Gen. Maths & Stat

Associate Degree in Education (AD
(ADE)
GENERAL MATHEMATICS
& STATISTICS
CODE No: 6401
01 UNITS
UNITS: 1–9
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
ISLAMABAD
i
(All rights Reserved with the Publisher)
Year of Printing .................... 2015

First Edition .......................... 2015
Quantity ................................ 3000
Printing Coordinator ............. Printing Press Operations Committee
Publisher ............................... Allama Iqbal Open University,
Islamabad
ii
COURSE TEAM
Chairman: Prof. Dr. Tanveer Uz Zaman
Writers: 1. Yasmin Akhtar

2. Ms. Saima Kashif
3. Sher Ahmad Khan
4. Irum Naseer
5. Muhammad Abbas Ali But
6. Arif Naveed
Reviewers: 1. Farkhunda Rasheed Ch.

2. Sher Ahmad Khan
3. Irum Naseer
4. Yasmin AKhtar
5. Muhammad Azeem
6. Dr. Iqbal Shah
7. Dr. Tanveer Afazal
Course Development
Coordinator: Ms. Saima Kashif
Course Coordinator: Farkhunda Rasheed Choudhary
Layout Design &

Composing: Mushtaq Hussain
iii
CONTENTS
Page No.
Unit 1: Arithmetic and Percentages......................................... 01
Unit 2: Sets and Real Numbers ................................................ 47
Unit 3: Matrices and Determinants ………….. ................................ 81
Unit 4: Polynomials ..................................................................143
Unit 5: Geometry ......................................................................217
Unit 6: Trigonometry ...............................................................265
Unit 7: Mensuration .................................................................323
Unit 8: Management of Data ................................................... 379
Unit 9: Interpretation of Data ........................................................427
iv
FOREWORD
Mathematics and Statistics acquire central role in almost all natural and social
sciences. Over the last few years; issues connected with learning and teaching
mathematics have become a matter of the highest importance for everyone
involved in education, training and publishing. It has been taken up at the highest
policy level.
Mathematical competence is necessary for personal fulfillment, active citizenship,

social inclusion and employability in modern society. Similarly, statistics helps in
describing the measurements more precisely. Statistics is branch of applied
mathematics. The large numbers of statistical methods like probability averages,
dispersions, estimation etc are being used in mathematics and different techniques
of pure mathematic like integration, differentiation and algebra are used in
statistics. This course has been designed to practice the skills needed for the
General Mathematics and Statistics.
This course is being offered to the prospective teachers in the program of

Associate degree in Education. It is expected that this course will not only help
the student teachers develop their own knowledge and skills but also enhance
their ability to facilitate learners in future. Teachers must remember that they need
to continue their own learning as the world of knowledge is changing with a faster
pace than any other field of life.
Prof. Shahid Siddiqui

Vice Chancellor
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Allama Iqbal Open University and the author both are grateful to the scholars and
publishers for using/adopting their books, web material and reports as reference materials
for the development of the course of General Mathematics and Statistics.
It may be pointed out for general information of all whose work has been quoted in the
course that Allama Iqbal Open University is a non commercial educational organization
in Pakistan which is providing educational facilities to under-privileged remote rural
areas through distance education mode.
Great stress has been placed in making this course to facilitate prosperous, in-service and
pre-service teachers for Teaching Mathematics. There are many activities included in the
course for the better understanding and engagement of the students. The university and
the department would like gratefully to acknowledge the expertise provided by various
experts in developing and improving the outlines and course books.
The Allama Iqbal University acknowledges the contribution of author and publisher for
the development of this course.
I am also thankful to the Editor Mr. Fazal Karim of Editing Cell for timely editing of all
the units of this course and Mr. Muhhamad Hussain and Mr. Anwar –Ul-Haq of Print
Production Unit (PPU) for efficiently finalizing the composing and designing the process
of this course.
Finally, I am indebted to all staff of Department of Science Education for helping in

correspondence
Prof. Dr. Tanveer-Uz-Zaman

Chairman/Dean
Faculty of Education
vi
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge of mathematics is the need of every person for leading a successful

life. In order to provide best services in the field of mathematics to the students,
teachers with strong mathematics background are required. To fulfill this need a
course of General Mathematics and statistics is introduced at ADE level. It will
provide all necessary information for strengthening the content knowledge
required for teachers to teach at elementary level. The course comprises on nine
units. More over some important topics of statistics are also included to enhance
the statistical knowledge.
Math plays a significant role in our lives. We can thank math for what we know
about the reaches of outer space and the depths of the ocean. We need math to
build skateboard ramps, balance checkbooks, and bake cookies. And those who
take their math studies beyond the basics have a world of great career options
ahead of them. If you enjoy puzzling over math problems and explaining concepts
to others, you might enjoy being a math teacher.
The “General Mathematics and Statistics” course is based on the mathematics

content presented at elementary level. The major purpose of this course is to
enhance knowledge competence of prospective teachers to enable them to teach
mathematics effectively. The course is focused on basic concepts of mathematics
and statistics. The purpose of this course in is to correct their concepts and to
provide opportunities for meaningful learning. Only a teacher having adequate
knowledge and clear concepts can make mathematics lessons interesting and
meaningful for the learners.
This course consists of nine units. Each unit presents specific body of
mathematics content. These units include the information that is important to the
teacher both as citizen in our scientific world and as a leader of children’s
learning in the classroom. The activities are also organized in this course that run
across the content. There are units with activities sharing a common theme.
Unit 1 includes the Arithmetic and Percentages. It focuses on Percentages ,

Unitary Method ,Ratio and Proportion, Compound Proportion ,Profit, Loss,
Markup and Discounts , Calculation of Zakaat and Ushr ,Income Tax ,Conversion
of Currencies, Types of Account ,On-line banking, Types of Finance.
Unit 2 is about the Sets and their types Operations on Sets and Venn diagrams,
Properties of union and intersection, Verification of De Morgan’s laws by using
vii
Venn diagrams, Real Numbers and their properties (Matriculation Level),
Radicals and Radicands, Laws of Exponents and indices.
Unit 3 contains Introduction to matrices, Types of matrices, Inverse of a matrix,

Determinants , System of linear Equations and their solutions and Cramer’s Rule
Unit 4 is about Polynomials. It contains Algebraic Expressions and polynomials,

Operations on Polynomials, Algebraic formulas and their application, Solution of
simultaneous linear equations, Elimination, Solution of quadratic equations and
Nature of roots of quadratic equations.
Unit 5 is about Geometry. It contains basic elements of Geometry such as

Fundamentals of Geometry, Practical Geometry Construction of angles,
Construction of Triangles, Construction of Circles , Characteristics of Circles,
Demonstrative Geometry ,Pythagoras Theorem and Hero’s Formula.
Unit 6 is about Trigonometry. It consists of Fundamentals of trigonometry,

Trigonometric Ratios, Trigonometric Identities and Application of Trigonometry.
The Unit 7 is related to Mensuration. It contains Calculation of Perimeter,

Calculation of Area and Calculation of Volume.
Unit 8 is about Management of Data. It consists of Frequency distribution and its

need , Organization of Data , Tally Sheet Method , Array, Grouped and Un-
grouped data ,Types of frequency Series , Graphic presentation of the frequency
distribution, Histogram and Polygon, Cumulative frequency curve.
The 9th Unit is about Interpretation of Data. It consists of Mean of grouped and
ungrouped data , Median of grouped and ungrouped data, Mode of grouped and
ungrouped data, Quartiles of grouped and ungrouped data, Deciles of grouped and
ungrouped data, Percentiles of grouped and ungrouped data and Measures of
Dispersion (Range, standard Deviation, Variance).
While designing the course, it was made sure to include every important concept
of mathematics to teach mathematics at elementary level. However, the course is
meant to remain open ended. Any suggestions or criticism improvements will be
welcome. There will be a periodic revision for the course and all
suggestions/recommendations and improvements will be incorporated.
Farkhunda Rasheed Choudhary

Course Coordinator
viii
OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE
After completion of this course the trainee teachers will be able to:
 Teach basic concepts of mathematics related to daily life.
 Use the essential tools of basic mathematics.
 Augment their knowledge regarding the application of mathematics in
the field of education.
 Learn basics of statistics related to student’s evaluation and assessment.
 Apply statistical knowledge in their practices.
ix
UNIT––1
ARITHMETIC AND
PERCENTAGES
Written by: Muhammad Abbas Ali But

And Asif Naveed
Reviewer-1-: Ms. Saima Kashif
Reviewer-2: Ms. Farkhunda Rasheed Choudhary
1
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction .........................................................................................................03
Objectives ..........................................................................................................03
1.1 Percentages .............................................................................................04

1.2 Unitary Method ......................................................................................07
1.3 Ratio and Proportion ..............................................................................10
1.4 Compound Proportion.............................................................................18
1.5 Profit, Loss, Mark up and Discount ........................................................22
1.6 Calculation of Zakat and Ushr ................................................................25
1.7 Income Tax .............................................................................................31
1.8 Conversion of Currencies .......................................................................33
1.9 Types of Account ....................................................................................35
1.10 Online Banking .......................................................................................37
1.11 Types of Finance ....................................................................................41
2
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will learn about some important topics e.g. Percentages, unitary
method, ratio and proportion, compound proportion, profit & loss, marked price,
discount, calculation of Zakat and Ushr, income tax, conversion of currencies,
types of account, on line banking and types of finance. There is content
knowledge of these topics with examples of everyday life. All the topics in this
unit are related to our daily life. A common person needs information about these
things. So These concepts are very important in everyday life.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the perspective teachers will be able to:
1. define, understand and use of the following terms.
i. Percentages
ii. Ratio and Proposition
iii. Profit and Loss
2. understand the concept of following terms and computer them.
i. Profit
ii. Loss
iii. Discount
iv. Zakat
v. Ushar
vi. Income tax
3. convert the currency of a country in terms of another.
4. understand the concept of online banking types of bank accounts.
5. know about types of finance. .
3
Percentage:
When a number is expressed as a fraction of 100 i.e, per 100 it is called
percentage. The word “Percentage” is derived from the Latin Word “Per Centum”
mean out of hundred. Its symbol is %. For example, 72% (read as “Seventy Two
72 50 100
Percent”) = , 50% = , 100% =
100 100 100
“Ancient Rome” long before decimal system, computations were often made in
1
fractions as a multiples of . It was a standard of that age. From the late 15th
100
century and in the early 16th century, these computations were included in
Arithmetic to profit and loss, intruest rates etc. till 17th century.
 A percent can also be expressed as a Decimal or a Fraction.
A Half can be written as: 50% (percentage)
4
50
 0.5 (Decima)
100
50 1
 (Fraction)
100 2
 How to calculate Percents?

We can calculate the percents of any number by multiplying the number
with percents.
60
e.g. 60% of 75 Marks = 75 =45 marks
100
 Determining Percentage:
45 is what percent of 75?
45
 100  60 %
75
 Conversion of Percentage to Fraction in the lowest form:
We can express the percentage into fraction in the lowest form.
50 5 1
e.g. 50%   
100 10 2
30 3
30 %  
100 10
 Conversion of Fraction to Percentage:
We can convert fraction to percentage.
e.g.
5
9 9 100 45
    45 %
20 201 100 100
20
2 2  100 40
   40%
5 5  100 100
1
5
Activity No. 1:
A. Express the following percentages, as fraction in the lowest form.
1
(i) 72% (ii) 92% (iii) 15% (iv) 2 %
2
B. Express the following fractions as percentages.
3 2 1 1 3
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
4 3 4 2 8
C. (i) Calculate 25% of 80.
(ii) 15% of 300 students failed. How many students failed?
(iii) If only 25 of the 600 students get “A” grade, what percent of
student got “A” grade?
D. Can you describe the figure in fraction, percentage and decimal?
1
E. I spend of my profit at advertisement. What percent do I use for
4
advertisement?
6
1.2. Unitary Method
This is the method of carrying out a calculation to find the value of a number of
items by first finding the cost of one of them.
It is a technique in Mathematics to solve particular types of problems. Unit
means one, in this method, we first find the value of one. To find the value of one,
when we have the value of many, we divid:
Steps: (i) Find the value of one unit.
(ii) Find the value of required units.
Example No.1: 5 pencils cost Rs. 15. How much does 1 pencil cost?
Solution: Cost of 5 pencils = Rs. 15
15
Cost of 1 pencil = = Rs. 3
5
Example No.2 5 buses carry 300 passengers. How many passengers can 9
buses carry?
Solution: 5 buses carry passenger = 300
300
1 bus carries passengers = = 60
5
9 buses carry passengers = 60 x 9 = 540
Example No.3 I got 686 marks out of 850 marks. What is the percentage
of may marks?
Solution: Marks out of 850 = 686
686
Marks out of 1 =
850
686
Marks out of 100 =  100% = 80.7%
850
Example No.4
5 workers can complete a work in 20 days. In how many days
same work will be completed if 10 workers are employed?
Solution: 5 workers complete the work in days = 20 days

1 worker complete the work in days = 20  5
7
20 5
10 workers complete the work in days = = 10 days
10
Activity 2
(A) If the price of 12 radios is Rs. 3780. Find the price of 30 such radios.
(B) If price of one dozen eggs is Rs. 108, then what will be the price of 200
eggs?
(C) Price of 15m cloth is Rs. 1012.50. What will be the price of 22 m of the
cloth?
(D) 10 men do a piece of work in 30 days. In how many days will 20 men do
this piece of work?
(E) 12 women do a work in 84 days. In how many days, will 14 women do the
same work?
Key Points: (Percentages & Unitary Method)

50
Percentage means per 100 i.e. 50% =
 100
1
Percent =
100
 Percentage can be expressed as a decimal or a fraction.
 In unitary method, first we find out the cost of one item, then we can find
out the cost of a number of items.
 The unitary method is a technique in elementary algebra for solving a

class of problems in variation. It consists of finding one of the variables to
a single unit i.e. 1, and then performing the operation necessary to alter it
to the desired value.
8
Self Assessment Exercise 1:
(i) What is 75% of 75?
(a) 56.25 (b) 55 (c) 50 (d) 60
(ii) Convert 60% to fraction in the lowest form.
6 3 5 60
(a) (b) (c) (d)
10 5 3 100
2
Express as percent.
(iii) 5
(a) 80% (b) 20% (c) 40% (d) 60%
(iv) What percent of Rs. 400 is Rs. 92?
(a) 46% (b) 92% (c) 23% (d) 29%
(v) What is monthly rent of a house if its annual rent is Rs. 204000.
(a) Rs.19000 (b) Rs.18500
(c) Rs.18000 (d) Rs.17000
(vi) What is the price of 28 pencils if the pencil of one dozen pencils is Rs. 60?
(a) Rs.140 (b) Rs.150 (c) Rs.125
(d) Rs.120
(vii) A train covers 550 km distance in 11 hours. In 20 hours, how much
distance will the train cover?
(a) 1100km (b) 1000km
(c) 1050km (d) 1155km
(viii) What is the price of 200 m long wire if the price of 10m long wire is Rs.
60?
(a) Rs.600 (b) Rs.1000 (c) Rs.1200 (d) Rs.2000
(ix) What is the price of 25 machines if the price of 5 machines is Rs. 75000?
(a) Rs.275000 (b) Rs.325000 (c) Rs.250000 (d) Rs.375000
(x) Ali bought 5 cycles for Rs. 2000. What will be the price of 50 cycles?
(a) Rs.20,000 (b) Rs.25000 (c) Rs.20500 (d) Rs.4000
9
1.3 (a) Ratio
Ratio is a comparison between two quantities of the same kind. It has no unit.
So it is a relation between two objects.
A symbol used to represent ratio is colon ( : ) . It can also be written in the form
of fraction.
Suppose a and b are two quantities of the same kind.
Then the ratio between a and b is given as:
A:b or a/b
 The first quantity ‘a’ is called the antecedent and the second quantity ‘b’ is
called the consequent.
a b
 We cannot change the order of ‘a’ and ‘b’ i.e. a:b  b:a or 
b a
 The ratio should be in the lowest form.
 Ratio can be expressed in the form of:
i. 3:4 by using colon ‘:’
3
ii. as a fraction
4
iii. 0.75 as a decimal
iv. 75% as a percentage
v. 3 is to 4 as “is to”form.
 Ratio can also be written for more than two quantities. i.e a:b:c
Examples:
Convert the following ratios in the reduced or lowest form.
2 5 1 1 1
(i) 16 : 20 (ii) 9 : 72 (iii) : (iv) : :
7 9 2 3 4
Solution:
(i) 16 : 20 dividing by 4
16 20
:
4 5
4 : 5
10
(ii) 9 : 72 dividing by 9
9 72
:
9 9
1:8
2 5
(iii) :
7 9
9 : 72 Multiply by LCM i.e 63
2 5
Dividing by 9 63  : 63 
7 9
9 72
: 18:35
9 9
1:8
1 1 1
(iv) : :
2 3 4
Multiple by LCM i.e, 12.
1 1 1
12  : 12  : 12 
2 3 4
6:4:3
11
Activity 3 Fill in the following table
a:b a
b
3:4 3
4
(i) 9:11 ?
(ii) ? 5
6
(iii) 2:9 ?
B. Simplify the following ratios.
3
(i) 25 : 60 (ii) 5: (iii) 2: 0.4 (iv) 50:75:125
5
1 1 1
(v) : : (vi) Rs. 100 : Rs. 500
4 5 8
C. Find the ratio and simplify

(i) 2kg and 400 grams
(ii) 1h and 20 minutes
(iii) One week and 21 days
(iv) 5m and 40cm
D. 200 students appeared in the exam and 50 students failed. What is the ratio
of:
(i) Pass students to fail students
(ii) Fail students to total students.
E. A triangle has angles of Rs. 60o, 30o and 90o. Find the ratio between the
angles of the triangle.
F. A person earns Rs. 60,000 per month while his monthly expenditure is Rs
45000. Find the ratio of :
(i) Income to expenditure
(ii) Income to saving
(iii) Expenditure to saving.
12
1.3 (b) Proportion
The equality of two ratios is termed as Proportion. Its symbol is “::” or “=”.
a c
If a:b= c:d or =
b d
then Proportion is a:b :: c:d or a:b = c:d
Here a and d are extremes while b and c are means of the proportion.
means
Mcons
a : b :: c : d
extremes
Product of means = Product of extremes

bc = ad
Examples:
A. Find the unknown value in the proportion.
Solution:
3: x :: 45 : 15
Product of extremes = product of extremes
x  45  3  15
3  15
x 
45
x 1
So the unknown values is =1
B. Find whether each of the following statements is a proportion or not
2 6 4 20
(i)  (ii) 
3 9 3 80
a c
Solution (i) 
b d
Here a =2 , b=3 , c=6 , d=9
13
if ad = bc
(2)(9) = (3)(6)
18 = 18
2 6
So  is a proportion.
3 9
4 20
Solution (ii) 
3 80
Here a =4 , b=3 , c = 20 , d = 80
if ad = bc
(4)(80) = (3)(20)
320 ≠ 60
4 20
So  is not a proportion.
3 80
We can use cross-products to verify the proportion in this situation.
C. What value of n will make this a proportion?
6 n

15 25
6  25  n  15
6  25
n
15
10 = n
Activities 4 Find the value of x

14 x
(i) 
38 19
(ii) 40:60 :: 20:x
(iii) 15:60::x:2
(iv) x:3 :: 120:30
(v) 2:7 :: x:49
14
Types of Proportion
There are two types of proportions.
(1) Direct Proportion
(2) Inverse Proportion
Direct Proportion
A proportion in which one quantity increases as other quantity increases.
Similarly the decrease in one quantity causes the decrease in other quantity OR
Two quantities a and b , are in direct proportion if by whatever factor “a”
changes “b” changes by the same factor.
To understand the direct proportion, we see the table below.
No. of pens 1 2 3 4 5
Price of pens (Rs.) 10 20 30 40 50
We can observe that price increases in the same proportion as quantity increases.
So we can say that price is directly proportional to the quantity.
Examples: (i) The price of 5 chairs is Rs. 2000. What will be the price of
15 such chairs?
Solution: Let the price of 15 chairs = x
Chairs Price
5 2000
15 x
It is clear that the price of 15 chairs will be more than the price of 5 chairs.
It is direct proportion.
5 : 15 : 2000 : x
Product of extremes = Product of means
5x = 15 x 2000
3
15 2000
x =
1 5
So the price of 15 chairs = x = Rs. 6000
15
Example (ii): A car travels 50 km in 4 liters. How far will it go by 20
liters of petrol.
Solution: Let the car travel in 20 liters = x km
Petrol (liter) distance (km)
4 50
20 x
It is clear that the car will travel more distance in more petrol. So it is
direct proportion.
4 : 20 :: 50:x
4 50

20 x
50 20
x =
4
x = 250 km
So the distance travelled in 20 liters = 250 km.

