20 26 9 21 46.5 18 2 0.6 16.6 5.3 5.9 5 6 20 16 11.1 91.1 14 3

Sr ppm 2 194 57 249 324 147.5 414 151 142.8 196.4 266.9 381.4 166 574 68 80 113.2 69.5 83 163
Y ppm 0.5 22.2 42.4 18.6 18.7 17.8 20.1 13.8 36.2 24 23.7 50.2 33 23.5 35.8 48.6 39.7 32.7 23.8 38.4
Zr ppm 4 91 164 54 78 33.9 67 38 129.3 64.4 64.4 308.7 126 224 186 264 139 230.2 147 175
Nb ppm 0.2 6.2 5.6 2 2.8 1.5 2.4 1.6 6.9 2.7 2.8 27 5.3 15.4 7.2 9.5 6.2 9.1 4.9 7.7
Cs ppm 0.1 0.9 3 0.6 1.1 1 0.3 – – 0.8 0.3 0.3 1.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 1.2 0.5 0.3
Ba ppm 3 176 988 458 921 1040 440 154 20 369 382 174 66 71 119 108 222 259 191 25
La ppm 0.05 11.1 16.8 6.29 10.5 4.2 12.9 3.59 5.6 6.5 7.4 22.4 10.4 22.3 15.6 14.8 11.5 17.4 12.4 9.22
Ce ppm 0.05 24.1 39 14.3 22.5 10.8 26.8 8.99 16.9 16.2 18.5 52.2 25.9 46.6 35.4 40.4 24.2 36.6 28.1 24
Pr ppm 0.01 – 5.45 2.12 2.9 1.71 3.42 1.24 2.66 2.51 2.74 6.98 3.62 5.86 4.71 5.65 3.81 4.52 3.36 3.38
Nd ppm 0.05 12.8 25.1 10.4 13.1 8.8 14.5 6.09 14.2 12.3 13.6 33 17.5 24.4 20.4 24.3 17.8 19.8 14.2 16.2
Sm ppm 0.01 3.2 6.42 2.71 3.19 2.5 3.3 1.72 4.25 3.23 3.47 7.62 4.59 5.31 5.02 6.04 4.52 4.42 3.51 4.74
Eu ppm 0.005 1.18 2.15 1.13 1.13 0.99 1.21 0.817 1.55 1.33 1.21 2.55 1.83 1.98 1.7 1.95 1.53 1.07 1.18 1.58

Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Gd ppm 0.01 – 6.82 2.96 3.14 3.07 3.28 2.05 5.65 3.95 4.02 8.79 5.27 5.17 5.45 6.76 5.61 4.88 3.81 5.32
Tb ppm 0.01 0.66 1.18 0.53 0.55 0.53 0.56 0.39 1.02 0.69 0.71 1.5 0.94 0.84 0.99 1.27 1.02 0.91 0.71 1.02
Dy ppm 0.01 4 7.34 3.25 3.4 3.09 3.41 2.38 6.05 4.08 3.97 8.53 5.92 4.74 6.23 8.01 6.19 5.48 4.55 6.74
Ho ppm 0.01 0.77 1.48 0.65 0.68 0.66 0.71 0.48 1.32 0.85 0.83 1.8 1.18 0.86 1.28 1.63 1.31 1.16 0.89 1.4
Er ppm 0.01 2.27 4.36 1.86 2.06 1.86 2.15 1.41 3.94 2.4 2.49 5.31 3.51 2.35 3.74 4.88 3.96 3.58 2.66 4.16
Tm ppm 0.005 0.331 0.659 0.269 0.331 0.28 0.329 0.207 0.56 0.36 0.36 0.78 0.532 0.327 0.542 0.721 0.55 0.55 0.396 0.631
Yb ppm 0.01 2.1 4.27 1.66 2.38 1.6 2.15 1.33 3.46 2.17 2.17 4.73 3.45 2.03 3.48 4.53 3.33 3.52 2.55 4.14
Lu ppm 0.002 0.317 0.689 0.247 0.397 0.26 0.316 0.197 0.55 0.33 0.33 0.73 0.516 0.29 0.55 0.683 0.52 0.57 0.377 0.635
Hf ppm 0.1 2.4 4.2 1.6 2.2 1.2 1.9 1.1 3.7 2.1 1.9 7.6 3.3 4.9 4.5 6.4 3.9 6.6 3.7 4.3
Ta ppm 0.01 0.52 0.56 0.35 0.88 0.3 0.72 0.67 0.5 0.2 0.6 2.1 1.12 2.21 1.46 1.39 0.6 1.2 1.01 1.29
W ppm 0.5 <0.5 76.5 71.8 228 84.3 189 219 0.6 – 169.7 47.2 258 333 322 230 107.4 220.1 171 107
Th ppm 0.05 2.07 2.79 0.93 1.83 0.3 2.09 0.28 0.4 1.2 0.9 2 1 1.48 3.64 3.74 1.7 5.1 3.09 1.2
U ppm 0.01 0.49 1.38 0.36 0.81 0.2 0.79 0.13 – 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.39 0.34 0.93 1.38 0.6 1.1 0.75 0.52
A. Bustamante et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 2. Petrographic characteristics of the Jambaló region samples: (A) barroisite (Brs) and actinolite (Act) replacing glaucophane (Gln) rims in blueschists, (B)
blueschist with glaucophane (Gln) crystals replaced by chlorite (Chl) in fractures and rims, (C) decussate arrangement of glaucophane at the macroscopic scale, (D)
white mica displaying main foliations of S1 and S2. This image corresponds to an EMPA X-ray map and shows mineral mask contents in a blueschist sample, (E)
presence of glaucophane relicts in a greenschist-facies association. The red line indicates blueschist (BS) to greenschist (GS) facies transition, (F) greenschist
exhibiting metamorphic association between chlorite (Chl) and plagioclase (Pl) with glaucophane (Gln) relicts, (G) greenschist displaying inclusions of opaque
minerals in plagioclase, and (H) pseudomorphic chlorite after garnet in a greenschist-facies association. Photomicrographs were obtained with plane polarized light.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

6
A. Bustamante et al.
3%), actinolite (up to 3%), and apatite and zircon as accessory phases. A
remarkable feature of these rocks is the presence of glaucophane relics
replaced by chlorite and light green calcic amphibole. Albite crystals are
associated with chlorite (Fig. 2E) and opaque mineral inclusions,
epidote (Fig. 2F), and occasionally quartz and white mica. The albite
grains are deformed, indicating that the deformation is post-S1 or syn-S2
(Fig. 2F). Pseudomorphic chlorite is also found after garnet. The opaque
mineral inclusions observed in chlorite show continuity with plagioclase
inclusions. Quartz is concentrated in thin bands or lenses, oriented
parallel to the foliation, exhibiting strong undulatory extinction. Para­
gonite is also detected in the petrographic analysis. It is found in small
quantities, generally hosts small grains, and sometimes grows with
chlorite. Some grains are lightly folded and are accompanied by S2
foliation. Epidote and/or clinozoisite also follow the rock foliation.
Zoisite is observed in limited quantities and is always found as inclusion
in plagioclase. Actinolite is prismatic and acicular-shaped.
Texturally, greenschists are well foliated with superimposed de­
formations, resulting in the undulatory extinction of amphiboles. There
are randomly distributed glaucophane crystals, some of which exhibit
asymmetric pressure shadows.
4.2. Whole-rock geochemistry and Nd isotopes
The blueschist- (8 samples) and greenschist- (10 samples) facies
rocks in the Jambaló region have a mafic to intermediate composition.
The ranges of MgO, SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and TiO2 are 2.59–8.25,
Fig. 3. Nb vs. Hf (A), Sm (B), La (C), and Yb (D) diagrams showing different distribution patterns and evidencing the unaffected character of protoliths in blueschist-
and greenschist-facies rocks.