Inverse Proportion:
A proportion in which one quantity increases by decreasing the other quantity and
first quantity decreases by increasing the second quantity. OR
Two quantities a and b are in inverse proportion if by whatever factor a changes,
b changes by the reciprocal of that factor.
Following table will show the relation of inverse proportion:
Speed 60 120 180 30

(kmh)-1
1 1
Time (h) 1 2
2 3
16
Example (i): 4 men can repair a road in 6 days. In how many days 8 men do the
same job?
Solution: Let the no. of days = x
Men days
4 6
8 x
It is clear that eight men do the same job in less time. So it is inverse
proportion.
4 x

8 6
46
x
8
3=x
So the number of days = 3
Example (ii): 72 persons have enough food for 9 days. After 2 days 12 more
persons joined, for how many days food will be enough for all of
them?
Solution: Let the number of days = x
Men days
72 7
84 x
72 : 84 :: x : 7
72  7  84  x
17
72  7
x
84
6 = x
So the no. of days = 6
Activity 5:
(A) A farmer has enough grains to feed 50 cattle for 12 days. He buys 10 cattle
more. For how many days will the grain last now?
(B) 24 people can construct a house in 15 days. But the owner would like to
finish it in 10 days. How many more workers will be needed.
(C) The price of 50 books is Rs. 2000. What would be the price of 30 such
books?
(D) If 10 cows give 60 liters milk, how much milk wecan get from 15 cows?
1.4 Compound Proportion
The proportion involving two or more quantities is called compound proportion.
OR
The relationship between two or more proportions is called compound proportion.
Example: (1) 195 men working 10 hours a day can finish a job in 20 days. How
many men will be employed to finish the same job in 15 days if
they work 13 hours a day?
Solution: Let the no. of men required = x
inverse
Days Hours Men

inverse
20 10 195
15 13 x
Days & Men (inverse proportion) Hours & (Men in-verse)
proportion).
15 : 20
 :: 195 : x
13 : 10 
Product of extreme values = Product of mean values
18
15  13  x  20  10  195
20  10  195
x
15  13
x= 200 men
So the no. of men needed = 200 Men
Example: (2) A soap factory makes 500 units in 9 days with the help of 25
machines. Five machines became useless, how many units will be
made in 18 days with the help of remaining machines.
Solution: No. of working machines = 25
No. of useless machines = 05
No. of remaining machines 25-05 = 20
Let the no. of units =x
Direct
Machines Days Units
25 9 500
20 18 x
Machines & units (direct proportion) = Days & units (direct Proportion)
25 : 20
 :: 500 : x
9 : 18 
Product of extreme value = Product of mean value
25  9  x  20  18  500
20  18  500
x
25  9
x = 800 units
Activity 6
(A) Five buffaloes give 250 liters of milk in a week. How many liters will 21
buffaloes give in 4 weeks?
(B) A factory produces 12000 plastic bottles by using 3 machines 8 hours a
day. One machine is out of order now. The owner wants to produce 15000
19
plastic bottles. How many hours the remaining machines have to work to
produce the required bottles?
(C) A contractor contract to build a house in 30 days. He employed 10 men to
1
build the house. After 20 days, they completed only of the total work.
3
How many more men will be required to finish the remaining work within
due time?
Key Points: (Ratio and Proportion Compound Proportion)

The comparison of one number to another number is called a ratio. It can
 a
be expressed by colon(:) or by division (÷) i.e. a:b or a ÷ b  
b.
 The first quantity is called antecedent and the second one is called the
consequent. It has no unit.
 The equality of two ratios is called proportion.

i.e., if a : b = c : d
then a : b :: c : d
 ad = bc
i.e, Product of extreme values = Product of mean values.

 There are two kinds of proportion.
(i) Direct Proportion (ii) Inverse Proportion
 Two quantities, A and B, are in direct proportion then if by whatever
factor Achanges, B changes by the same factor.
 The graph of a direct proportion is a straight line.
 Two quantities, A and B, are in inverse proportion them if by whatever
factor A Changes, B changes by the multiplicative inverse, or reciprocal,
of that factor.
 The relationship between two or more proportions is called compound
proportion.
20
(i) The unit of ratio is:

(a) kg (b) sec (c) none (d) m
(ii) The ratio between green and white part of Pakistani Flag is:
(a) 3:1 (b) 2:1 (c) 4:1 (d) 3:2
(iii) A company has 100 employees of which 70 are males and 30 are females.
What is the ratio of Male to Female.
(a) 70:30 (b) 30:70 (c) 100:70 (d) 7:3
(iv) Convert in the lowest form: 15 : 75
(a) 3:25 (b) 1:5 (c) 5:25 (d) 5:1
1 1 1
(v) Convert in the lowest from : : :
3 4 5
(a) 6:5:4 (b) 6:4:3 (c) 12:15:20 (d) 3:4:5
x 12
(vi) Find the value of x. 
5 30
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
(vii) The price of 2 pencils is Rs.10. What will be the price of 15 such pencils?
(a) Rs. 120 (b) Rs.150 (c) Rs.30 (d) Rs.75
(viii) 12 pens cost Rs. 84, find the cost of 36 pens.
(a) Rs.252 (b) Rs.432 (c) Rs.360 (d) Rs.225
(ix) 8 men can dig a trench in 15 hours. How long will 6 men table?
(a) 24 hours (b) 20 hours (c) 10 hours
(d) 12 hours
(x) 24 females complete a job in 20 days working 8 hours a day. In how many
days 10 females will complete the work for 12 hours a day?
(a) 28 days (b) 40 days (c) 32 days
(d) 24 days
21
1.5 Profit
(a) Profit is earned when the sale price of an object is greater than its
cost price. i.e,
Profit = Sale Price – Cost Price
If we denote profit by ‘P’, selling price by ‘SP’ and cost price by CP, then
we can write the above equation as:
P = SP – CP
If we want to calculate the percentage of profit, we can use the following
formulae.
Profit
Profit % =  100
Cost Price
Example: (1) An old car was purchased for Rs. 300,000/= and after two months
it was sold for Rs. 320,000/= Find the profit and profit percentage.
Solution: Cost Price = Rs. 300,000
Sale Price = Rs. 320,000
Profit = Sale Price – Cost Price
= 320,000 – 300,000
Profit = Rs. 20000
Profit
Profit % =  100
Cost Price
20000
=  100
300000
20
Profit% = %  6 .7% 20 %
3
1.5 (b) Loss

There is a loss, if cost price is greater than sale price. i.e,
Loss = Cost Price–Sale Price
Loss = CP–SP
To calculate the percentage of loss, we have the following formulae
22
Loss
Loss% =  100
Cost Price
Example (2): A boy bought a cycle for Rs. 3000 and sold it for Rs. 2700. What
was his loss %?
Solution: Cost Price = Rs. 3000
Sale Price = Rs. 2700
Loss = Cost Price-Sale Price
= 3000-2700
Loss = Rs. 300
Loss
Loss % =  100
Cost Price
300
Loss % =  100
3000
Loss % = 10 %
1.5 (c) Mark Up:
Mark up is difference between the cost of an object and its selling price. A marks
up is added to the cost to get a profit by the producer of the object. i.e
Mark up = Sale Price-Cost Price
Marked Price:
The printed price of an object is called marked price. The price is printed on the
tag or wrapper of the object by the manufacturer.
1.5. (d) Discount:
The difference between the marked price and the sale price is called
discount. i.e,
Discount = Marked Price – Sale Price
23
= MP – SP
We can also calculate discount % as :
Discount
Discount % =  100
Marked Price
Example (1): The marked price of a book is Rs. 1000 and Ali got it in Rs.950.
What discount he got? Also calculate its discount in %.
Solution:
Marked price of a book = Rs. 1000
Sale price of a book = Rs. 950
Discount = Marked Price – Sale Price
= 1000 – 950
= Rs. 50
Discount
Marked Price
50
=  100
1000
Discount % = 5%
Example (2): My friend got a 12 % discount when she bought her new laptop. If
the marked price was Rs. 40000, how much she got discount and
how much she paid for laptop?
Solution: Marked Price = Rs.40000
Discount % = 12 %
Discount = ?
Discount = Marked Price  12 %
12
Discount = 40000  Rs.4800
100
Sale Price = Marked Price – Discount
= 40000 – 4800
= Rs. 35200
So she paid for laptop = Rs 35200
24
and she got discount = Rs. 4800
Activity 7
(A) A shopkeeper bought one dozen eggs for Rs. 60 and sold each egg for Rs.
4. Find the loss%?
(B) A mobile is sold for Rs. 5000 at the profit of 25 %. Find the cost price.
(C) If 30% discount on Desktop computer is Rs. 2100. What will be the
marked price and sale price?
(D) 20% loss on a watch is Rs. 1200. Find the Cost and Sale Price of the
watch.
(E) A digital camera was sold for Rs. 8400 by giving a discount. If marked
price was Rs. 9900, find the discount%.
(F) A printer was sold by giving 60 % discount to clear the product. If the
customer paid only Rs. 9600 for the printer. Find the marked price of the
printer.
1.6 (a) Zakaat
There are five basic pillars of Islam. Zakaat is one of them. Every Sahib-e-
Nisab Muslim pays Zakaat to the poor and the needy at the rate of 2.5 %
1
or 2 %.
2
OR
There are two kinds of charities in Islam.

1
(i) The obligatory charity i.e, “Zakaat” at the rat of 2 %.
2
(ii) The voluntary charity i.e, “Sadaqah”
Who is Sahib-e-Nisab?
A Muslim who has the followings for a year.
Gold = 7.5 Tola
Or Silver = 52.5 Tola
Or Cash money as savings, equal to above value of gold or silver.
25
1
Sahib-e-Nisab should pay Zakat at the rate of 2 % according to the Holy Quran.
2
1
i.e, Zakat is the the part of the Nisab ( amount).
40
1
Example: (1) Calculate Zakat on the amount of Rs. 100,000/= at the rat of 2 %.
2
Solution:
Amount = Rs. 100,000
1 5 5 1 5
Rate of Zakat = 2 % = % =  
2 2 2 100 200
5
Amount of Zakkat = 100,000 = Rs. 2500
200
Example: (2) What will you give as Zakat on the silver of amount Rs. 250,000
Solution: Amount = Rs. 250,000
1 5 5 1
Rate of Zakat = 2 % = % 
2 2 200 40
1
Amount of Zakat = 250,000  = Rs. 6250
40
Example: (3) Fizza has 150 grams of gold. What would she give as Zakat if the
1
rate of 1 gram of gold is Rs. 5000? Rate of Zakat is 2 % .
2
Solution: Weight of gold = 150 grams
Rate of gold per gram = Rs. 5000
Total amount of gold = 150  5000
= Rs. 750,000
1 5 5 1
Rate of Zakat = 2 % = % = =
2 2 200 40
Amount of Zakat on 150 grams of gold
26
1
= 750,000 
40
= Rs. 18750.
1.6 (b) Ushr
1
th or 10%, Zakat of land irrigated by natural water resources. Fruits
10
and vegetables are not included in it. If the land is irrigated by artificial
1
sources (tubewells) then the rate of Ushr will be half i.e, th or 5% of
20
the agricultural product.
Example 1. Calculate the amount of Ushr on the production of 50000 wheat
crop by natural resources. The price of 40 kg wheat is Rs. 1000.
Solution: Weight of wheat = 50000 kg
Price of 40 kg wheat = Rs. 1000
1000
Price of 1 kg = = Rs. 25
40
Price of 50000 kg wheat = 50000 25
= Rs. 1250000
 Crop is produced by natural resources.
 Rate of Ushr = 10%
10
Amount of Ushr = 1250000
100
= Rs. 125,000
Example (2): What amount will the landlord pay as Ushr on the 5500 kg
production of rice by artificial sources? The price of 50 kg rice is
Rs. 4250
Solution: Weight of rice crop = 5500 kg
Price of 50 kg rice = Rs. 4250
4250
Price of 1 kg rice = = Rs. 85
50
Price of 5500 kg rice = 5500 85
27
= Rs. 467500
Crop is irrigated by artificial resources.
Rate of Ushr = 5%
5
Amount of Ushr = 467500
100
= Rs. 23375
Activity 8:
(A) Mrs. Momina has gold of amount Rs. 12,50,000. Calculate Zakat on this
amount at the rate of 2.5 %.
(B) Calculate Zakat on 60 tola silver and gold of worth Rs. 500,000 and cash
1
of amount Rs. 900,000. The rate of Zakat is 2 % .
2
(C) By natural resources, a landlord got Rs. 750,000 from a rice crop. What
will he pay as Ushr?
(D) A landlord has two crops. First one is irrigated by natural resources and
the second by artificial sources. First one is wheat crop. He gets Rs.
450000 from wheat crop and Rs. 600000 from second crop (of rice). What
would he pay as Ushr?
Key Points:
When the sale price is greater than cost price, we earn profit. i.e,
Profit
Prift = SP – CP Profit % = 100
CP .
 If coast price is greater than sale price, we have a loss

i.e., Loss = CP – SP.
Loss
Loss % =  100
CP
Profit or loss is always reckoned on CP.
 The difference between the sale price and the cost price of an object is
called mark up.
28
i.e, Mark up = Sale Price – Cost Price
Mark up = SP – CP
 The difference between the marked price and the sale price is called
discount. i.e.,
Discount = MP – SP
Dicsount
Marked Price
 The printed price of an object is called marked price.
 Zakat is the 2.5% of the Nisab. (1/40th of Nisab)

 7.5 Tola Gold or 52.5 Tola Silver or equivalent cash money (savings)
for a year is a Nisab for Zakat.
 Zakat of land irrigated by natural water resources or by artificial sources is
called Ushr.
 The rate of Ushr is 10% if resources are natural.
 The rate of Usher is 5% if resources are artificial.
 Fruits and vegetables are not included in Ushr

(i) Ali buys an old motor cycle for Rs. 25000 and spends Rs 8000 on its
repair. If he sells it for Rs.40,000, his profit % is:
(a) 21.21% (b) 28% (c) 40% (d) 25.5%
(ii) The cost price of 20 articles is the same as the selling price of x articles. If
the profit is 25 %, then the value of x is:
(a) 15 (b) 16 (c) 18 (d) 20
(iii) A man buys a cycle for Rs. 1400 and sells it at a loss of 15%. What is the
selling price of the cycle?
(a) Rs. 1090 (b) Rs. 1160 (c) Rs. 1190
(d) Rs. 1202
(iv) some articles were bought at 6 articles for Rs. 5 and sold at 5 articles for
Rs. 6. profit % is:
1
(a) 30% (b) 33 % (c) 35% (d) 45%
3
29
(v) An article costs a manufacturer Rs. 120 to produce it, and he/she sells it to
a retailer for Rs. 150. Find his/her merke up % on cost.
(a) 25% (b) 20% (c) 30% (d) 35%
(vi) What will you pay, when a discount of 3% is allowed on marked price Rs/
10200?
(a) Rs. 9700 (b) Rs. 9894 (c) Rs. 9900
(d) Rs. 300
(vii) Amount of Zakat on a sum of Rs. 100,000 is:
(a) Rs.2000 (b) Rs. 3500 (c) Rs. 2500
(d) Rs.25000
(viii) Calculate Zakat on gold and Silver of worth equal To . Rs. 500,000 at the
rate of 2.5%.
(a) Rs.10500 (b) Rs.12000 (c) Rs.10,00
(d) Rs. 12500
(ix) Calculate the amount of Ushr on the production of rice of worth Rs.
1400,000 when irrigated by natural resources.
(a) Rs.140,000 (b) Rs.14000 (c) Rs.1400
(d) Rs. 70,000
(x) Calculate the amount of Ushr on the production of wheat of worth Rs.
972000 when irrigated by artificial sources.
(a) Rs.97200 (b) Rs.48600 (c) Rs. 50000
(d) 45000
30
1.7 Income Tax
Tax:
Word “Tax” is taken from Latin word “taxare” means to change, to compute i.e,
“estimate”. It is an amount imposed on individuals by state/government on their
income, profits or on the cost of some goods or services.
Tax is of two types:
(i) Direct Tax
(ii) Indirect Tax
(i) Direct Tax:
It is charged on income, profits and property in the form of income tax and
property tax etc.
Indirect Tax: It is charged in the form of motor vehicle tax, goods and services
tax, General Sales Tax (GST) and Value Added Tax (VAT).
Income Tax: Income tax is charged on the total income from all sources during
the financial year. Every financial year starts from 1st July and ends on 30th June.
You are to submit your “Income Tax Return” till 30th September every year. If
you submit your Income Tax Return before due date i.e, 30th September 2012,
then 2011-2012 is a fiscal year and 2011 a tax year. Everyone whose income is
taxable has to submit a “Return” reflecting (showing) his/her income from all
sources during that fiscal (financial) year at the end of each fiscal year. The state
government grants exemption on some certain amount of income. This amount of
income is not taxable. This exempted amount of income is different for business
man and for salaried person.
The taxable income of a salaried person is his/her basic pay including all
allowances.
Example (1) Mr. Asif’s basic Pay (including all allowances) is Rs. 72,000 per
month. Find the income tax payable by him at the rate of 3.5%,
where the exempted amount is Rs. 350,000.
Solution: Mr. Asif’s monthly income = Rs. 72000
Mr. Asif’s Annual income = 72000  12
= Rs. 864000
Exempted amount = Rs. 350000
Taxable Income = 864000-350000
= Rs. 514000
31
35
Income Tax Rate = 3.5% =
1000
35
Payable Tax (amount) = 514000
1000
= Rs. 17990.
Example (2) Mrs. Zobia Ali runs her boutique and her annual income is Rs.
690000. The exempted amount on her income is Rs. 190000/=
Calculate payable income tax on her income if the income tax rate
applicable to her tax payable income is 10 %
Solution: Annual income of Mrs. Zobia Ali = Rs. 690000
Exempted amount = Rs. 190000
Tax payable amount = 690000-190000
= 500000
Income Tax Rate = 10%
10
Payable Income Tax = 500000
100
= Rs. 50000.
Activity 9:
(A) The total taxable income of a person is Rs. 450000. calculate income tax
@ 4.5%.
(B) The total annual income of a person is Rs. 675,000. The exempted amount
of his income is Rs. 180,000. Calculate his income tax at the rate of 7.5%
and Rs. 12000 has already been deducted at some source as income tax.
(C) The basic pay including all allowances of Mrs. Zahra is Rs. 45000 per
month. Find the income tax payable by her @ 2.5% where the exempted
amount is Rs. 350,000.
(D) The total annual income of Mrs. Marium is Rs. 555000. The exempted
amount of her income tax is Rs. 190,000. Calculate her income tax @ 5%.
If she is given rebate Rs. 4500 and Rs. 5000 has already been deducted at
some sources as income tax.
32
1.8 Conversion of currencies
Every country has its own currency. In economics, currency is a generally