7
Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx
48.40–59.27, 14.41–19.77, 1.74–11.60, and 0.68–2.08 wt%, respec­
tively. During prograde and retrograde metamorphism, major elements
have the property of mobility, causing problems when the protolith
needs to be restrained (Rollinson, 1993). This may be reflected in weak
correlations observed in the MgO vs. CaO, MnO, and TiO2 variation
diagrams (not shown). Therefore, instead, trace elements were used for
comparison and classification. Good positive correlations were observed
when comparing Nb and immobile elements with Hf, Sm, La, and Yb
(Fig. 3). This means that these elements were unaffected by the alter­
ation, despite the LOI values of 3.54 and 4.43 wt% recorded for
greenschists and blueschists, respectively.
The Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti diagrams of Winchester and Floyd (1977) and
those modified by Pearce (1996) use immobile elements, showing a
basaltic to basaltic andesite composition for greenschists and blueschists
with a sub-alkaline affinity (Fig. 4).
The chondrite-normalized REE patterns of blueschists and greens­
chists show a slight enrichment of light REEs (LREEs) when compared to
heavy REEs (HREEs) (Fig. 5), as reflected in the (La/Yb)N values of
1.08–4.00 (2.42 on average) for greenschists and 1.48–3.30 (3.12 on
average) for blueschists, although one value reaches 7.32. These (La/
Yb)N values indicate that blueschists are slightly richer in LREEs than
greenschists. The Eu anomaly is zero to slightly positive for greenschists
(Eu/Eu* from 1.0 to 1.3) and zero to slightly negative for blueschists
(Eu/Eu* from 0.7 to 1.2). Within the MORB-normalized trace element
variation plots (Pearce, 1983), both blueschist- and greenschist-facies
samples were characterized by negative Nb and Ti anomalies. Also, Ti,
A. Bustamante et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 4. (A) Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti diagram of Winchester and Floyd (1977), modified by Pearce (1996), using immobile elements and showing basaltic to basaltic andesite
composition for greenschists and blueschists, with sub-alkaline affinity in the Jambaló region, (B) comparison of Nd isotope data from Western Colombia with the Nd
isotopic composition of Jambaló blueschists. Triangles correspond to Jambaló analyzed samples, and black circles correspond to samples plotted in Kerr et al. (1997).
Pentagons correspond to the Cretaceous igneous rocks from the Central Cordillera (Zapata et al., 2019), (C) TiO2/Yb vs. Nb/Yb diagram showing that most of the
samples indicate a MORB array, whereas in the Th/Yb vs. Nb/Yb diagram (D) the analysis features a relative enrichment in N-MORB signatures approaching the arc
trend that corroborates arc-related signatures. Diagrams C and D after Pearce (2008).

Y, and Yb of greenschist (mainly) and some blueschist samples plot
below the MORB normalizing factor (Fig. 5). Depletion of High Field
Strength Elements (HFSE) is also found in both greenschists and blues­
chists (Fig. 5). Initial 143Nd/144Nd and εNd values were calculated based
on 62 Ma, the age at which white mica recrystallized or re-equilibrated.
However, the εNd unit remained unchanged. The initial values for εNd
of 0.31 and 3.04 and 143Nd/144Nd 0.512794 and 0.512654values of the
two blueschists were weakly radiogenic. These values are lower than in
the MORB-depleted mantle reservoirs (e.g., Faure, 2001; Dickin, 2005).
By comparison, Nd isotope data of western Colombia, including Creta­
ceous rocks of the Quebradgrande Complex (Zapata et al., 2019), Nd
isotope data of the Caribbean-Colombian Plateau (Kerr et al., 1997), and
Nd isotopic composition of Jambaló blueschists are markedly different
and characterized by low values (Fig. 4).
5. Discussion
5.1. Supra-subduction components in Jambaló protoliths
From the Nb/Y vs. Zr/Ti classification diagram (Fig. 4), it is clear that
the Jambaló blueschists and greenschists have mafic to intermediate
protoliths, and various evidences suggest that these rocks are basaltic to
basaltic andesite protoliths (Fig. 4). In the field, blueschists appear as
lenses embedded in greenschists. In contrast, petrography suggests that
greenschists seem to be associated with the retrogression of blueschists,
as evidenced by relics of glaucophane replaced by chlorite and light
green calcic amphiboles. From a geochemical point of view, greenschists
are generally characterized by higher CaO/Na2O and CaO/Fe2O3 ratios
lower total iron content (here considered as Fe2O3) than blueschists
(Dungan et al., 1983). This is consistent with the Jambaló region results,
with CaO/Na2O values (Table 2) ranging from 1.32 to 3.81 for greens­
chists and 0.29 to 1.21 for blueschists. Linear arrays shown in trace
element variation diagrams (Fig. 5) suggest that andesites to basalts,
defined as protoliths, are consanguineous and can be associated with a
similar trend of fractional crystallization. Therefore, it can be suggested
that the Jambaló blueschists and greenschists are part of a coherent
block that underwent similar metamorphic pathways with different
pressure and temperature intensities. Variations in the chemical
composition of protoliths may have played a significant role in the
preservation of blueschists vs. greenschists (Dungan et al., 1983; Bar­
rientos and Selverstone, 1993; Baziotis et al., 2009).
Bustamante and Bustamante (2019) have recently proposed that
different exposures of HP-LT rocks from the Central Cordillera of
Colombia may have different protoliths, and the timing of

8
A. Bustamante et al.
Fig. 5. (A) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of blueschists and greenschists
showing slight enrichment in light REEs (LREEs) compared to heavy REEs
(HREEs). Values are similar to a typical N-MORB, but some variances are
observed in light REE (LREE) values. Ocean Island Basalt (OIB) and N-MORB
data are after Sun and McDonough (1989), modified from Bustamante and
Bustamante (2019), and (B) trace element variation plots normalized to
N-MORB (Sun and McDonough, 1989). Both blueschist- and greenschist-facies
samples are characterized by negative Nb, Zr, Hf, Ti, and Ta anomalies,
modified from Bustamante and Bustamante (2019).
metamorphism includes Early and Late Cretaceous events, as evidenced
by the difference in 40Ar–39Ar metamorphic ages (Bustamante et al.,
2011, 2012). The relatively enriched LREE ratios ([La/Yb]N ~3 on
average) and the fact that most samples plot above the MORB array
(Fig. 4) in the TiO2/Yb vs. Ta/Yb plot of Pearce (2008), the presence of
Ta, Nb, and Ti negative anomalies (Fig. 4), and the relative enrichment
of Jambaló rocks, when compared to NMORB in the Nb/Yb vs. Th/Yb
relationships after Pearce (2008) (Fig. 4), suggest that the Jambaló
schists may have protoliths of supra-subduction zone (SSZ) origin. The
Jambaló blueschists and greenschists, shown in the Th-Hf-Nb diagram of
Wood (1980), suggest an initial subtle increase in Hf content and a clear
enrichment in Th (Fig. 6), which are characteristic of SSZ basalts.
Sediment involvement during magma formation can be traced by
Th/La ratios higher than 0.2, indicating terrigenous deposits (Plank,
2005). Hence, the subduction zone sedimentary input is also indicated
by the Th/La ratios greater than 0.19 found in most samples. Besides, the
Nd isotopic composition (Table 3) also shows some degree of crustal
contamination, which can be interpreted as an interaction between
arc-derived sediments and basalts formed in the SSZ. This setting con­
trasts with earlier models that proposed an Early Cretaceous MORB-like
setting for the origin of protoliths and high-pressure metamorphism
during the convergence of the Farallon plate with NW South America
(Spikings et al., 2015, 2019), which involves upper plate subduction
erosion during convergence.
5.2. Regional tectonic implications
Several tectonic models of the Early Cretaceous tectonic evolution of
the Northern Andes suggest that protoliths and metamorphism of the
9
Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 6. Th-Hf-Nb diagram after Wood (1980), comparing Jambaló blueschists
and greenschists with metamorphic rocks from several Northern Andes units
and the volcano-sedimentary Quebradagrande Complex. The arrow shows the
SSZ mantle enrichment trend of the Jambaló rocks. Diagram according to
Pearce et al. (1984).