accepted medium of exchange. These are usually the coins and bank notes of a
particular government. Followings are the currencies of different countries.
Country Currency
Pakistan Pak Rupee
India Indian Rupee
China Yuan
Afghanistan Afghani
Iran Iranian Rial
USA American Dollar
UK Pound Sterling
We can buy and sell foreign currencies from banks or money changer. The banks
and money changer display the exchange rates of different currencies every day.
The rate of every currency fluctuates daily and some times more than once in a
day. We can convert the currency of our country with the currency of other
country and vice versa.
Example 1: Convert 100,000 Pak Rupees into US Dollar
Solution: Amount in Pak Rupees = Rs. 100,000
Rate of US Dollar = Rs. 95
100000
Amount in US Dollar =  1052.63
95
Example 2: Convert 1000 US Dollars into Pak Rupees
Solution: Amount in US Dollar = 1000 US Dollar
Rate of US Dollar = Rs. 95
Amount in Pak Rupees = 1000 x 95
= Rs. 95000
33
Example 3: Convert 550 US Dollar to Pound Sterling
Solution:- Amount in US Dollar = 550
Rate of US Dollar = Rs 95
Amount in Pak Rupees = 550 x 95
= Rs. 52250
Rate of Pound Sterling = Rs. 153.78
52250
Amount in Pound Sterling =
153.78
= 339.77 GBP
Activity 10
(A) Convert 500 Saudi Riyal to Pak Rupees, The rate of Saudi Riyal is
Rs.25.25
(B) Convert 1200 Euro to Pak Rupees. The Rate of Euro is Rs. 122.93
(C) Convert 1500 Euro to US Dollars. The rate of Euro is Rs. 122.93 and of
US Dollar is Rs. 95.
34
1.9 Types of Account
First, we discuss some terms here to understand accounts.
Account:
It is a facility provided by the bank to the user (account holder) to deposit his/her
money with the bank and withdraw it whenever he/she needs.
Commercial Banking:
It is defined as the facilities of bank to its clients in the form of accepting
deposits, giving loans or other services. Bank collects the savings of its clients
and firms in the form of deposits in different account.
There are many types of accounts in Pakistan but here we shall discuss only three
major types of accounts.
1. Saving Account and PLS Saving Account
2. Current Account
3. Fixed Account.
1. Saving Account:
Bank offers saving account to the public to encourage their small savings.
Students, salaried persons and small traders can open saving account. These small
savings of the public can make huge amount at the bank. The bank pays nominal
interest half yearly on the basis of monthly balance. The saving account is subject
to Zakat in Pakistan.
Saving Account can be opened with minimum amount of money but banks
demands at least Rs. 500 OR Rs. 1000 to open a saving account. The account
holder is allowed to with draw a limited amount of his/her money without any
prior notice. For the large amount or amount above this limit bank requires a prior
notice of a week. It is only to discourage withdrawals and encourage savings. The
banks normally waive off the notice period to facilitate their clients. Now banks
have set a minimum level of saving at the saving account. If the balance falls
below the minimum level, the bank charges Rs. 50 from the account.
PLS Saving Account:

PLS stands for profit and loss sharing. PLS Saving Account was introduced here
in the banks of Pakistan on 1st January 1981. In fact, it was the step towards
Islamization (Islamic) of banking i.e, interest free banking. Separate counter
35
started operating in all nationalized banks. It brought a great change in the history
of Pakistani Banking. People showed great interest in PLS Saving Account and a
large sum has been deposited in these accounts.
We can open PLS Saving Account with a small amount (i.e Rs. 100 only). We can
withdraw small amount from our PLS Saving Account any time through cheques
but if we want to withdraw our whole amount, then prior notice is required by the
bank. The profit or loss is credited or debited at the end of each half/full year, by
the bank. The statement of PLS Saving Account is sent to the accountholder after
every six months.
2. Current Account:
A Current Account is called running account because it continuously in operation.
It is useful for businessmen who often make payments. In this account, the
account holder is allowed to deposit or withdraw money at any time without prior
notice to the bank. The bank is bound to honour these cheques.
Current Account was introduced by the Goldsmiths of England. All commercial
bank open this account due to its advantages. The bank does not pay any interest
on the deposits rather it charges its services called “Incidental Charges”. The
cheque book is issued to the account holder to withdraw or transfer money at any
time.
We can open current account in Pakistan with a minimum amount ranging from
Rs. 1000 to Rs. 10,000 according to bank policy. The requirement of maintaining
minimum balance also depends upon the bank policy. It varies from bank to bank.
The dictionary of Economic and Commerce defines Current Account as:
“The type of a bank account required if a customer wishes to make
payments by cheques”.
2. Fixed Account: (Fixed Deposit Account or Time Deposit Account)

Fixed Account can be opened with commercial bank. In this account the money is
deposited for the fixed period of time by the customer. The range of time period
may be from 3 months to 5 years. Banks easily invest this amount and earn profit.
At the completion of fixed time period, the bank pays the principal amount along
with profit to the customer. The rate of profit (interest) on Fixed Account is also
higher than Saving Account. The rate of interest varies directly with time period,
i.e, longer the time period of deposit, higher will be the rate of profit (interest) and
vice versa.
36
The bank does not issue cheque book to the customer and customer cannot
withdraw his/her money before fixed period of time. If the customer wishes to
withdraw his/her money before fixed time period, he/she will have to pay penalty
imposed by the bank. This account is suitable for those person who can save
money for some time and want a higher rate or profit (interest. May be these
people do not want to take risk in business or cannot do business. For example,
retired persons in Pakistan. They get a large amount of money at the time of
retirement and then open Fixed Account.
1.10 On-line Banking:

Online banking is the most modern service provided by the banks. It facilitates
account holders to access their account with the help of internet. So the account
holders need to have computer with internet facility. It is also called internet
banking or E-Banking. The banks provide facility of online in different forms. In
Pakistan only some banks provide full online banking facility to the account
holder. i.e, the account holders can easily access their accounts by sitting any time
anywhere in the world. It means the account holders can enjoy all facilities of
banking like transactions, balance inquiry, statement, bill payments, cheque book
request etc. This facility is provided for 24/7, i.e., 24 hours and 7 days week, that
means any time. All the transactions are executed in real time, with the help of
electronic telecommunication.
The account holder of any specific bank can make transactions at any branch of
the same bank throughout the country. If the account holder has ATM Card or
Debit Card of his/her bank, he/she can use ATM to make transactions transfer or
withdraw money from any ATM throughout the country in real time. The most
important thing is that there is no extra charges for all these modern facilities
Some banks only charge annual fee for ATM card.
ATM Card or Debit Card:

It is a plastic card magnetically encoded by the bank. The accountholders of
online bank may get ATM Card from his/her bank on request. It is a payment card
used at ATM to make transactions or withdrawn money. It can also be used for
purchasing at POS (Point of Sale). The bank allots a pin code to account holder to
make transactions.
37
ATM (Automated Teller Machine)
ATM is a computerized cash machine. It gives cash facility to ATM card holders
at any time without cashier. It also provides other facilities like balance inquiry,
bill payment, transfer funds, mini statement etc. If we want to use ATM, we need
ATM card. Simply we insert our ATM Card into ATM (machine) and then enter
pin code of our ATM card to enjoy any facility the ATM may provide. Every
ATM is linked with database of the online banks throughout the world. We can
use our ATM Card at anywhere in the world and can purchase or withdraw
money. If the currency is different from our bank account, then withdraw money
will be automatically converted to US dollar exchange rate, and the same amount
equal to US Dollar will be deducted from our bank account, So it is a great
facility for the account holders or users. The machine is very easy and friendly to
use. In Pakistan, these machines also provide Urdu Software to facilitate the
common people.
We see ATMs at banks (inside the premises of banks), shopping centers, petrol
stations, restaurants, railway stations, airports etc.
Credit Card
Credit card is a plastic card issued by banks to customers granting a line of credit.
Credit card provides a loan to its user upto fixed pre-set (pre-agreed) amount for a
specific period without interest and after this period with an interest in the form of
monthly installments. Credit cards are widely accepted everywhere in developed
and developing countries. The user of credit card can purchase things and
withdraw cash upto fixed limit. If the user withdraws money, the interest applies
at the same time, but in the form of purchasing interest does not apply before the
due date of billing. The bill of credit card can be paid in full without interest
before or on due date and also be paid in parts but with interest.
Some banks charge annual fee on credit card. Annual fee is different for different
banks but some banks do not charge any annual fee to increase the business or
facilitate the users.
There are two types of credit card.
(i) Visa Card (ii) Master Card
Visa Card can be offered to all users but Master Card is only offered to valued
customers having high credit line.
38
Key Points:
 The amount imposed on individuals by state on their income, profits or on
the cost of some goods or services is called tax.
 Tax is of two types: (i) Direct Tax (ii) Indirect Tax
 Direct Tax is charged on income, profits and property.
 Indirect Tax is charged as motor vehicles tax, goods and service tax, GST
and Value Added Tax (VAT).
 Income tax is charged on the total income from all sources during a
financial year.
 Financial year starts from 1st July and ends on 30th June.
 We can exchange the currency of one country with the currency of the
other country.
 Every country has its own currency in the form of coins and bank notes.
 Us Dollar is an international standard of currency for trading.
 Account is a facility provided by the bank to the account holder (user) to
deposit money with the bank and withdraw it whenever needs.
 Banks offer saving Account to the public to encourage their small savings.
 We can open Saving Account with minimum amount of money as banks
demand.
 The Saving Account is subject to Zakat in Pakistan.
 A Current Account is called running account.
 Current Cccount is useful for businessmen.
 A Current Account holder can deposit or withdraw money at any time
without prior notice to the bank.
 The banks do not pay any interest on the deposited of current account.
 In a fixed deposit account, the money is deposit for the fixed period of
time. (from 3 months to 5 years).
 The bank does not issue cheque book to fixed account holder.
Self Assessment Exercise 4

(i) Word “Tax is taken from ______word
(a) Latin (b) Greek (c) English (d) Persian
(ii) Direct Tax is:
(a) Income Tax (b) GST (c) Value Added Tax
(d) motor vehicle tax.
(iii) Indirect Tax is:
39
(a) Profit Tax (b) Property tax (c) GST
(d) Income Tax
(iv) The financial year is:
(a) 1st Jan- 31 Dec (b) 1st April –31st March
(c) 1st June – 31st May (d) 1st July –30th June
(v) Mr. Ali’s annual income is Rs. 500,000 and the exempted amount is Rs.
350,000. Find his income tax @ 3.5%
(a) Rs. 5250 (b) Rs.5000 (c) Rs. 17500
(d) Rs. 15000
(vi) The total taxable income of Mrs. Shazia is Rs. 900,000 and the exempted
amount is Rs. 350,000. Find her income tax @ 4.5%
(a) Rs. 40500 (b) Rs. 24750 (C) Rs. 25500
(d) Rs. 30600
(vii) Convert 1800 GBP to Pak Rupees. The rate of GBP is Rs. 153.78
(a) Rs.11.67 (b) 171000 (c) Rs. 266804
(d) Rs. 221274
(viii) Convert Rs. 5,00,00,000 to Euro. Rate of Euro is Rs. 122.93
(a) 40564.45 Euro (b) 526315.79 Euro
(c) 325139.81 Euro (d) 406735.54 Euro
(ix) Which account was introduced on 1st January 1981 in Pakistan?
(a) PLS Saving Account (b) Saving Account
(c) Current Account (d) Fixed Account
(x) Which account is useful for businessmen?
(a) Saving Account (b) Current Account
(c) Fixed Account (d) PLS Saving Account.
40
1.11 Types of Finance
Finance:
In simple word we can say that the managing of money matters is called finance.
According to Robert Sarnoff:
“Finance is the art of passing currency from hand to hand until it finally
disappears.” OR According to the dictionary:
“The management of money, banking, investments and credit is called
finance”
Type of Finance:
There are two types of finance:
(1) Debit Financing (2) Equity Financing
1. Debit Financing:
In this financing, the money is borrowed from financial institutions or banks. The
Principal amount is returned along with markup (interest). It is paid in
installments on monthly basis. In Pakistan, it is the most popular financing
method.
Lease Financing:
It is used to buy equipment. It ranges from 3 years to 5 years.
Running Finance/Working Capital Finance
It is used on a revolving basis. The customers pay markup on amount utilized and
for the period when it is outstanding.
2. Equity financing OR (Owner’s Funds)

In this type the owners of the business provide funds from their own pocket. So
there is no interest but you have to share the profit with your financier, so it is the
best for all times to come. It requires much hard efforts to find investor for this
type of financing. It is long term fiancing. The owner can freely control his/her
business without any interference. In this financing, the firm has to pay more
income tax as compared to the Debt Financing.
41
Key Points: (On-line Banking, Types of Finance)
 On-line banking is the facility to connect centralized computer system
directly for authorization of tramsctin. Balance inquiry, statement, bill
payments, cheque book request etc for 24/7 i.e, 24 hours and 7 days (at
any time)
 ATM is a computerized cash machine to facilitate ATM card holders in
getting each and other facilities, without cashier.
 Credit card grants a line of credit to its holder. It provides a loan to its
holder (user) upto fixed pre-set amount for a specific period with out
interest. After specific period interest starts.
 Credit cards are widely accepted every where.
 There are two types of credit cards:
(i) Visa Card (ii) Master Card
 Visa card is offered to all users but Master card is only offered to value
customers having high credit line.
 The managing of money matters is called finance.
 Finance is the art of passing currency from hand to hand until it finally
disappears.
 There are two types of finance:
(i) Debt Financing (ii) Equity Financing
 When money is borrowed from financial institutions or banks it is called
debt financing.
 When owners of the business provide funds from their own pocket, it is
called equity financing.
Self Assessment Exercise:

(i) The modern facility provided by the banks is:
(a) on-line banking (b) loans (c) commercial banking
(d) cheque books
(ii) We can get the facilities of ATMs, if we have:
(a) money (b) ATM cards (c) Credit card
(d) account
(iii) Which machine (device) is installed by the banks to dispense cash to its
account holders?
42
(a) computer (b) Scanner (c) ATM (d) CDM
(iv) Which card grants a line of credit to its uers?
(a) ATM card (b) Secret card (c) Marriage card (d)
Credit card
(v) We can make shopping without having amount in our account with the
help of:
(a) ATM Card (b) Credit card (c) Debit card
(d) CDM
(vi) We can withdraw money from ATM if we have:
(a) Account (b) Money (c) Debit card
(d) Credit card
(vii) We can deposit our cheques and money in the:
(a) ATM (b) Automatic machine (c) Computer
(d) CDM
(viii) The managing of money is called:
(a) banking (b) mark up (c) mark down
(d) finance
(ix) We borrow money from banks in ___ financing.
(a) Debt (b) Equity (c) Long term
(d) Medium term
(x) If owners of the business, provide funds from their own pocket than it is
___________ financing.
(a) Debt (b) Equity (c) Lease (d) Running
43
Activities:
Answer Key of Activates:
Activity 1
18 1
(A) (i) (ii) 23/25 (iii) 3/20 (iv)
25 40
3
(B) (i) 75% (ii) 66 % (iii) 25% (iv) 50%
3
1
(v) 37 %
2
1
(C) (i) 20 (ii) 45 (iii) 4 %
6
1
(D) Fraction = 1/3 , percentage = 33 % Decimal = 0.33
3
(E) 25 %
Activity 2
(A) Rs. 9450 (B) Rs. 1800 (C) Rs. 1485
(D) 15 days (E) 72 days
Activity 3
(A) (i) 9/11 (ii) 5:6 (iii) 2/9
(B) (i) 5 : 12 (ii) 25 : 3 (iii) 5:1 (vi) 2:3:5
(v) 10 : 8 : 5 (vi) 1:5
(C) (i) 5:1 (ii) 3:1 (iii) 1:3 (iv) 25 : 2
(D) (i) 3:1 (ii) 1:4
(E) 2:1:3
(F) (i) 4:3 (ii) 4:1 (iii) 3:1
44
Activity 4
(A) (i) 7 (ii) 30 (iii) 1/2 (iv) 12 (v) 14
Activity 5
(A) 10 days (B) 12 workers (C) Rs. 1200
(D) 90 Liters
Activity 6
(A) 4200 l (B) 15 hours (C) 30 men
Activity 7
(A) 20% (B) Rs.4000
(C) MP=Rs.7000, SP=Rs. 4900 (D) CP=Rs.6000, SP=Rs.4800
(E) 15.15% (F) Rs.16000
Activity 8
(A) Rs. 31250 (B) 42500 (C) 75000 (D) Rs. 75000
Activity No.9
(A) Rs. 20250 (B) Rs.25125 (C) Rs.4750
(D) Rs.8750
Activity 9
(A) 19.80SR (B) 9.76 Euro (C) 1941 US Dollars

(i) a (ii) b (iii) c (iv) c (v) d
(vi) a (vii) b (viii) c (ix) d (x) a
45
(i) c (ii) a (iii) d (iv) b (v) c
(vi) a (vii) d (viii) a (ix) b (x) c
Self Assessment Exercise No.3

(i) a (ii) b (iii) c (iv) d (v) a
(vi) b (vii) c (viii) d (ix) a (x) b

(i) a (ii) a (iii) c (iv) d (v) a
(vi) b (vii) c (viii) d (ix) a (x) b

(i) a (ii) b (iii) c (iv) d (v) b
(vi) c (vii) d (viii) d (ix) a (x) b
46
UNIT––2
SETS AND REAL