Jambaló rocks are part of a segmented belt that includes other occur­
rences of HP-LT rocks such as Barragán eclogites, which also includes
amphibolite-facies rocks forming the Arquía Complex along the Central
Cordillera. They extend from Southern Ecuador to the Raspas Complex
(Spikings et al., 2015, 2019), with Lu–Hf ages of 133.4 ± 2.1 Ma and
126.4 ± 4.0 Ma reported for eclogites and blueschists, respectively
(John et al., 2010). These authors suggest that the protoliths of this belt
have MORB-related characters and represent a subduction channel that
records the Early Cretaceous convergence in the northwestern margin of
South America. However, Ar–Ar geochronological data for phengite and
paragonite from the Jambaló schist, published in Bustamante et al.
(2011), yield metamorphic ages of 67–60 Ma, suggesting the existence
of younger Late Cretaceous metamorphic belts associated with different
tectonic scenarios (Fig. 7).
Geochemical results presented in this contribution suggest that
protoliths from the Jambaló schists were formed in an arc-related
environment (Fig. 7). Both intra-oceanic and continental arcs are rich
in LILE and LREE and depleted in HREE and Ti compared to MORB
(Kelemen et al., 2014). However, intra-oceanic arc lavas have high
Th/La ratios (Plank, 2005; Kelemen et al., 2014), and in contrast to La,
the concentrations of Ta and Nb tend to be equal to or below MORBs
(Kelemen et al., 2014). Conversely, continental arc lavas display higher
Nb, La, and Ta concentrations than MORB (Kelemen et al., 2014). Th/La
higher than 0.19, and Ta values (0.2–2.2 ppm) are similar to most ocean
arcs (Kelemen et al., 2014). For normal arcs with melting above 15%,
the Zr/Nb ratio is a valuable tracer for mantle sources. Specifically, it has
been found that plume-influenced arc rocks generally have Zr/Nb ratios
of less than 32 when compared to the higher values of normal MORB
modified arcs (reviews in Neill et al., 2011).
Bustamante and Bustamante (2019) proposed that the arc signature
was modified after the mantle plume volcanism based on the blueschist
geochemistry. We suggest that this interpretation may apply to both
blueschists and greenschists and indicate that the arc signature may be
more similar to an intra-oceanic than a continental-like setting such as
Quebradagrande (Fig. 7; Jaramillo et al., 2017). Hence, this arc was built
over an old Cretaceous plateau that comprises the Caribbean plate. It is
believed that it was formed in the Southwestern Pacific as an oceanic
plateau that evolved toward an intra-oceanic arc in the Early to Late
A. Bustamante et al.
Table 3
Sm–Nd isotope data from the Jambaló rocks.
147
Sample # Sm(ppm) Nd(ppm) Sm/144Nd
121B 4.449 16.762 0.1605
121C 2.691 9.228 0.1763
123A 5.703 26.111 0.1321
Cretaceous. During the Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene, it collided with
the South American margin, causing the onset of the Andean orogeny
(Fig. 7) (Kerr et al., 1997; Luzieux et al., 2006; Pindell and Kennan,
2009; Villagómez et al., 2011; Hincapié-Gómez et al., 2018).
In the Cauca Valley and the Western Cordillera, right west of the
Jambaló schists, outcrops of Cretaceous basalts, believed to be remnants
of the Caribbean plate (Kerr et al., 1997), are intruded by intermediate
granitoids with arc signature and an approximate crystallization age of
90 Ma (Villagómez et al., 2011). These rocks, along with other plutonic
bodies in the Western Cordillera, are considered part of an oceanic arc
(Villagómez et al., 2011; Weber et al., 2015; Zapata-Villada et al., 2017)
with an approximate age of 86 Ma in the southern position (Hinca­
pié-Gómez et al., 2018). Protoliths from the Jambaló schists were
probably formed in this magmatic arc (Fig. 7) and were incorporated
into the subduction channel as coherent fragments of a wide upper plate
(Keppie et al., 2009). They underwent high-pressure metamorphism
during the subduction, probably exhuming at about 67 Ma.