NUMBERS
Written by: Ms. Saima Kashif

Revised by: Dr. Iqbal Sah
47
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction .........................................................................................................49
Objectives ..........................................................................................................49
2.1. Sets and Venn Diagrams .........................................................................50
2.2. Types of Sets ............................................................................................................... 54
2.3. Operations on Sets ........................................................................................... 57
2.4. Properties of Intersection Union and ................................................................ 61
2.5. Venn Diagrams and Verification of De Morgan’s laws ........................62
2.6. Real Numbers and their Properties ........................................................67
2.7. Radicals and Radicands ..........................................................................72
2.8. Laws of Exponents and Indices ..............................................................76
48
INTRODUCTION
This unit consists of two major sections. First section comprised of sets and
second on Real numbers. Set theory is one of the greatest achievements of modern
mathematics. Basically all mathematical concepts, methods, and results admit of
representation within axiomatic set theory. Thus set theory has served quite a
unique role by systematizing modern mathematics, and approaching in a unified
form all basic questions about admissible mathematical arguments — including
the thorny question of existence principles. The first section provides the readers
detailed definition of set, types of set, venn diagrams, operations on set and De
Morgan’s Laws. Second section includes real numbers, types of real numbers and
properties of real numbers. Laws of exponents and indices are also included in
this unit.
OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

1. understand basic concept of Set and Venn diagram
2. understand the types of set with the help of Venn diagram.
3. describe sets and operations on sets.
4. use Venn diagram to elaborate the set operations.
5. lear n the set operations by using Venn diagram.
6. comprehend the concept of real numbers.
7. differentiate among rational and irrational numbers
8. comprehend and use the concept of Radicals, Radicands and Laws of
Exponents and indices
49
2.1 What is Set
Sets of objects, numbers, departments, job descriptions, etc. are things that we all
deal with every day of our lives. Mathematical Set Theory just puts a structure
around this concept so that sets can be used or manipulated in a logical way. The
type of notation used is a reasonable and simple one. Sets are the fundamental
property of mathematics. Now as a word of warning, sets, by themselves, seem
pretty pointless. But it's only when you apply sets in different situations do, they
become the powerful building block of mathematics that they are. set, in
mathematics, collection of entities, called elements of the set, that may be real
objects or conceptual entities. Set theory has not only involved in many areas of
mathematics but has important applications in other fields as well, e.g., computer
technology and atomic and nuclear physics.
Math can get amazingly complicated quite fast. Graph Theory, Abstract Algebra,
Real Analysis, Complex Analysis, Linear Algebra, Number Theory, and the list
go on. But there is one thing that all of these share in common and that is set.
A set is a collection of well defined and distinct objects, considered as an object
in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics.
Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of
mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of
mathematics can be derived.
A set is a collection of distinct, symbols unordered objects. Sets are typically
collections of numbers, though a set may contain any type of data (including other
sets).The objects in a set are called the members of the set or the elements of the
set.
A mathematical set is a collection of distinct objects, normally referred
to as elements or members.
A set should satisfy the following:

1) The members of the set should be distinct. (not be repeated)
2) The members of the set should be well-defined. (Well-explained)
First you specify a common property among "things" or entities and then you
gather up all the "things" that have this common property.
50
Example
For example, a set of the items we wear:
It would include shoes, socks, hat, shirt, pants, and so on.
Another example would be types of fingers.

This set have four elements i.e. index finger, middle
finger, ring
finger, and pinky.
So it is just things grouped together with a certain property in common.
Description of a Set
There is a fairly simple notation for sets. You simply list each element, separated
by a comma, and then put some curly brackets around the whole thing.
A= {2,4,6,8,…}
B= {1,2, 3}
2,4,6, 8 are members or elements of the above set while it is called set A. Usually
the sets are denoted by capital letters. After 8 three dots are given which show that
the set is infinite. While set B is finite.
The curly brackets { } are sometimes called "set brackets" or "braces".
This is the notation for the two previous examples:
{socks, shoes, watches, shirts, ...}
{index, middle, ring, pinky}
Notice how the first example has the "..." (three dots together).
The three dots ... are called an ellipsis, and mean "continue on".
So that means the first example continues on ... for infinity.
There is not really an infinite amount of things you could wear, but I am not
entirely sure about that! After an hour of thinking of different things, I am still not
sure. So let us just say it is infinite for this example.
So:
51
 The first set {socks, shoes, watches, shirts, ...} we call an infinite set,
 the second set {index, middle, ring, pinky} we call a finite set.
But sometimes the "..." can be used in the middle to save writing long lists:
Example: the set of letters:
{a, b, c, ..., x, y, z}
In this case, it is a finite set because there are only 26 letters.
Activity 1.
1. Let R be the set of all vowels in the English alphabet. Describe this set
using set builder notation
2. Let S be the set of all letters in the English alphabet. Describe this set
using set builder notation.
3. Let O be a set of odd numbers. Describe this set using set builder notation.
4. Write a set I of all integers
5. Write a set A of all multiples of 4 less than 42.
The Number of Elements in a Set.

The number of elements in a set A, written as n[A], is defined as the number of
elements that A contains.
For example,
if A = {a, b, c, d, e} , then n[A] = 5 (since there are 5 elements in A);
if D = (Sales, Purchasing, Inventory, Payroll), then n[D] = 4.
Activity 2
How many members these sets have:
a. A= {1,2,34}
b. B= {a, e, i, o, u}
c. C={ 4, 8, 12}
52
Venn Diagrams
Venn Diagrams are used to simplify calculation of operations on sets
because we know that we can understand anything with the help of
figures quickly as compared to without drawing the diagrams. Venn
diagrams help us to solve the problems of probability with the help of
figures and if we are solving any problem with the help of Venn diagram
then we don't need to do any calculations. In other words we can say that
a Venn diagram is a simple pictorial representation of a set. Venn
diagrams are useful for demonstrating general relationships between sets.
Example:
A = {1, 3, 5, 7,9}
Represent it by Venn diagram
Subsets.
 A subset of some set A, say, is a set which contains some of the elements
of
 A. For example,
if
 A = {h,i,j,k,}), then:
 X = {i, j, l} is a subset of A
 Y = {h ,1} is a subset of A
 Z = {i, ,b, j} is a subset of A and also a subset of X
53
2.2 Types of Sets
There are various types of sets. Those are explained below with the help of
examples.
1. Finite set
A finite set has a limited number of members, such as the letters of the alphabet.
Following are the examples of finite sets.
A= A set positive of multiples of 3 less than 32.
B= A set of M. Phil students in Science Education Department.
C= {1, 2, 3, 4}
W= The names of big cities of Pakistan or
W = { Karachi, Peshawar, Islamabad, Lahore, Quetta}
All these sets have limited entities therefore these are known as finite sets.
2. Infinite Set
An infinite set has an unlimited number of members, such as all whole numbers.
P= The employees of a company working in the purchase department or
P = {Ali, Anam, Zara, Sara, …}
Q= Set of all odd numbers.
D= Set of integers.
All these sets have unlimited numbers so all these are called infinite sets.
3. Empty or Null set

An empty or null set has no members, such as the number of people who have
swum across the Atlantic Ocean, written as {} or ø.
A= A set of Students having 4 legs.
B= A set of candidates hired as lecturers without masters degree.
C= A set of dogs with two heads.
54
4. Singleton Set
A singleton set or single-element set has only one member, such as days of the
week beginning with M, written as {Monday}.
A= Set of positive integers greater than 4 and less than 6.
B= Set of students securing gold medal in M.Sc Mathematics from IUB in 2006
C={2}
D= Symbol of set of integers in Mathematics={z}
E= A set of Presidents of Islamic Republic of Pakistan
5. Set equality/ Equal Sets

Two sets are equal only if they have identical elements. Or we can say
that Equal sets have the same members;
Example 1.
W = {days of the week} and
S = {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday}, both the sets are equal. Or S=W
Example 2.
A= { 2, 4,6,8}
B= A set of first 4 positive multiples of 2.
Here A = B
Example 2.
C= {1,2,3}
D= {1, 1+1, 2+1}
C=D
55
6. Equivalent sets
Sets with the same number of members are equivalent sets
Example 1.
A= {a, b, c }
B={1, 2, 3}
Here A is equivalent to B because number of elements are same in both
sets.
Example 2.
I = Months in Year
O = 1st twelve multiples of 2
I is equivalent to O because both sets have same number of elements but
keep in mind elements are not same just number of elements is same.
7. Overlapping sets
Sets with some members in common are intersecting sets; for example, if R =
{red playing cards} and F = {face cards}, then R and F share the members that
are red face cards. Sets with some members in common are intersecting sets; for
example:
if R = {red playing cards} and F = {face cards}, then R and F share the members
that are red face cards.
8. Disjoint Sets
Sets with no members in common are disjoint sets.; for example:
i. V = {vowels} and set L = {Set of alphabet started with letter l} are
disjoint sets because no vowels start with letter “l”.
ii. T= { Students of 10th } and F={ Students of first year} is also disjoint set
because a student without passing tenth grade cannot get admission in 1st
Year.
56
9. The Universal Set
The set that contains all the elements or objects involved in the problem under
consideration. In some problems involving sets, it is necessary to consider one or
more sets under consideration as belonging to some larger set that contains them.
For example, if we are considering the set of all students in a school then it will
be the universal set. In other words, where a universal set has been defined, all
the sets under consideration must necessarily be subsets of it.
2.3. Operations on Sets
2.3.1. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets is the set containing the elements common to the two
sets and is denoted by the symbol ∩. For example the intersection of A and B,
denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things which are members of both A and B. If A
∩ B = ∅, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
Examples: 1
 {1, 2} ∩ {3,4}=∅.
 {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3,4,5}= {3}.
 {a, b} ∩ {a, b} = {a, b}.
A∩ B={x|x A and x B}
This is the intersection of A and B.
Example: 2
For A={2,3,5,7,11}, B= {2,5,8} and C= {5,9,11}
Then determine the intersection of these sets and also represent it by using venn
diagram..
Solution:
A∩(B∩C)= ({2,3,5,7,11}∩{2,5,8}) ∩{5,9,11}
= {2,5}∩{5,9,11} ={5}
(A∩B)∩C= {2,3,5,7,11}∩({2,5,8} ∩{5,9,11})
={2,3,5,7,11}∩{5}={5}
Verification by venn diagram
57
A
U
B 3
2
7
8
11
9’ C
Shaded portion shown A∩ (B∩C) = 5

While from this figure we can see that
A∩B + {2, 5}
A∩C = {5, 11}
B∩C = {5}
From this example we can see that even though 2 is common in A and B, while 11
is common in A and C, but the intersection of the three sets is 5 as that is the only
common element between all three. We can use venn diagram
2.3.2. Union of Sets

The union of two sets is the set containing all the elements of both sets and is
denoted by the symbol U. In other words we can say that union is essentially the
act of 'adding' multiple sets together to combine their elements into a single set in
such a way that no element is repeated.
Example. 1
If A= {1,3,5}
and B= {2,4,6}
Then the union of A and B is:
A∪B={1,3,5}U{2,4,6}= {1,2,3,4,5,6}
However, the same elements are not counted twice so if A= {1,2,5} and B=
{1,2,4} then A∪B={1,2,5} U{1,2,4} ={1,2,4,5}
58
Here 1 is common but not written twice.
Symbolically
AU B={x|x A or x B}
This is the union of A and B.
Example: 2
For A={2,3,5,7,11}, B= {2,5,8} and C= {5,9,11}
Then determine the union of these sets and also represent it by using venn
diagram..
Solution:
AU(BUC)= ({2,3,5,7,11}U{2,5,8}) U{5,9,11}
= {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11}U{5,9,11}
={2, 3, 5,7, 8, 9, 11}
(A∪B) ∪C= {2,3,5,7,11}∩({2,5,8} ∩{5,9,11})
={2,3,5,7,11}∩{2, 5, 8, 9, 11}
={2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11}
Verification by venn diagram
A
59
The lined portion shows
A∪)B∪C) = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11} = (A∪B) ∪C
2.3.3. Difference of Sets

The difference of two sets A and B (or relative complement of B in A), denoted
by A – B, is the set containing those elements that are in A, but not in B.
Example 1.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
B= {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
A-B = {1, 2, 3}
And
B-A = {6, 7}
Example 2.
A= {1, 3, 5}
B= {1, 2, 3}
Then A difference B will be:
A – B = {1, 3, 5} – {1, 2, 3} = {5}
B–A = {1, 2, 3} – {1, 3, 5} = {2}
Verification by Venn Diagram
60
B
A
Figure 2.3
By figure 2.3 lined portion represents A\B = {5}
Whiele shaded region represents B\A = {2}
2.3.4. Complement of a set

The complement of a set A is all of the objects in the universal set except those in
A, or the
difference of universal set from any other set is called the compliment of that set
and is denoted
A c.
U = {1, 2, 3…10}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
A c = U – A= {1, 2, 3…10} - {1, 2, 3, 4} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
2.4. Properties of Intersection and Union
2.4.1 Some basic properties of intersection are:
 A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
 A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C.
 A ∩ B ⊆ A.
 A∩B⊆B
 A ∩ A = A.
 A ∩ ∅ = ∅.
61
 A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A.
2.4.2 Some basic properties of intersection are:

 A U B = B U A.
 A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C.
 A ⊆ AUB.
 B ⊆ AUB
 A U A = A.
 AU∅=A
 A ⊆ B if and only if A U B = B.
2.5. De, Morgan’s Laws

If A and B are the subsets of a universal set U, then
i. (AUB)C = A c ∩ B C
ii. (A∩B) C = AC U BC
Example:
If
U = { 1, 2, 3, ……………………100}
A= { 2, 4, 6,…………………….100}
B= { 1, 3, 5,……………………..99}
Prove De Morgan’s Laws .

Solution:
AUB = { 2, 4, 6,………………100}U{1, 3, 5,………………….99}
= {1, 2, 3, ………….100}
(AUB) = U-(AUB)
= { 1, 2, 3, ……………………100} - { 1, 2, 3, ……………………100}
= { } …………………… (i)
A = U- A
62
= { 1, 2, 3, ……………………100} - { 2, 4, 6,…………………….100}
= {1, 3, 5,………………99}
BC = U-B
={ 1, 2, 3, ……………………100} - {1, 3, 5,………………99}
= { 2,4,6,…………………….100}
AC ∩ BC ={1, 3, 5,………………99} ∩{ 2,4,6,…………………….100}
= { } (ii)
By (i) & (ii) it is proved that
(AUBC) = AC ∩ BC
Similarly
We can prove the second law
A∩B = { 2, 4, 6,………………100}∩{1, 3, 5,………………….99}
={}
(A∩B) C = U-(A∩B)
= { 1, 2, 3, ……………………100} - { }
= U (iii)
A = U- A
= { 1, 2, 3, ……………………100} - { 2, 4, 6,…………………….100}
= {1, 3, 5,………………99}
B = U-B
={ 1, 2, 3, ……………………100} - {1, 3, 5,………………99}
= { 2,4,6,…………………….100}
A U B ={1, 3, 5,………………99} U { 2,4,6,…………………….100}
= {1, 2, 3,………………….100}
= U (iv)
By (iii) & (iv) it is proved that
(A ∩B) = A U B
63
Example 2:
If U = {1, 2, 3……………………………..20}
A= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B= { 1, 2, 3, ………….10}}
Prove De Morgan’s Laws and also verify by using venn diagrams

Solution:
De’ Morgan’s Laws
(AUBC) = AC ∩ BC i
C C C
(A∩B) = A U B ii
(AUB) = U- (AUB) = { 11, 12, 13, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20} iii
AC = U-A = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12 , 13, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
BC = U-B = {11, 12 , 13, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
AC ∩ BC = {11, 12, 13, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20} iv
By iii & iv
(AUB) C = AC ∩ BC
Similarly we can prove that (A∩B) C = AC U BC
Verification by venn diagrams
B U
11 15 17
A
4
12 18
2 1
13 5 3 7 8 19
6
0
14 20
10
16
Figure 2.4
64
In figure 2.4 Shaded portion
={1, 2, 3 ––––––10}
Shows AUB and plane region shows (AUB) C which is {11, 12, 13–––––––20}
Figure 2.4
In figure 2.4 Shaded portion
Do lined (=) protion represents AC while the only abcbed portion represents BC.
Therefore AC∩BC = checked portion so we can say that (A∩B) C = AC∩BC
Key Points
i. Capital letters are used to denote sets.
ii. Lowercase letters are used to denote elements of sets.
iii. Curly braces { } denote a list of elements in a set.
iv. Empty set is denoted by ∅
v. An element of A∩ B belongs to both A and B.
vi. An element of AUB is required to belong to at least one of the sets
A or B.
vii. A-B is not equal to B-A.
viii. (AUBC) = AC ∩ BC
ix. (A∩BC) = AC U BC
65
Self Assessment Exercise 2.1
1. Fill in the blanks
i. X∩X = -------------------------------
ii. (XC) = -------------------------------
iii. U – X = --------------------------------
iv. X - ∅ =---------------------------------
v. Complement of a set Y is denoted by -----------------------------
vi. x belongs to a set X is denoted by-----------------------------
2. A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B= {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, determine
i. AUB ii A∩(BUC) iii. (AUC)∩B
Also prove De Morgan’ s laws and verify them by using venn
diagrams.
66
2.6 - Real Numbers and Their Properties
To understand the concept of real numbers and their properties it is necessary to
understand rational and irrational numbers and their properties. And to
differentiate among rational and irrational numbers it is necessary to understand
the types of decimal fractions.
Types Decimal Fractions
Decimal fractions are of three types:
i. Terminating Decimal Fractions
A decimal fraction having finite number of digits in its decimal part is called a
terminating decimal fraction or we can say that the fractions which have exact
solutions. For example:
a) 5/2 = 2.5
b) 1/8 = 0.125
c) 3/20= 0.15
All above fractions have exact solutions therefore, we can say that all these are
terminating fractions.
ii. Recurring and Non-terminating Fractions

It is a type of decimal fraction in which some digits are repeated again and again
in the same order in its decimal part or any common fraction that cannot be
converted exactly yields a decimal that will never terminate and in which the
digits sooner or later recur . For example:
a) 5/11 = 0.4545…..
In above example the recurring digits are 4 and 5.
b) 1/3 = 0.3333…..
In this example the recurring digits is 3.
c) 1/6 = 0.16666……
In this example the recurring digits is 6.
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iii. Non Recurring and Non Terminating Fractions
The non-terminating fractions in which the digits are not repeated in the same
order in its
decimal part is called a non-recurring and non-terminating fraction. For example:
a) 5/7 = 0.7142875…..
b) 7/13 = 0.5384615……
c) 11/13 = 0.8461538……
2.6.1- Rational Numbers

The term "rational" comes from the word "ratio," because the rational numbers
are the ones that can be written in the ratio form i.e. a/b where 'a' and 'b' are
integers. In other words, a number is rational if we can write it as a fraction
where the numerator and denominator are both Integers. The fraction which have
exact solutions are called rational fractions. The set of rational numbers is denoted
by Q.
Examples:
a) 4/5 = 0.8
b) 7/2 =3.5
c) 13/130= 0.1
The terminating and recurring non-terminating decimal fractions are rational
numbers.
2.6.2- Irrational Numbers

An irrational number is any real number that cannot be expressed as a ratio a/b,
where a and b are integers, with b non-zero, and is therefore not a rational
number. We can also say that an irrational number cannot be represented as a
simple fraction. Irrational numbers are those real numbers that cannot be
represented as terminating or repeating decimals. The set of irrational numbers is
denoted by Q. 2 has no exact value or we can say that there is no rational number
whose square is 2 therefore 2 is not a rational number. Similarly 3 , 5 , etc are not
rational numbers. All these and such type of other numbers are called irrational
numbers. The set is irrational numbers is represented by Q.
68
Famous Irrational Numbers
Pi is a famous irrational number. People have calculated Pi to
over one million decimal places and still there is no pattern.
 The first few digits look like this:
3.1415926535897932384626433832795…..
The number e (Euler's Number) is another famous irrational
number. People have also calculated e to lots of decimal
e places without any pattern showing. The first few digits look
like this:
2.7182818284590452353602874713527……
The Golden Ratio is an irrational number. The first few digits
 look like this:
1.61803398874989484820...
Real Numbers
A real number is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line. The
real numbers are the numbers that can be written in decimal notation, including
those that require an infinite decimal expansion. The set of real numbers includes
all integers, positive and negative; all fractions; and the irrational numbers, those
whose decimal expansions never repeat. We can say that the set of rational
numbers and the irrational numbers together form set of real numbers.
Mathematically we can write as:
R = Q U QC
Properties of Real Numbers

1. Closure Property
.
For all real numbers a & b the sum a + b and the product a b are real
numbers.
2. Associative Law
For all real numbers a, b & c,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a . (b . c) = (a . b) . c.
69
3. Commutative Law
For all real numbers a & b,
a + b = b + a and a . b = b . a.
4. Distributive Law
For all real numbers a, b & c,
a . (b + c) = a . b + a . c and (a + b) . c = a . c + b . c.
5. Identity Elements
There are real numbers 0 and 1 such that for all real numbers a,
a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a, and
a . 1 = a and 1 . a = a.
6. Inverse Elements
For each real number a, the equations
a + x = 0 and x + a = 0
have a solution x in the set of real numbers, called the additive inverse of a,
denoted by -a. For each nonzero real number a, the equations
a . x = 1 and x . a = 1
have a solution x in the set of real numbers, called the multiplicative inverse
of a, denoted by a-1.
Here are some additional properties of real numbers a , b & c, which can be
proved from the properties listed above.
 If a + c = b + c, then a = b.
 If a . c = b . c and c is nonzero, then a = b.
 a.0=0
 -(-a) = a
 (-a) . (-b) = a . b
70
Key Points
i. A decimal fraction having finite number of digits in its decimal part is
called a terminating decimal fraction.
ii. Recurring decimal fraction is a fraction in which some digits are repeated
again and again in the same order in its decimal part
iii. Set of rational and irrational numbers together form set of real numbers.
iv. All rational numbers are real numbers but all real numbers may not be
rational numbers.
v. All irrational numbers are real numbers but all real numbers may not be
irrational numbers.

1. Match the column A and B
Sr. No. Column A Column B

1. 3/11 Irrational (non repeated)
2. 1/99 Rational (repeats) R Rational (repeats)
3. 2/3 Rational (repeats)
6. 3/7 Rational (terminates)
2. State one of the basic property of real numbers to justify each of the
statement.
i. 5+ (-3 )= (-3) + 5
ii. a+(3+b) = (a+3)+b
iii. a+ ( b + c ) d = a + d (b + c)
iv. b [ c + (d + a)] = b c + b (d +a)
v. (a + b) + [ -( a + b)]=0
vi. (a + b).1 = a + b
71
2.7- Radicals and Radicands
A radical expression is a number where both the divisor and the dividend is the
same. A common radical is a square root. The symbol for a square root is √. The
small number to the right of the radical symbol is the index. When there is no
number, the radical expression is a square root. Radical expressions are numbers.
Thus, they appear in both the numerator and denominator of fractions. While the
radicand is the number under the (radical)) symbol. that is, a number which is
having its square root taken (or cube root, 4th root, 5th root, nth root,, etc.). For
example, In 3 is the radicand.
We can say that the radical is the symbol that
that represents a square root and the
radicand is the number underneath the radical symbol.
Example:
Before we can simplify a radical expression, we must know the important
properties of radicals.
PRODUCT PROPERTY OF SQUARE ROOTS
For all real numbers a and b,
That is, the square root of the product is the same as the product of the square
roots.
There's an analogous quotient property:
For all real numbers a and b, b ≠ 0:
SIMPLIFYING RADICALS
The idea here is to find a perfect square factor of the radicand,
radicand, write the radicand
as a product, and then use the product property to simplify.
Example 1:
Simplify.
72
9 is a perfect square, which is also a factor of 45.
Use the product property.
If the number under the radical has no perfect square factors,

factors, then it cannot be
simplified further. For instance the 17 cannot be simplified further because the
only factors of 17 or 17 and 1. So, there are no perfect square factors other than 1.
Example 2:
Simplify.
Use the quotient property to write under a single square root sign.
Divide.
If the number in the denominator is not a factor of the number in the numerator,
we must rationalize the denominator,
denominator, that is have the radical sign appear only in
the numerator.”
Example 3:
Simplify.
Solution:
73
Simplify.
Sometimes we need to use a combination of steps.

Example 4:
Simplify.
Solution:
21 and 9 have a common factor of 3, so reduce
reduce the fraction under the radical.
Now rationalize the denominator.
We can only add or subtract two radical expressions if the radicands are the same.
For example, cannot be simplified any further. But we can simplify
by using the distributive property,
property, because the radicands are the same.
Be careful! Sometimes, the radicands look different, but it's possible to simplify
and get the same radicand.
Example 5:
Simplify.
Simplify both radical expressions:
74
Now, the radicands are the same. Add using the distributive property.
VARIABLE EXPRESSIONS UNDER THE RADICAL SIGN

When you have variables under the radical sign, see if you can factor out a square.
Example 6:
Simplify.
Factor the radicand as the product of a and a squared expression.
Use the product property of square roots:
Simplify.
But the variable only stands for a positive number.
For instance, , but if a < 0, then (the opposite of a),

since the square root sign always indicates the positive square root. Since there is
no way for us to know if a is positive or negative, we use absolute valuevalue. So,
.
The only time we have to worry is if the index of the radical is even, the exponent
of the radicand is even, and the exponent of the root is odd.
Example 7:
Simplify.
Rewrite the radicand using squared expressions where possible.
75
Simplify. (a couldd not be negative because we would not have been able to take
the square root of a3. However, b could be negative, so use absolute value signs.)
2.8- Laws of Exponents and indices

The laws of exponents are used for combining exponents of numbers. Exponent is a
number raised to another number. If we have the variables, which is containing the
exponents and have equal bases means, we can do some mathematical operations
with them. Those operations are called as the “laws of exponents”
Example:
Let we have Ax then
A = base, and
x = exponent.
If we have a n then , n is known as the exponent of the nth power of a.
Laws of exponent are as follows:

x1 = x
x0 = 1
Negative exponent
x -n =
Multiplication law of exponent

If bases are same but the powers are different then we will add the powers on
the same base
x a x b = (x) a+b
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Division law of exponent
= (x) a-b
Law of exponent power

ower of power
(x a) b = x ab
(xy)a = xa y
a
=
Fractional law of exponent
= =
Question 1: Solve the exponents 3 7 × 3 2
Solution:
= 3 (7+2)
= 3 9 (using Multiplication law)
Question 2: Solve the exponents 2 (-3) × (-7) (-3)

Solution:
= (2 × (-7)) (-3)
= (-14) (-3) (using Power of power law)
Question 3:
Solution:
= (using Fractional law)
= = ( using negative law)
77
== (using power of power law)
= =
Question 4: Simplify using the law of exponents
Solution:
=
14
= =
54
Activity
Find the product
213 and 211
(54)2
{(4).(6)}2
Key Points
In the exponent x n , x is base and n is power.
In expression 3x n , 3 is coefficient, x is base and n is power.
x a x b = (x) a+b
78
x -n = v
= (x) a-b

Q.1 Simplify the following expressions:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
Q.2 Simplify the following exponents:

(i) (32) 5
(ii)
. (iii) 2 (- 5)
(iv)
(v)
(vi) ( ) -3
79
ANSWERS
1. i. X ii. X iii. X vi. X v. Y vi. x Y
2. i. {1, 2, 3……10} ii. { } iii. {7, 9}
Q.1.
i. Rational (repeats)
ii. Rational (repeats)
iii. Rational (terminates)
iv. Rational (repeats)
v. Rational (repeats)
vi. Irrational (non repeated)
vii. Irrational (non repeated)
Q. 2
i. Commutative Property for addition
ii. Associative Property for addition
iii. Commutative Property for multiplication
vi. Distributive Property
v. Additive Inverse Property
vi. Multiplicative Identity Property
Q.1 (i) It may not be more simplified because the radicands
are prime numbers.
(ii) 10 5 (iii) 8 2
(iv) 7 3 (v) –9 10
i. (3)10 ii. 125 iii iv 64.
v 64 vi
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. http://cnx.org/content/m20435/latest/
2. http://www.supergenius99.com/website/IntAlg/Radicals/5_4/AddSubRad2.html
http://www.supergenius99.com/website/IntAlg/Radicals/5_4/AddSubRad2.html
80
UNIT––3
MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
Written By: Ms. Yasmeen Akhtar

Reviewer-1: Dr. Tanveer Afzal
81
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction .....................................................................................................83
Objectives .....................................................................................................83
3.1. Matrices...................................................................................................84
3.1.1 Order of Matices .........................................................................85
3.1.2 Equal Matrices ............................................................................86
3.2 Types of Matrices ...................................................................................89
3.3 Negative of a Matrix .................................................................................9
3.4 Transpose of Matrix ................................................................................92
3.5 Adjoint of Matrix ....................................................................................92
3.6 Addition of Matrices ...............................................................................96
3.6.1 Properties of Addition of Matrices .............................................97
3.6.2 Additive Identity of Matrices ....................................................100
3.6.3 Additive Inverse of a Matrix .....................................................100
3.6.4 Subtraction of Matrices .............................................................101
3.7 Multiplication of Matrix by a Real Numbers ........................................104
3.7.1 Multiplication of Matrices ........................................................105
3.7.2 Properties of Multiplication ......................................................109
3.8 Determinant of Matrix ..........................................................................115
3.8.1 Singular and Non-Singular Matrices ........................................117
3.8.2 Multiplicative Identity of Matrix ..............................................118
3.8.3 Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix ............................................119
3.9 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equation By Matrices ......................125
3.10 Cramer’s Rule .......................................................................................133
82
INTRODUCTION
The history of matrices goes back to ancient times! But the term “matrix’ was hot
applied to the concept until 1850. While solving liner system of equation a new
rotation was introduced to reduce the amount of writing, For this new notation the
word matrix was first used by the English mathematician James Sylvester. The
idea of matrices was introduced by the famous mathematician Arther Kally in
1857. Matrices are subject that has a wide application in the field of Mathematics,
Physics, Statistic, Engineering, Electronic, Economics and Industrial research.
Nowadays, matrices are used in high speed computers and also in other various
disciplines. In the first section of this unit you will read about matrices and their
types. Then it includes inverse of matrices. Further the method of solving linear
equations by using matrices is also elaborated in this unit.
OBJECTIVES
after studying this unit, prospective teachers will be able to:
1. understand the concept of matrices.
2. add and subtract matrices
3. evaluate the determinants of 2x2 matrix.
4. perform scalar multiplication on matrices
5. find unknown values in equal matrices
6. solve a system of linear equation as a matrix.
7. use Cramer’s rule to solve a system of linear equation in 2x2 matrices.
83
3.1 Matrices
A matrix is a collection of elements arranged in rows and columns and these rows
and columns are enclosed in square brackets. Generally the matrices are denoted
by capital letters A, B, C,... etc. while the elements of a matrix are denoted by
small letters a, b, c,… and numbers. For example:
a c 1 
A , B   , c  2 3 , D  e
b d  a
Each matrix consists of horizontally and vertically arranged elements.
Horizontally arranged elements are said to form rows whereas vertically arranged
elements are said to form column. e.g;
3 2 1
A   Rows
2 1 4 
Columns
We know that vertical line. “|”
Horizontal line “___________”
1 2
B Rows
4 7
Columns
So we learned that matrix is a system of rows and columns.
The number of rows and columns in a matrix may by equal or different,
as:
1 7 Row 1 3 2 1 Row 1
A B
3 2  Row 2 2 1 4  Row 2
Column 1 Column 2 Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
84
 1  Row 1
C   2 

Row 2
 3  Row 3
Column 1
In the above example in matrix A there are two rows and two columns and matrix
B has two rows and three columns and matrix C has three rows and one column.
Generally rows and columns are denoted by R and C respectively Example:
m n  Row 1 R1
D   
o p Row 2 or R2
Column 1 Column 2
or C 1 or C2
Above mentioned matrix D. has two rows and two columns and m, n, o, p are its
elements.
The number of rows are denoted by “m’ and the number of columns are denoted
by “n”.
In the above matrix C,
The number of rows = m = 2, and
The number of column = n = 2
3.1.1. Order of Matrix

If a matrix A has m number of rows and n number of columns, then the order of
the matrix a is m x n.
We read m x n as “m cross n” or “m-by-n matrix”.
It may be noted that m x n is not a product of m and n.
It is important to note the number of rows is always given first. i.e.
85
3 5
A  0 2
6 3 
Here A has three rows and two columns, so order of A is 3 x 2 or 3 by 2
Similarly we define a 2 x 3 matrix (read 2 by 3 matrix) to be one with two rows
and three columns. i.e.

a b c
A
d e f 
Here matrix A has two rows and three columns, so order of A is 2 x 3, or 2 by 3.
Example 1:
Find the order of B = [a]
Solution:
Matrix B has only one row and one column.
So order of B is 1 x 1.
Example 2:
0  1 4  2
Find the Order of G, G  
4 3  1 
Solution:
Matrix G has two rows and two columns so order of G = 2 x 2.
3.1.2. Equal Matrices

Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if if they are of the same order and
their corresponding elements are equal. For example:
2 4 2 4
A , B
0 3 0 3
In this case A = B, because order of A and B is same and their corresponding
elements are equal.
86
Similarly:
2 2  0
C  and D  are equal matrices, because order of
4 5  1
C and D is same and their corresponding elements are equal similarly,
Remember: 1. The plural of matrix is matrices.

2. Matrices are denoted by capital letters. A, B, C__________
while the elements of a matrix are denoted by small letters.
3. The number of rows and columns in matrix may be equal
or different.
4. In matrices m x n does not mean a Product of m and n.
5. In matrices number of rows are denoted by “m’ and number
of columns are noted by “n”.
6. The corresponding elements in equal matrices are equal.
Activity 3.1:
Q.1 What is a matrix?
Q.2. Describe the matrix A3x2, B2x2 and C3x1.
Q.3. Under what condition are two matrices equal?
Q.4. Write the number of rows and columns of the following matrices. Also
find their order.
2
A   , B  0 2, C  a
1 
0  1 4  2 a a12 
D , E  2 F   11 ,
4 3  1  a21 a22 
G  l m n
87
Self Assessment Exercise 3.1:
Q.1 Which of the following matrices are equal and which of them are not?
A  a b, b  1 2, C  a  0 b
A B
D  0  1 2  0, E  a11 a12  F 
C D
a  0 b 
G , H  a11 a12 
c d 
5  0 5
I  , J  
5  1  6
Q.2 Fill in the blanks.
3
(i) Order of   is_______________________
1  
2 4
(ii) Order of  is_______________________
1  6
0 0
(iii) Order of  is_______________________
0 0
2 2  0
(iv) 1  and 1 0  are _______________________matrix.
   
(v) [a b c] has __________column/s.
(vi) [a] has ____________ column/s.
88
3.2. Types of Matrices
3.2.1. Rows Matrix
A matrix having only one row is called row matrix.
For Example
A=[0 1], B=[a], C=[e f g] are row matrices.
3.2.2. Column Matrix:

A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix. For example:
l 
0 e 
E   , F  , H  a, H  m are column matrices.
1   f  n 
3.2.3. Rectangular matrix:

If in a matrix, the number of rows and the number of columns are not equal, then
the matrix is called rectangular matrix. For example; A=[a b].
The matrix A has one row and two columns, so the number of rows in A are not
equal to the number of columns in A, hence matrix A is a rectangular matrix.
6 1
a   2 1 0 
Similarly B   , C   , D  0 2 are rectangular
c   3 3 4 4 6
matrix.
3.2.4. Square Matrix

A matrix in which the number of rows and the number of columns are equal is
called a square matrix.
89
a c 1 2
For example: P  a , Q    ,R  
b d 3 4
l m n
1 0
I  , J  o p q  are square matrix.
0 1 
r s t 
3.2.5. Null or Zero Matrix:

Null or zero matrix is a matrix with all its elements/entries being zero. A null or
zero matrix is denoted by the capital letter “o”. for example:
0 0 0
O  0, O  0 0, O   , O  are the null
0 0 0
matrices of different orders.
3.2.6 Diagonal Matrix:

A square matrix with all elements not on the principle diagonal equal to zero is
called a diagonal matrix.
a 0
A
0 c 
Principle diagonal
For Example:
1 0 9 0
B  , C 
0 3  0 2 
Some elements of the diagonal of a matrix may or may not be zero. For example;
0 0 10 
3 0
D , E  0 2 0
0 0
0 0 1 
90
3.2.7. Scalar Matrix:
A diagonal matrix having same elements in its diagonal is called a scalar matrix.
For example;
1 0 0
a 0  2 0  
A  , B , C  0 1 0
0 a 0 2  0 0 1 
a 0 0
1 0
D  0 a 0 , I  are scalar matrices.
0 1 
0 0 a 
3.2.8. Unit matrix or Identity Matrix:

A scalar matrix in which all of the diagonal elements are unity or 1 is called unit
or identity matrix. The identity matrix is denoted by letter I.
1 0 0
1 0 
For Example: I  1 , I    , I  0 1 0
0 1
0 0 1 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
I  are the identity matrix of different orders.
0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 1
3.3. Negative of a Matrix

If signs of all the elements of a matrix A are changed, the new matrix obtained
will be negative matrix of the matrix A. Negative of the matrix “A” is denoted by
“–A”. For Example;
a b
A 
c d 
 a b 
 A
 c d 
91
Here sign of each element of a matrix is changed into opposite sign. For example:
1 2
B
 2 3 
 1 2
B
 2 3
3.4. Transpose of a Matrix:

If A is matrix of order m x n, then a matrix of order n x m obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. It is
denoted by At i.e.
For Example:
a b a c
A  ; At  
c d  b d 
3.5. Adjoint of Matrix:

a b
Let A   be a matrix of order 2 x 2. Then the matrix obtained
c
 d 
by interchanging the elements of the diagonal (i.e. a and d) and by changing the
signs of the other elements (b and c) is called the adjoint of the matrix A. The
a b
adjoint of the matrix A is denoted by adj A. For example, If A   then
c d 
d b
adj A  
 c a 
Example 1:
2 4
Find the adjoint of A  
1  5
Solution:
92
To find adjoint we will replace ‘2’ by ‘5’ and “5” by “2” and change the
sign of other elements to opposite signs.
Example 2:
 2 4
Find the adjoint of B  
 1 9
 2 4
Solution: B
 1 9
9 4
Adj B  
1 2
Note: For adjoint of a matrix A, we just interchange the elements in the
principle diagonal and change the sign of secondary diagonal. i.e.
Secondary diagonal
a b
A
c d 
Principle diagonal
d b
Adj A  
 c a 
93
Activity 3.2
Q.1 Identify row matrices, column matrices, square matrices and rectangular
matrices.
2
A  1 2, B   , C  2, D  6  2
3
3 2 a  b   7 2
E , F  , G
4 3 c  d  a b
Q.2 Write the 2 x 2 identity matrix.