Our Nd isotopes, though still limited, also indicate less radiogenic
character when compared to other Cretaceous Caribbean arcs (Fig. 4;
Hastie et al., 2009; Neill et al., 2011). This may be paradoxical in the
proposed intra-oceanic arc model. However, this signature may reflect
the input of continental sediments into the trench as the intra-oceanic
arc was approaching the South American margin (Elburg et al., 2005;
Bouilhol et al., 2013). This is opposed to the more juvenile character of
pure intra-oceanic arcs that grow far away from the continent (Stern,
10
Journal of South American Earth Sciences xxx (xxxx) xxx
143
Nd/144Nd εNd (0) εNd (62Ma) 143
Nd/144Nd (62)
0.512794 3.04 3.33 0.512721
0.512794 3.04 3.20 0.512374
0.512654 0.31 0.82 0.512594
Fig. 7. Cartoon (not to scale) of the suggested model
for the generation of high-pressure metamorphic
rocks at Jambaló. The figure shows rocks in the
Jambaló region at two different stages: before the
Caribbean Plateau collision (~100–70 Ma), repre­
senting the generation and exhumation of blueschist-
facies rocks and after the Caribbean Plateau collision
(~70–60 Ma), displaying the retrograde metamorphic
event in greenschist facies and the preservation of
blueschist lenses. The figure also indicates the rela­
tionship between oblique convergence and the exhu­
mation of high-pressure metamorphic units in
Jambaló. The Caribbean Plateau subducts beneath
the western margin of Colombia, forming Jambaló
rocks, with continued oblique convergence (After
Bustamante and Bustamante, 2019).
2010). Another interpretation of the isotope signature is that protoliths
and metamorphism took place at the margin of the continent, not in the
oceanic realm, in which the old basement and sediments contributed to
magma genesis. However, such an environment does not clearly explain
the mentioned Zr/Nb values and the minor enrichment of LREE.
Therefore, the metamorphic record of the Jambaló schists, including
its protoliths, documents the approach of the Caribbean intra-oceanic
arc to the continental margin. Its magmatic history may be modified
as South American sediments enter the oceanic trench. It also documents
metamorphism during subduction and retrogression due to the final
collision from the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene. In order to test this
model and evaluate the complex structural mixing of volcanic, meta­
morphic, and igneous units, additional structural, geochronological, and
geochemical data are necessary for other volcanic and metamorphic
units that outcrop in this region. Such units characterize the region,
reflecting the Late Cretaceous Caribbean-South American arc-
continental collision and subsequent marginal strike-slip segmentation.
6. Conclusions
Compositional and temporal constraints of the Jambaló schists sug­
gest that their protolith and metamorphic evolution are independent of
other Early Cretaceous high-pressure metamorphic rocks exposed in
Southern Ecuador (Raspas Complex) and the Barragán region of the
Colombian Central Cordillera. This suggests that exposed metamorphic
A. Bustamante et al.
units in western Colombia have a more extensive Cretaceous tectonic
record than previously estimated.
Whole-rock geochemistry and Nd isotopes from the Late Cretaceous
blueschist- and greenschist-facies rocks of the Colombian Central
Cordillera indicate that these rocks share common basaltic protoliths
that were formed in an arc setting with plume-modified lithosphere.
Unmetamorphosed volcanic and plutonic rock units of this Cretaceous
intra-oceanic arc and associated oceanic plateau are exposed in the
Cauca Valley and the Western Cordillera. This suggests that the Jambaló
schists represent the associated subduction zone records.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Thaís Hyppolito for her major discussions
during the development of this project and Antonio Garcia Casco for
support on EMPA analyses. Ralf Halama, Samuele Papeschi and an
anonymous reviewer are acknowledged by their important comments
and improvements. The authors also thanks to the Colombian Fundación
para la Promoción de la Investigación y la Tecnología (grant 1819) and,
from Brazil, the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo
(FAPESP, grants 2004/10203-7 and 2009/17380-5), and the National
Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq, grant
141946/2005-9) for their financial support.
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