Q.3 From the following matrices, identify unit matrices, diagonal matrices and
the scalar matrices.
2 0 1 0 4 0
A  , B , C  1, D
0 1  0 1  0 4
 7 0  2  1 0   2 0 
E , F  , G 
0 6 0 2  3 0
 2
Q.4 Find negative matrices of the matrices A, B and C, when
a b 1 0  3 
2
A , B , C 
c d  5 6  2 3 
2 3 a 5
Q.5 If A    and B   ,
 3 2   5 a 
then prove that At = A and Bt=B
Q.6 Find the adjoint of the following matrices
5 4 2 0  5 2  4 3
A  , B  ,C  E
3 2 1 0 2 6 3 3
94
Q1. Fill in the blanks.
5 0
(i) 0 is a__________ matrix.
 5
1 0
(ii) 0 is a __________ matrix.
 1 
(iii) Transpose of a matrix A is denoted by __________.
(iv) In a square matrix number of rows is ____________to number of
columns.
(v) In diagonal matrix all the elements except at least one of the
elements of diagonal are __________ .
(vi) __________ is used to represent the identity matrix.
(vii) __________ is a used to represent null/zero matrix.
2 0
(viii) 0 is a __________ matrix.
 1 
95
3.6 Addition of Mtrices
Matrix addition is very simple. If A and B are two matrices of the same order,
then they are said to be conformable for addition and their sum is obtained by
adding their corresponding elements.
The sum of A and B is denoted by A+B and its order will be the same as the order
of the matrices A and B.
Example:
2 3 1 5
Add the matrices A=  and B=
4 5 2
 3
Solution:
The order of A is 2 X 2 and the order of B is also 2 X 2.
As both the matrices are of the same order, so A and B are conformable for
addition.
2 3 1 5
A+B=  
5 2 3

4
2  1 3  5
A+B= 
4  2 5  3
3 8
A+B= 
6 8
The order of A+B is also the same as that of A and B i.e. 2X2.
Example 2:
Add the matrices A = [2 3] and B = [5 2]
Solution:
The order of A is 1 x 2 and the order of B is 1 x 2, as both A and B
are conformable for addition.
A+B= 2 3 + 5 2
A+B= 2  5 3  2
96
A+B= 7 5
The order of A+B is also the same that of A and B i.e. 1x2.
3.6.1. Properties of Addition of Matrices

Commutative Property
Commutative property is one of the fundamental properties in mathematics’
commutative property states that, when we change the order of an expression it
will not affect the result of that expression i.e. 6+10=16 it can be written in the
form 10+6=16.
Similarly:
In matrices, for any two matrices A and B of the same order.
A+B = B+A
This property is called the commutative property of matrices with respect
to addition.
Example:
2 1
If A=   and B=   , then show that A+B=B+A
4
  3
 
Solution:
A and B being of the same order are conformable for addition.
2 1 
 A B      
4 3
2  1 
 
4  3
97
3 
A B    (i )
7 
1  2
and B A   
3 4
1  2 
 
3  4
3
BA   (ii )
7
Thus A+B = B+A By (i) and (ii)
As the corresponding elements of A+B and B+A are equal,
therefore A+B = B+A.
Associative Property:
The Associative property of addition for matrices states, of A,B and C be mxn
matrices of same order then (A+B)+C =A+(B+C)
Example:
 6 3  0 0 1 2
If A  ,B    and C   then verify the
 8 4 2 3 0 5
Associative property w.r.t addition.
Solution:
A, B and C are of the same order 2 x 2 so we can add these
matrices.
98
  6 3  0 0  1 2
A  B  C     
  8 4 2 3  0 5 
  6  0 3  0   1 2
      
  8  2 4  3  0 5 
 6 3  1 2
 
 6 1 0 5 
 6  1 3 2 

 6  0 1  5
 5 5
A  B  ________________________(i)
 6 4
 6 3  0 0 1 2 
and A  b  c      
 8 4   2 3 0 5  
 6 3   0  1 0  2 
  
 8 4  2  0 3  5  
 6 3 1 2
  
 8 4  2 8 
  6  1 3  2
 
 8  2 4  8 
 5 5
A  A  C   ________________________(ii)
 6 4
From (i) and (ii), we have
(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
Note: The matrices of same order can be added if the orders are different; we say
that addition is not possible.
99
3.6.2 Additive Identity of Matrices
The additive identity of real number states that when zero is added to any real
number, the number does not change. Thus the number ‘0’ is called the addition
identity for real number e.g; 2+0 = 0+2 = 2
Similarly, a zero matrix “0” is called the additive identity or matrices.
1 2 0 0
For A   , consider 0  
0 5 0 0
1 2  0 0
AO    
0 5  0 0
1  0 2  0

0  0 5  0 
1 2
AO   A
0 5 
0 0 1 2
and O A  
0 0 0 5 
0  1 0  2 
 
0  0 0  5 
1 2
O A  A
0 5 
Thus A0  0 A  A
3.6.3 Additive Inverse of a Matrix

For each matrix A, there is a matrix B such that their sum (A+B) is a zero matrix,
then A and B are called additive inverse of each other.
For example:
a c  a c 
A  and B
b d   b d 
100
Consider:
a c  a c 
A B    B
b d  b d 
a   a  c   c  

b   b  d   d 
a  a cc 

b  b d  d 
0 0
A B  
0 0
A B  O
Therefore, A and B are additive inverses, of each other.
3.6.4. Subtraction of Matrices

Matrix subtraction is very simple, but always keep it in mind that two matrices of
same order can be subtracted. If the orders are different, we say subtraction is not
possible.
So if the order of two matrices are same then we just subtract the corresponding
element of the matrices.
For example:
7 4 1 2
A   and B  
5 6 4 3
Here A–B is possible because A and B both have same order of 2 x 2.
So A–B will be obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the corresponding
element of matrix A.
7 4 1 2
A B   
5 6 4 3 
7  1 4  2

5  4 6  3 
6 2
A B  
1 3 
101
Example 2:
5  4
Subtract the matrices P    and Q   
10   7  
Solution:
The order of P is 2 X 1 and the order of Q is 2 X 1. As both the
matrices are of the same order, so P and Q are conformable for
subtraction.
5   4
 PQ    
10  7 
5  4 
PQ   
10  7 
1 
PQ   
3
Activity 3.3:
Q.1 Find the adjoints of the following matrices.
3 1 2 7 2 7  2 3
A  , B  , C , D   ,
6 4 8 3 3 1  1 2 
3 0
Q.2 If A   , B   , C  7 9, D  1 2,
4 6
2 1  3 1
E , F 
3 4 4 0 
Then find the following matrices.
(i) A+B (ii) C + D (iii) E+F
7 4 1 2 1 7 
Q.3 If A   , B and C
5 6 4 3 5 4
Then Prove that
(i) A+B=B+A (ii) B+C=C+B
102
(iii) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Q.4 Find the value of Y when
2  4 2 4 3 2
(i) Y    (ii) 3  Y 
3 2   6 3
 1 
Q.5 Find the additive inverses of the following matrices.
 3 2 a c  2
A , B , C 
 5 4 b d   5

Q.1 Under what condition can two matrices be added?
1 
Q.2 Is addition possible for A    and B  3 4  . If not then what is the
2
 
reason?
Q.3 Under what condition two matrices be subtracted?
Q.4 Fill in the blanks.
2
(i) The additive inverse of   is _____________.
3 
(ii) _____________ matrix in called the additive identity matrix.
3 1 0 2
(iii) If A    and B   then A–B= _____________.
2 0 1 1 
(iv) For three matrices A, B and C of same orders (A+B)+C=___________.
1  2
(v) If X       than X = ___________.
2 4
Key Points
 The matrices of same order can be subtracted or added if the orders are
different; we say addition/subtraction is not possible.
103
3.7. Multiplication of A Matrix By A Real Number
When we multiply a matrix by a “real number”, we call the real number “a scalar”
and call the operation “Scalar multiplication.”
If k is any scalar and M is a matrix, then multiplication of K and M is denoted by
KM, and KM matrix formed by multiplying each element of M by K. i.e , -2 is
3 1 
any real number and M =  is any matrix. Then
 2 1
3 1 
-2M =–2 
 2 1
 6 2
-2M = = -2 is multiplied with every element of
4 2 
matrix M.
Example 1:
2 0
If A = 3 , then find 3A.
4 1 
Solution:
2 0
3A = 3
4 1 
6 0
3A = 12
 3
Example 2:
 m
If B = n , then find 2B.
 0 
Solution:
 m
2B = 2
n 0 
2 2m
2B = 2n
 0 
104
3.7.1 Multiplication of Matrices :
If A and B are two matrices. Then the product of A and B is possible only when
the number of columns of matrix A is equal to the number of rows of the matrix
B.
Remember the product of A and B denoted by AB, with no dot.
Example 1:
3
If A = 1 2  , B =   then find AB.
2
Solution:
Since the number of columns of A = 2 and the number of rows of B = 2.
So the number of column in matrix A = The number of rows is matrix B,
3
therefore, AB is possible and AB = 1 2  
2
Row of matrix A will be multiplied with the corresponding elements of the
column of the matrix B, then add the product.
B = 13   2 2 
= 3  4
B = 7 
Example 2:
1
If A = 4 3  and B =   then find the product AB.
3
Solution:
The number of column in A = The number of rows in B therefore product of A
and B, AB is possible
105
1
AB = 4 3  
3
AB = 4 (1)  3( 3 ) 
AB = 4  9
AB = 13 
Explaination: The elements of row of a matrix A will be multiplied with the
corresponding elements of the column of the matrix B. then add
the products.
Example 2:
3 1 4
If A =  and B = 3 then find the Product AB.
1 2  
Solution:
The number of column in matrix A = The number of rows in matrix B. so the
product AB is possible.
3 1  4
AB = 1
 2 3
34  13 
= 14
  23
12  3
= 4
  6
15
AB = 10
 
Explanation: We will start with the first row of the matrix A and multiply it each
element with the corresponding elements of the column of the
matrix B, and then add the product.
Example 3:
106
3 1 1 0
If A =  and B = then find the Product AB.
1 2 2
 1 
Solution:
Since the number of column in the first matrix A=2= The number of rows in 2nd
matrix B, so the Product AB is possible.
3 1 1 0
AB = 1
 2 2
 1 
31  12 30  11

AB = 11  22
 10  21
3  2 0 1
AB = 1  4
 0  2
5 1
AB = 5
 2
Example 4:
4
Find the product AB, If A = 2  4  and B =   .
2
Solution:
The number of columns in matrix A = The number of rows in matrix B, so
product AB is possible.
4
AB = 2 4 2
 
AB = 24   42
AB = 8  8
AB = 0 
107
The matrix Product AB can be zero without either A or B being the zero matrix.
Example 5:
a b e f
If A =  and B = then find the product AB.
c d  g
 h 
Solution:
Since number of columns in matrix A = 2 = The number of rows in matrix B.
therefore product AB is possible.
a b e f
AB = c
 d  g
 h 
ae  b g  a f   bh
= ce  d  g 
 c f   d h
ae  bg af  bh
AB = ce  dg
 cf  dh
Example 6:
2 1
If A =  and B = 1 4  then find the Product AB and BA.
3 0
Solution:
For Product AB:
The number of column in matrix A ≠ the number of rows in matrix B. Therefore
the product AB is not possible.
For Product BA:
The number of column in the first matrix B = 2 = The number of rows in 2nd
matrix A. Therefore Product BA is possible.
2 1
BA = 1 4 
3 0
BA = 12   4 3  11  4 0 
108
BA = 2  12 1  0
BA = 14 1
Remember in general the matrices do not satisfy the commutative properly of

multiplication.
3.7.2. Properties of Multiplication

If A, B and C are three matrices such that their multiplication is possible then
A BC  =  AB  C : Associative property.
A B  C  = AB+AC : Left distributive property.
B  C  A = BA+CA : Right distributive property.
If A = B then CA=CA : Left multiplication property.
If A = B then AC = BC : Right multiplication property.
K  AB  = KA  B = A KB  ; K be any scalar.
Key Points:
1. If A is a matrix and K is any real number, then the product of A and K is a
new matrix KA, KA will be obtained by multiplying K with every element
of matrix A.
2. To find the product of two matrices A and B the following points should
be kept in mind.
(i) The number of column in A = The number of rows in B.
(ii) The product of A and B is written as A  B or simple AB.
(iii) The number of rows in the Product AB is equal to the number of
rows in the matrix A and the number of columns in AB A is equal
to the number of columns in matrix B.
3. In general commutative property of multiplication does not hold for
matrices.
109
Example
2 3
If A = 1
 2
1 2
B = 0
 1 
1 1
C = 2
 3
Very associative property w.r.t multiplication.
Solution:
2 3  1 2 1 1 
A BC  = 1  
 2  0 1  2 3 
2 3 11  22 11  23

= 1
 2 01  12
 01  13
2 3 1  4 1  6 
= 1
 2 0  2 0  3
2 3 5 7
= 1
 2 2
 3
25  32 27  33

= 15  22
 17  23 
10  6 14  9
= 5  4 7  6 
 
16 23
A BC  = 9 ____________ (i)
 13 
 1 1  1 2  1 1
Now  AB  C =   2
 2
 3 0 1    3
110
21  30 22  31 1 1
= 11  20
 12  21  2
 3
2  0 4  3 1 1
= 1  0
 2  2 2 3
2 7 1 1
= 1
 4 2
 3
21  72 21  73

= 11  42
 11  43 
2  14 2  21
= 1  8 1  12 
 
16 23
 AB  C= 9 ___________ (ii)
 13 
From (i) & (ii), we have

A BC  =  AB  C.
Example:
5 6 3 2 1 1 
If A =  ,B= and C =
1 0 1
 1  2
 3
Then prove that A B  C  = AB+AC
Solution:
A B  C  = AB+AC
L.H.S =A B  C 
5 6  3 2 1 1 
=   
1 0  1
 1  2 3 
111
5 6 3  1 2  1
=
1 0 1  2
 1  3
5 6 4 3 
=
1 0 3 2
54  63 53  6 2

=
14  03 13  0 2 
20  18 15  12
=
4  0 3  0 
38 3
A B  C  =  ____________ (i)
4 3
R.H.S =AB + AC
5 6 3 2 5 6 1 1 
= +
1 0 1
 1  1 0 2
 3
53  61 52  61 51  62 51  6 3

= +
13  01 12  01  11  02 11  0 3 
15  6 10  6 5  12 5  18
= + 
3  0 2  0  1  0 1  0 
21 16 17 13
= +
3 2  1 1 
21  17 16  13
=
3  1 2  1 
38 3
R.H.S =  _________ (ii)
4 3
From (i) and (ii) it is obvious that = A B  C  = AB+AC
112
Activity 3.4:
2 3 1 7 
Q1. If A =   and B =  then prove that 3A-3B =3
1  4 4 3
A  B 
2 4 1 3 1 0
Q2. If A =  , B = , C = then find of
6 8 5
 7 0
 1 
following.
(i) AB (ii) BA (iii) BC (iv) A BC 
(v)  AB  C (vi) AC-BC (vii) A2 (viii) B2
(ix) AB+BC (x) A2 – B2
1 5 n 35
Q3. If  7 = 10 , then find the value of m and n.
3 m    
Q4. Find the Product. If not possible then what is the reason.
0 1 8
(i) 1
 0 7
 
3 1 4
(ii) 7 3
   7
113
7 2 2 4 7 1
Q1. If A =   ,B=   and C =  then prove that
5
 4 3 6 9 5
(i) A B  C  = AB+AC
(ii) A B  C  = AB-AC
Q2. Under what condition can two matrices of multiplied?
1 2 3 2 1 1 
Q3. For A =  ,B= , and C =
3 1  1
 1  2
 1
Verify associative properly w.r.t multiplication.
2 0 1 D
Q4. If A =  and B =
1
 5 2
 K 
then find the value of K such that AB = BA.
Key Points:
 Product of two matrices A and B is possible If the number of column in A
= the number of rows in B.
 If general the matrices do not satisfy the commutative property of
multiplication.
 The number of rows in the product AB is equal to the number of rows in
the matrix A and the number of columns in AB is equal to the number of
columns in matrix B.
114
3.8 Determinant of Matrix:
If A is a square matrix of order 2  2, then determinant of A is denoted by det A, or
Simply by writing the arrangement of elements in A using vertical lines in place
of square brackets. i.e. , A
It as defined as:
a b
For a square matrix A = 
c d 
a b
det A =
c d
det A =ad-bc
It can be easily remembered if you notice that the expression on the right is
product of the principle diagonal, from upper left to the lower right minus the
product of the secondary diagonal, from lower left to the upper right.
Example 1:
2 3
Evaluate
1 4
Solution:
2 3
Let A =
1 4
A = 2 4   13 
= 8-3
= 5
115
Example 2:
Find the determinant of
4 3 1 1 
(i) 6 (ii)  3 4
 3 1 2 
 4 7
Solution:
4 3
(i) Suppose A = 6
 3
4 3
Let A or A =
6 3
= 4 3   6 3 
= 12-18
let. A = -6
Solution (ii):
1 1 
let A =  3 4
1 2 
 4 7
1 1
3 4
let A =
1 2
4 7
 1  2   1  1 
=       
 3  7   4  4 
2 1
= 
21 16
32  21
=
336
11
det A =
336
116
1 1  1 1 
11
det  3 4
=  A =  3 4
1 2  336 1 2 
 4 7  4 7
3.8.1 Singular and Non-Singular Matrices

If a determinant of a square matrix A is equal to zero then matrix A is called
singular,. i.e A is singular if A = 0 and if A ≠ 0 then A is called non-singular.
For Example:
3 5
If A =  , A is a non-singular matrix As:
 4 3 
3 5
det A or A =
4 3
A = 3 3    4  5 
= 9-20
A = -11
A  0
For Example:
6 3
A = 4 , then A is a singular matrix
 2
6 3
A =
4 2
A = 6 2   4 3 
A = 12-12
A = 0
117
3.8.2 Multiplicative Identity of Matrix:
Multiplicative identity of a matrix A is defined as IA = AI = A, Remember I is an
identity matrix, which when multiplied with matrix A, leaves it unchanged.
For Example:
1 0
I = 0
 1 
a c
A = b
 d 
A and I both are square matrix (Square matrix is a matrix, having m=n) of same
order so product AI or IA is possible.
1 0 a c
IA = 0
 1  b
 d 
1a   0b 1c  0d 

= 0a   1b
 0c  1d 
a  0 c 0
= 0  b
 0  d 
a c
IA = b
 d 
IA = A
OR
a c  1 0
AI = b
 d  0 1 
a1  c0 a0  c1 

AI = b1  d 0
 b0  d 1
a  0 0c
AI = b  0
 0  d 
118
a c
AI = b
 d 
AI = A
3.8.3. Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix:

If A and B are two non-singular matrices such that AB = BA = I (where I is an
identity matrix). Then A and B are said to be multiplicative inverse of each other.
In this case B is unique and can be denoted by
A
1
, as AA
1
= A-1 A = I
AA
1
=I or A-1 A = I
Remember:
 There is no matrix division.
1
 A does not mean to take the reciprocal of every element in the matrix
A.
1
 Multiplicative Inverse A , of any non-singular matrix A is given by the
1 adjA
relation, A = , Iff A 0
A
Note:
If A is a singular matrix A  0  , then the multiplicative inverse of A does not
exist.
Example 1:
5 3
If A =  4 , find A  1 .
 1 
Solution:
First of all we will find the determinant of A because if determinant of A is not
equal to zero then inverse of A is possible/exist. So
119
5 3
A =  4
 1 
= 5 1   4  3 
= 5-12
A = -7  0
Since determinant of A is not equal to zero, therefore A  1 exists.
1 adj A
A =
A
1 3
adjA = 4
 5
1 3
4 5
1 
A =
7
1 1 3
A
1
=  
7 4 5
 1 3
 7  
7
1
A =  
 4 
5
 7 7 
Example:
4 3
If A = 3 , find A  1 .
 8 
Solution:
First of all we will find the determinant of A because if determinant of A is not
equal to zero then Inverse of A exists.
4 3
So: A = 3
 8 
120
A = 4 8   3  3 
A = 32+9
A = 41  0
1
Since determinant of A is not equal to zero, hence A exists.
1 adjA
 A = _______ (i)
A
8 3
 adjA =  3
 4
Putting the value of adjA and A in equation (i).
8 3
 3 4
1 
A =
41
1
1 8 3
A = 
41 3 4
8 3
 41 41
1
A =  
 3 4
 41 41
Example:
6 3
If A = 4  , then find A  1 .
 2
Solution:
6 3
A = 4
 2
First of we will find A because if determinant of A is not equal to zero then
inverse of A exists.
121
6 3
A =
4 2
A = 6 2   4 3 
A = 12-12
A = 0
 Determinant of A is equal to zero, so inverse does not

exists.
Key Points (Requirement to have an inverse)

 The matrix must be square matrix.
 The matrix must be non-singular.
 For singular matrix inverse does not exists.
Activity 3.5:
Q.1. Find the determinant of the following matrices.
7 1 4 1  2 1 
(i) (ii) 4 (iii)
5
 2  3  4
 1
1 1
2    1 2
2 1  3 3
(iv)   (v) (vi) 4
1 1   3  1 
 3 2 
3 
2K 4
Q.2. Find the value of K value A =  and A = 16
 1 5 
Q.3. Are the following pairs of matrices multiplicative inverse of each other?
1 0  1 0 
(i) 0 ,
 1  0 1
122
1 4 1 4
(ii) 2 ,
 6  2 6
5 1  4 1
(iii) 3 ,
 4  3 5
a 6  a 6 
(iv)  6 ,
 a  6 a
Q.4. Find multiplicative inverse of each of the following matrices, If possible.
1  2
5 5 
(i)  
2 1 
 5 5 
 3 4 
(ii)  
5 3 
4 3
(iii) 1
 5
2 1 
(iv)   3 
3
 2 
3 8
(v) 4
 9 
123
Q1. Identity the singular and non singular matrices from the following
matrices.
1  3
   5 5 
(i)  m (ii)  
 m 3 1 
 5 5 
 2 2  p q
(iii)   (iv) q
3 2   r 
2 3 3 6
(v) 2 (vi)
 3 5
 4
7 1
Q.2. If A=   , then prove that A-1 A= A A-1 = I
 3 2
4 7
Q.3. If B=  , then prove that B-1 B= B B-1 = I
3  2 
2 3
Q.4. If matrix A= 4 is a singular, then find x.
 x
x 3 6 3
Q.5. If 3  then find x.
 5 3 5
Ky Points:
 A-1 does not mean to take reciprocal of every element in the matrix.
 There is no matrix division.
 If A is a singular matrix (|A|=0), then the multiplicative inverse of A does
not exist.
124
3.9 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equation by Matrices:
We have learnt to solve system of equation by several methods already. Now we
will learn to solve a system of equation by using the inverse of matrices.
Let a 1
x  b1 y  c 1
and a 2
x  b 2 y  c 2 be two simultaneous linear equations.
These equation can be written in matrix form like.

 a1 b 
1
x c 1 
 y =  
 a 2 b 
2   c 2 
A X = B
The matrices above represent three parts of a system of equations. Written in
standard from.
 a1 b  , X
1
x c 1 
A =  = y , B =  
 a 2 b 
2   c 2 
Matrix A is a matrix showing the coefficients of the variable in the two equations.
Matrix A is called a coefficient matrix. Matrix X shows the variable in the system,
and matrix B shows the constant terms.
a b  x  c1 
Where  1 1
y =  
 a 2 b 
2   c 2 
Or AX = B is called a matrix equation.
1 1 1
 A AX = A B (Multiplying both sides by A from left
side
Or IX = A 1 B  A A
1
 I 
X = A 1 B  IX  X
If A is non-singular than equation can be solved.
125
Example 1:
Find the solution set of the equation.
3x + 5y = -11
5x + 7y = -5
Solution:
We can write the equations in the form of matrices as:
3 5 x  11
5 =
 7 y
 
 5 
 
3 5
Let A =  matrix A showing the coefficients of the variable in
5  7
equations
x
X= y matrix X shows the variable in equation.
 
 11
B=  5  matrix B shows the constant term in equation.
 
Then A X=B
adjA
Or X = or X = A-1 B A 1 B : A 1  iff A  0
A
3 5
Now A =
5 7
= 3 7   5 5 
= 21-25
A = -4
A  0 : As A is non-singular matrix, so the
equation can be solved.
126
adjA 7 5
A
1
= =  , then X =A-1 B gives
A  5 3 
X =
1 7 5  11
X = - 
4  5 3   5 
7 11 5 5

=  5 11
 3 5
1  77 25
=  
4  55 15
1  52
=  
4  40
 52
4
=
 40
4
13
X = 10
 
13 
X = 35 / 2
 
x 13
Or y = 10
   
 x = 13, y = 0
So the solution set is 13 ,10
127
Example 2:
Solve the following equations by using matrices.
3x – y = 0
7x + 5y = 2
Solution:
We can write the equations in the form of matrices, we have
3 1 x 0
7 =
 5  y
 
2
 
Then AX = B
1
X = A B
3 1
Now A =
7 5
|A| = 3(5) – (7) (–1)
A = 22
As A  0 so A is non-singular matrix, so the equations can be solved.
adjA
 A
1
=
A
5 1
adjA =  7
 3
5 1
 7 3
1 
then A =
22
and X = gives
A-1B
x 1 5 1 0
y =  7
  22  3 2
128
1 50  12 
=  70 
22  32
1 0  2
= 
22 0  6
1 2
= 6
22  
2
22
6
= 22
1
11
3
x 11
y =
 
1 3
 x = , y =
11 11
 1 3 
So the solution set is  , 
 11 11 
Example 3:
Use matrices to solve the following linear equation. Give the reason if solution is
not possible.
(i) 2x =3 – 4y (ii) 4x –5y =0

1
3y =x  8x –10y =1
3
129
Solution (i):
The given equation are
2x =3 - 4y or 2x +4y =3
1 1
3y =x  or x -3y =
3 3
We can write the equations in the form of matrix as
3 
2 4  x
1 =  1
 3 y
   
 3 
A X =B
Or X = A–1B
2 4
Now A =
1 3
= 2  3   14 
= –6 -4
A = –10  0
As A is non-singular matrix, so the equation can be solved.
1 adjA
 A =
A
2 4 
We know for A = 1
 3
 3 4
Adj A =  1
 2 
 3 4
 1 2 
1 
 A =
 10
130
1
Then X = A B gives
 3 4
 1 3 
 2   
X =
10  1
 3 
3 
1  3 4  1
=   1
10  2   
 3 
   1 
 33 4 3 
1  
=  
10    1 
 13 2 
  3 
 4
9  
1  3
=   
10  2
3 
 3 
  27 4 
1  3 
=    (Solving by L.M.C)
10   9 2 
 3 
  23 
1  3 
=   
10   11 
 3 
  23  1 
 3   10 
  
=
  11 1  
   
 3  10  
131
 23
x  30
Or y =  
   11
 30
23 11
 x = , y =
30 30
 23 11 
So the solution set is  , 
 30 30 
Solution (ii):
The given equations are
4x -5y = 0
8x -10y = 0
We can write the equation in the form of matrix as:
4 5  x 0
8 =
 10 y 1 
 
A X = B
X = A 1 B
4 5
Now A =
8 10
= 4  10   8  5 
= -40+40
A = 0
Here A is a singular matrix, so the equations can not be solved.
132
3.10 CRAMER’S RULE
Simultaneous linear equation can also be solved by Cramer’s rule. The procedure
to solve linear equation by Cramer’s rule is explained below:
Consider the linear equations:
a x b y  c
1 1 1
a x b y  c
2 2 2
We know that the above equations can be written in matrices form as:
 a1

b1  x = c 1 
 
y
 a 2 b2    c 2 
A X = B
1 1 adjA
Or X = A B where A =
A
b2  b1 c1 
  
 a 2 a1  c2
 X =
A
x 1 b 2 c1  b1 c 2 
Or y =  
  A   a 2 c1  a1 c 2 
x = b 2 c1  b1 c 2
A
x = D 1
A
c 1 b 1
where D
1
=
c 2b 2
a c a c 2 1 1 2
Similarly y =
A
a 1 c1
where D
2
=
a 2 c 2
y = D 2
133
Example:
Use Cramer’s rule to solve the following linear equations.
7x -37 = 3
x -2y = 2
Solution:
We write the above equations in matrices form as:
AX = B or X = A 1 B
7 3 x 3

Where A = 1 ,X = y , B = 
 2    2
7 3
As A =
1 2
= 7 2   1 3 
= 14 +3
A = 17  0
So solution exists:
3 3
Here D 1
=
2 2
(For D1 , replace X column in A with the constant column in matrix B.)
= 3 2   2  3 
= 6 + 6
D 1
= 12
7 3
D 2
=
1 2
134
For D2 , replace y column in A with the constant column in matrix B.
= 7 2   13 
D 2
= 14 -3
D 2
= 11
x = D 1
=
12
A 17
And y = D 2
=
11
A 17
 12 11 
So, the solution set is  , 
 17 17 
Activity 3.6:
Q.1. Write the following matrices in the form of linear equation.
1 1 x 2
(i) 2 =
 3  y 0
 
2 4 1 
3 3  x 5 
(ii)   =  
1 1  y 1 
 4 2   2 
Q.2. Use matrices to solve the following linear equations, give the reason if
solution is not possible.
x y
(i)  = 2 (ii) 4x + 3y =9
3 2
y
x+ = 6 3x + 6y =3
4
(iii) 2x + 3y= 6 (iv) 2x = 2 – 37
135
1
y – 4x 12 = 0 3y = x+
2
Q 3. Use Cramer’s rule to solve the following system of equation. Give the
reason where solution is not possible.
(i) 2x + 5y =1 (ii) 6x – 3y= 2
x – 34 =4 5x – y = 5
(iii) 0.2 x – 0.6 y = 1 (iv) 2x = 13 – 5y
0.6 x – 0.2 y = 2 2y = 17 – 5x
Q.4 Write the equations 2x + my = 7 and 4x – 9y = 4 in matrix form. Also find
the value of m if if the matrix of the coefficients is singular.
 x  8 y  3
Q5. Solve  using a matrix equation.
2 x  6 y  17
2x – 6y = -17

Q 1: Fill in the blanks
(i) The matrix of coefficient for the equation.
x 2y 1
 1 and 2x  y  3 is __________________
2 3 3
1 1
(ii) If A A  I , then: A is ___________ of matrix A.
4 3
(iii) If 2 is a singular, then x = ______________
 x
Q.2 Solve the following equations.
1 3 1
x y 
2 2 2
1 3 3
x y 
4 4 4
136
Key Points:
 If A is singular matrix then solution of equation does not exists.
 In Cramer’s rule we find D1 by replacing X column in |A| with the
constant column in matrix B, and D2 by replacing Y column in |A| with the
constant column in matrix B.
137
ANSWERS
Activity 3.1:
Q.1 See definition
a11 a12  a11 
a  a11 a12  a 
Q.2. (i) a , (ii) a (ii)
  a22   11 
21 22
a31 a32   21 a31 

Q.3. See definition
Q.4. A= 2 rows, 1 column
B= 1 row, 2 column
C= 1 row , 1 column
D= 2 row, 2 column
E= 1 row, 1 column
F= 2 row, 2 column
G= 1 row, 3 column

Q.1 A=C, E=H, B=D, F=G, I=J
Q.2 (i) 2x1, (ii) 2x2 (iii), 2x2 (iv) equal (v) three (vi) one
Activity 3.2:
Q.1 Row matrices, A, C, D
Column matrices B, C, D, F, H
Square matrices C, D, E, G
Rectangle matrices A, B, F, H
1 0
Q.2. 
0 1 
Q.3. Unit matrices B, C, F
Diagonal matrices A, B, C, D, E, F, G
Scalar matrices B, C, D, F, G
 a b   1 0 
Q.4. A=  , B 
 c d   5
 6
 3 2 
C=  
 2  3 
5 4 0 0
Q.5. Adj A=   , Adj B= 
 3 2   1 2
138
6 2  3 3
Adj C=   , Adj E= 
 2 5  3 4

(i) scalar (ii) identity (iii) At
(iv) equal (v) zero (v) I
(vii) O (vii) diagonal
Activity 3.3:
4 1 3 7
Q.1 Adj A=  , Adj B=
 3 3   8
 2 
 1 7  2 3 
Adj C=   , Adj E=  
 3 2   1 2 
3   1 0
Q.2. (i) 10  (ii) 8 7 (iii) 7
   4
  2 1 2
Q.3. (i)  5 (ii) 0
   5
 3 2  1 c  2
Q.4.  5 , ,
 4  b
 d   5
 

Q.1 See definition
Q.2 Not possible because order of A and B are not same.
Q.4 See definition
  2 3 1
Q.5 (i)  3  (ii) Zero matrix 0 (iii) 1
   1
1 
(iv) A + (B + C) (v) 2
 
Activity 3.4:
22 34 20 28
Q.1 (i) 46 (ii)
 74 52
 76
1 3 22 34
(iii) 5 (iv)
 7 46
 74
22 34 1 1
(v) 46 (vi)
 74 1
 1
139
46 40 16 24
vi) 60 (viii)
 88  40
 64
23 37 30 16 
(ix) 51 (x)
 81  20
 27
10
Q.3. m= ,n=0
7
7
Q.4. (i)  
8 
(ii) impossible

Q.2. The product A B of two matrices A and B is possible of the number of
columns is A = the number of rows in B.
Q.4 K=7
Activity 3.5:
Q.1 (i) 9 (ii) 8 (iii) 6
1
(iv) (v) -4 (vi) 15
3
Q.2 2 Q. 3 (i) No (ii) No (iii) No (iv) No
 1 2  3 4 
 25 25  (ii)
 
Q.4 (i)    17 17 
  2 1 5 3
 25 25   
17 17 
5  3 9 8
17 17  (iv)  59 59 
(iii)    
 1 4   4 3
 17 17   57 59 

Q.2 (i) Singular (ii) Non-singular
(iii) Non-singular (iv) Alon-singular
(v) Singular (vi) Non-singular
Q.4 x=6
Q.5 x=6
140
Activity 3.6:
Q.1 (i) 1x – y = 2 ; 2x + 3y = 0
25
Q.2. (i) x= , y=o
24
(ii) x = 3 , y = -1
15
(iii) x= ,y=0
7
1 1
(iv) x= ,y=
2 3
23 17
Q.3. (i) x= ,y
11 11
13 20
(ii) x= ,y=
9 9
7 1
(iii) x= , y=
2 5
59 31
(iv) x= ,y=
21 21
 9 2 m   x  7
Q.4. m = ,  
2 4 9  y  4
1
Q.5 x = –7, y =
2
1 2
2 3  (ii)
(i)   Multiplicative inverse
2 1
 3 
3
(ii)
2
Q.2 Solution does not exist.
141
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. S.M YOUSAF, MATHEMATICAL METHODS ILMI KTAB KHANA,

KABIR STREET URDU BAZAR LAHORE
2. MERRILL ALGEBRA 2 WITH TRIGONOMETRY APPLICATIONS
AND CONECTIONS.
3. SEK LINLIAN, NEW MATHEMATICS FOR SECONDARY
SCHOOLS, SYLLABUS D.MAN HATTAN PRESS.
4. COLLEGE ALGEBRA FIFTH EDITION, RAYMOND A BARNETT
MICHALE R ZIEGLER.
5. KAUFMANN J.E, COLLEGE ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY;
PWS-KEN COMPANY, BOSTON LATEST EDITION.
142
UNIT––4
POLYNOMIALS
Written By: Ms. Yasmeen Akhtar

Reviewer-1 by:Ms. Saima Kashif
143
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ...................................................................................................145
Objectives ...................................................................................................145
4.1 Algebraic Expressions & Polynomials .................................................146
4.1.1 Variable & Constant .................................................................146
4.1.2 Co-efficient and Exponent ........................................................146
4.1.3 Algebraic Expressions ..............................................................147
4.1.4 Term ..........................................................................................147
4.1.5 Polynomials...............................................................................147
4.1.6 Degree of Monomials ..............................................................148
4.2 Operations on Polynomials ...................................................................151
4.2.1 Addition of Algebraic Expression (Polynomials) .....................151
4.2.2 Subtraction of Polynomials ......................................................153
4.2.3 Multiplication of Polynomials ..................................................154
4.2.4 Division of a Polynomial ..........................................................156
4.3 Algebraic Formulas & Their Applications ...........................................161
4.4 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equation ...........................................165
4.4.1 Solution of a Linear Equation in One Variable ........................165
4.4.2 Concept of Linear Equation in Two Variables .........................172
4.4.3 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equation in Two Variables ..172
4.5 Quadratic Equation ...............................................................................184
4.5.1 Solution of a Quadratic Equation..............................................184
4.5.2 Completing Square Method .....................................................187
4.5.3 Solution by the Quadratic Formula ..........................................190
4.6 Discriminate and Nature of Roots of a Quadratic Equation .................198
4.7 Elimination ...........................................................................................200
144
INTRODUCTION
Polynomials are often used and represent unknown quantities. In certain
situations, it is necessary to add or subtract such Polynomial
There are many problems that can be solved by equations like these we
have just discussed, For example, we use completing the request to solve a
geometric problem. In this section you will also learn the concept of elimination
of variables from system of two equations. Elimination is commonly used in
Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and other science subjects.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 find value of the variable/unknown in equations
 add, subtract, multiply & divide the Polynomials
 solve equations by different techniques
 understand the nature of roots of quadratic equation
 apply the concept of elimination of variable from system of two equation
145
POLYNOMIALS
4.1 Algebraic Expressions and Polynomials
4.1.1 Variable and Constant
Variable is a symbol which represent the elements of a non – empty set,
for example in
A  x x  N , x  100
x is a natural number from 1 to 100 as its values. As the values of x is

subject to change, it is called a variable. The value of each natural number
remains unchanged, so it is called a constant.
In the above example the domain set of x is 1,2,3,.....,100
As x can take any value only from this set. So variable is a value that may
change within the scope of a given problem or set of operation, and a quantity that
remains the same throughout the problem is called the constant. Usually x, y, z
and t are used to represent variable and a, b, c etc are used to denote constants.
In 2x = 5, x is a variable, 2 and 5 are constants. The value of the variable x
5
is , a constant quantity constant quantity.
2
4.1.2 Co – efficient and Exponent

A constant number when multiplied with only a variable term is called
coefficient of that variable.
For example, in 9x2, 9 is called coefficient of x2 and 2 is called the
exponent or index of the variable x or power of x.
We can say that x2 has been added 9 time i.e.
9x2 = x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 + x2
In 3x2y3 , x and y are variables; 3 is the coefficient, 2 and 3 are the
exponent or power of x and y respectively.
146
4.1.3 Algebraic Expression
An expression which consists of variable and constant connected by
algebraic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division or root
extraction is called an algebraic expression. For example 3x + 2, 3a + 9b, 2x +
y, 3x + 6y – z, x – 2y + 2z etc are algebraic expression.
4.1.4 Term
A term is a number or the product of a number and one or more variables,
raised to a power.
For example:
5xy, 5x3, 4xy and 6z4 are terms.
2x2 + 3x is not a term; it is the sum of two terms.
If terms contain exactly the same variables raised to the same powers, they
are called Like terms.
Examples include 5S and 7S, 4y2 and 9y2, 7xyz and 3xyz, 10x2 and 2x2.
4.1.5 Polynomials
A polynomial is an algebraic expression consisting of one or more terms,
in each of which exponent of the variable is non – negative i.e. either zero or
positive integer some examples are (i) – y (ii) 13 (iii) x2 + 2x + 1 (iv) 3x

9
are polynomials but and 5 x are not polynomials because the variable in the
x
first term is in the denominator and the variable in the second term is under the
– 2 –ve
radial. Similarly x can not be a polynomial because exponent is . A
polynomial with one term is called monomial.
A polynomial with two term is a binomial. A polynomial with three term
is called a trinomial.
147
Note: The prefix “mono” means one, the Prefix “bi” means two and “tri” means
three.
Examples: Which of the following are polynomials? Classify

The Polynomials as monomial, binomial or trinomial
(a) 5x2y Monomial
(b) 3x + 5y Binomial
(c) 4a3 + 3a – 2 Trinomial
2
(d) 5x2 – is not a Polynomial
y
Because the variable y is in the denominator.
1
Note: Remember that = y–1
y
4.1.6 Degree of Monomials
The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponent of the variable
factors. For example 3a2b2 has degree 4, (the sum of powers, 2 and 2 is 4)
Example:
Determine the degree of a Monomial
(a) 5x2
5x2 has degree 2
(b) 7n2
7n5 has degree 5
(c) 3a2b4
3a2b4 has degree 6. (The sum of power 2 and 4 is 6)
(d) 9
9 has degree 0 (because 9 = 9.1 = 9.x0).
148
Degree of Polynomials:
The degree of a polynomial is that of the term with highest degree.
For example 7x3 – 5x2 + 5 has degree 3.
Example: Determine the degree of Polynomial.
(a) 5y7 – 3y2 + 5y – 7
(b) 4a2b3 – 5abc
In (a) 5y7 – 3y2 + 5y – 7 has degree 7
In (b) 4a2b3 – 5abc has degree 5 because the sum of the variable powers
in the term with highest degree (4a2b3) is 5.
The above example (a) is called Polynomial in one variable, and they are usually
written in descending form so that the power of the variable decreases from left to
right. In that case, the coefficient of the first term is called the leading coefficient.
149
Activity 4.1:
1 Give the degree of each polynomial , for those polynomials in one
variable, write in descending form and give the leading coefficient.
(i) 7x4 – 5xy + 9
(ii) 5
(iii) 4x2 – 7x3 – 8x + 5
2 Write the degree of the following polynomials.

(i) 9xy
(ii) 10x + 8
(iii) xyz2
(iv) 6x3 + y3 + 3x7y + xy2
(v) ax2 + bxy + cy2
3 Classify each of the following as a monomial, binomial, or trinomial

where possible.
(i) 7x3 3x2
(ii) 5x8
(iii) 2x2 + 3xy + y2
(iv) – 2x4 – 3x2 + 5x + 2
5
(v) x4 + + 7
x
4 Fill in the blanks.
(i) In 10x7, the exponent of x is __________
(ii) 3x + 4y + 3z is a __________ consisting of three variable.
x2 y2
(iii) x3 + + +y2 is an expression but not a __________.
y x
(iv) In ax + by + c = 0, the coefficient of x is __________.
(v) In ax2 + bx + c, the coefficient of x is __________.

1. Which of the following are terms?
(a) 6x (b) 3x + 2y + 3 (c) x9
2. For each of the following pairs of terms, decide whether they are like
terms.
(a) 5x3 and 5x
(b) 3xy and 2xy
150
(c) 2xy3 and 9xz
(d) 8xy2z and 9xy2z
3. Which of the following are polynomials? Classify the polynomials as
monomial, binomial, or trinomials.
(a) 5x2 – 6x (b) 8x4
9
(c) 9x3 – 3xy + 7y2 (d) 7x –
x
4. Give the degree of each monomial.
(a) 4x2 (b) 8p2s (c) 5 (d) 7x2y3
5. Separate variable, exponent and coefficient from the following terms.
(a) 2x3 (b) 3xy (c) 4z3
6. Which of the following statement is always true.
(i) A monomial is a polynomial
(ii) A binomial is a trinomial
(iii) A trinomial has three terms
(iv) The degree of trinomial is 3
(v) A binomial must have two coefficient
Key Points:
 If a polynomial has one term, then it is called a Monomial Similarly, a
Polynomial consisting of two or three terms is called Binomial or
Frinomial respecitvely.
1
 Remember that  y 1
y
4.2 Operation on Polynomials

4.2.1 Addition of Algebraic Expressions (Polynomials)
If P(x) and Q(x) are two polynomials, then their addition is represented an
P(x) + Q(x). In order to add two or more then two polynomials, we first write the
polynomials in descending or ascending order and like terms each in the form of
columns. Finally we add the coefficient of like term.
Rules of addition
(i) The sum of two positive terms is positive.
151
For Example 3x, 5x are two like terms
3x + 5x = (3 + 5)x = 8x
(ii) The sum of two negative terms in negative.
For Example – 5x, – 8x are two like terms.
( – 5x) + ( – 8x) = – 5x – 8x
= ( – 5 – 8)x
= – 13x
(iii) If two terms having different signs are added then the result is different of
the terms with the sign of greater term.
For example – 5x + 8x = + 3x
Similarly 5x – 8x = – 3x
To find the sum of two polynomials, we add the like terms, given
(3x3 + 2x – 5) + (x3 – x2 + 5x – 1)
= 3x3 + 2x – 5 + x3 –x2 + 5x – 1
= (3x3 + x3) + ( – x2) + (2x + 5x) + ( – 5 – 1) [combining the like
terms]
This simplifies to
4x3 –x2 + 7x – 6
Example 2: Add 3x3 + 5x2 – 4x, x3 – 6 + 3x2 and 6 – x2 –x

Solution: (3x3 + 5x2 – 4x) + (x3 – 6 + 3x2) + (6 –x2 – x)
= 3x2 + 5x2 – 4x + x3 – 6 + 3x2 + 6 – x2 – x
= (3x2 + x3) + (5x2 + 3x2 + x2) + ( – 4x – x) + ( – 6 + 6)
=4x3 + 7x2 – 7x + 0
=4x3 + 7x2 – 7x + 0
152
4.2.2 Subtraction of Polynomials
The subtraction of two polynomials P and Q
Represented by P – Q or [P + ( – Q)]
In the subtraction of Polynomials we must remember the following points.
(i) change the sign of the terms to be subtracted.
i.e. “+” into “–“
and “–“ into “+”
(ii) after changing the sign add the like terms.
Example1: Subtract 4x – 10 from 8x – 12
Solution: (8x – 12) – (4x – 10) (Horizontal Method)
=8x – 12 – 4x + 10
=8x – 4x – 12 + 10
=(8 – 4)x – 2
=4x – 2
Vertical Method
8x – 12
+ 4x 10
(changing the sign)
4x – 2 Ans.
If the sum of two polynomials P and Q is zero then P and Q are called
additive inverse of each other.
If P= x + y and Q = – x – y
Then P + Q = (x + y) + ( – x – y) = 0
Like addition we write the polynomial expressions in descending or
ascending order and then change the sign of every term of the Polynomial which
is to be subtracted.
Example: Subtract 2x3 – 4x2 + 8 – x from 5x4 + x – 3x2 – 9
Solution: Arrange the terms of the polynomials in descending order
153
5x4 + 0x3 – 3x2 + x –9
+ 0.x4 + 2x3 – 4x2 – x +8
Difference: 5x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 2x – 17
4.2.3 Multiplication of Polynomials

The product of two terms with like signs in positive and the product of two terms
with unlike sign is negative . Thus
(i) ( + x)( + y) = + (xy)
(ii) ( + x)( – y) = – (xy)
(iii) ( – x)( + y) = – (xy)
(iv) ( – x)( – y) = + (xy)
In multiplication we must remember the following points.
(a) The product of the numerical co – efficient will be the co – efficient of the
product.
For example (2x + 3)(3x)
= 6x2 + 9x
(b) Write all the variable existing in the several expressions are to be taken in
the Product with exponents equal to the sum of the exponents of the like
bases in the terms.
For example:
(8x2 y) (4x3 y4 )
Add exponents
2+3 1+4
= (8.4) (x )(y )
Multiply
= 32 x5 y5
Example: Find the product of (2x + 3) and (x – 2)

Solution: Horizontal Method.
154
(2x + 3) (x – x) = 2x(x – 2) + 3(x – 2)
2 Each term of one polynomial
=2x – 4x + 3x – 6 multiplies each term of the other.
=2x2 – x – 6
Example: Multiply 2x – 3 with 5x + 6

Solution: Vertical Method
5x +6
2x –3
10x2 + 12x
– 15x – 18
10x2 – 3x – 18
Example:
Steps I
(3x + 2) (3x3 – 2x2 + 5)
Step II
=3x(3x3 – 2x2 + 5) + 2(3x3 – 2x2 + 5)
=9x4 – 6x3 + 15x + 6x3 – 4x3 + 10
Step I Step II
Combining like terms.
=9x4 – 4x2 – 6x3 + 6x3 + 15x + 10
=9x4 – 4x2 + 15x + 10
Note: The Product of two polynomials is also a polynomial whose degree is
equal to the sum of the degrees of the two polynomials.
155
4.2.4 Division of A Polynomials
Consider the following example.
12 2 23

6 23
= 12
Similarly consider the following examples.
Example 1: x 4  x2
x4 x. x. x.x
Solution: 2
=  x. x  x 2
x x. x
Example 2: 15x5÷3x2
15 x 5
Solution:
3x 2
3.5 . x . x . x . x . x

3. x . x . x
= 5ּxּxּx
= 5x3
Example3: (x5 – x2)÷x2

Solution: Divide each term by x2
x5  x2
=
x2
x5 x2
= 
x2 x2
= x3 – 1
This Method is known as “short division method”.
156
The above examples may also be solved by the method of long division.
x4 ÷ x2
x2
x2 x4
± x4
0
We prefer method of long division when divisor consists of two or more
terms
Example 4: Divide x2 + 7x + 10 by x + 2
Solution:
Step I x Divide x2 by x to get x
2
x  2 x  7 x  10
The first term in the dividend , x2, is divided by the first term in the
divisor, x.
Step II x Multiply the divisor, x
2
x  2 x  7 x  10 + 2, by x.
x2 + 2x
Step III x
2
x  2 x  7 x  10
Subtract and bring
± x2 ± 2x down 10.
5x + 10
Remember to subtract x2 + 2x,

Change each sign to –x2 – 2x, and add.
Take your time and be careful here. It’s where most errors are made.
Step IV x5
2
x  2 x  7 x  10
±x2 ±2x Divide 5x by

5x+10 x to get 5.
157
x 5
2
Step V x  2 x  7 x  10
2 Multiply x+2
+ x + 2x
by 5 and then subtract
5x + 10
+ 5x + 10
0
The Quotient is x+5.

Note that we repeat the process until the degree of the remainder is less
then that of the divisor or until there is no remainder.
In above example you have seen all the steps separately.
Example 5: Divide x2+x–12 by x–3.

Explanation:
x4 1. Divide x2 by x to get x, the first
2 term of the quotient.
x  3 x  x 12 2. Multiply x–3 by x.
2
+x 3x 3. Subtract. Remember to change
4x –12 the signs to –x2+3x and add.
+ 4x 12 Bring down –12.
0 4. Divide 4x by x to get 4, the
second term of the quotient.
The quotient is x+4. 5. Multiply x–3 by 4 and subtract.
Example 6: Divide 5x2–x+x3–5 by –1+x2

Solution: Write the division as x2–1 and the divided as x3+5x2–x–5
x 5 Note:
2 3 2
x 1 x 5x  x 5 Write x3–x, the Product of x and x2–1,
+x
3
x so that like terms fall in the same
2 columns.
5x –5
+ 5x 2 5
+
0
Therefore quotient is x+5
158
Example 7:
Divide x3–2x2+5 by x+3
x2  5x  15
x  3 x 3  2 x2  0 x  5
+ x3 + 3x2 Write 0x for the “missing”
2 term in x.
– 5x + 0x
5x2 15x
15x +5
+ 15x + 45
–40
The result can be written as
x3  2 x2  5  40
 x 2  5 x  15 
x3 x3
Activity:
1. Add (i) 1+2x+3x2, 3x–4–2x2, x2–5x+4
(ii) x2+3x–5, x2–2x–1, 2x2+5x+3
(iii) a3–2a2b+b3, 4a3+2ab2+6a2b, 2b3–5a3–4a2b
2. The sum of two polynomials is x2+2x+y2. If one polynomial is x2–2xy+3,
then find the other polynomial.
3. Subtract 3x4+5x3+2x2–x from 4x4+2x2+x3–x+1
4. Subtract 4x+16–2x2 from the sum of x3+x2–2x and 2x3+3x–7
5. Find the Products.
(i) (x+3) (x2–3x+9)
(ii) (3x2+2x–4) (5x2–3x+3)
(iii) (a+b+c) (a2+b2+c2–ab–bc–ca)
6. Simplify
(i) (x3–2x+4) ÷ (x+2)
159
(ii) (5x3–7x2y–xy2+3y3) ÷ (5x+3y)
(iii) (a2+3a2b+3ab2+b3) ÷ (a–b)
(iv) (x4–y4) ÷ (x2+y2)
7. The Product of two polynomials is 9x4–4x2+15x+10. If one polynomials is
3x+2, then find the other polynomial.
Self Assessment 4.2:

Complete the following sentences.
(i) Sum of 3x+4y and 4x–3y is ____________.
(ii) Subtract 6x+4y from 4x–3y = ____________.
(iii) (3x3+2x2+4x+1) + (5x2+4x) = ____________.
(iv) (2x3–6x2+5x–15) ÷ (x–3) = ____________.
(v) (3x4+3x2+4x) (x+1) = ____________.
160
4.3 Algebraic Formulas and Their Applications
In mathematics, formula is a tool to find directly the simplified term instead of
performing the whole process.
So a formal expression of some rule or result is called formula, its plural is
formulae or formulas.
Here we discuss some formulae and their uses.
Formula 1
(x + a)(x + b) = x2 + (a + b) x + ab
Proof.
L.H.S = (x + a)(x+b)
= x (x+b) +a (x+b)
= x2 +xb +ax +ab
= x2+(a+b)x+ab
= R.H.S
The following result may be noted.
(a) In two factors (x+a), (x+b) , the first is product of the first term of each
factor i.e. x2
(b) Again in two factors (x+a), (x+b) the coefficient of the middle term is the
sum of second term of factor one and second term of factor two i.e.
(a+b)x.
(c) The third term is the product of the second term of the both factors i.e. ab.
Example: Find the product of using formulae.
(x+1)(x+2)
Solution: By using formulae.

(x+a)(x+b) = x2+(a+b)+ab
=(x2)+(1+2)x+2
=x2+3x+2
Example: (2x+5)(2x–6)
= (2x2)+[5+(–6)]2x+(5)(–6)
161
=4x2+[–1]2x –30
=4x2–2x–30
Formula II: Square of a sum/square of a binomial
(a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b2
Prof. L.H.S = (a+b)2

= (a+b) (a+b)
= a(a+b)+b(a+b)
= (a2+ab+ab+b2
= a2+2ab+b2
= R.H.S
So to square a+b, we square the first term (a2), add twice the product of
the two terms (2ab), then add the square of the last term (b2).
Or
(sum of two term)2 = (1st term)2+2(1st term x 2nd term)+ (2nd term)2 OR
(a + b) 2 = (a)2 + 2(a) (b) + (b)2
Example: Find the square of x+2y.
Solution: (x+2y)2
= (x2) + 2(x)(2y) +(2y)2

Square of first term Twice the product Square of last term
= x2 + 4xy + 4 y2
Formula III The Squre of a difference.

(a–b)2 = a2 –2ab +b2
Proof: L.H.S = (a–b)2
= (a)2 – 2 (a) (b) +(b)2
= a2–2ab+b2
= R.H.S
So the square of the difference of two terms is equal to the square of the
first term minus twice the product of two terms and plus square of the 2nd term.
162
Example: Find the square of x–2
Solution: = (x–2)2
= (x)2 –2 (x) (2) + (2)2
= x2 – 4x + 4
Formula IV: Product of a sum and a difference
(a–b) (a+b) = a2 – b2
Proof: L.H.S = (a–b) (a+b)

= a(a+b) –b (a+b)
= a2+ab–ab–b2
= a2 – b2
So the product of a sum and a difference of the same two terms in equal to
the difference of two squares.
Example: Solve. (x+2) (x–2)
Solution: (x+2) (x–2)

= (x)2 – (2)2
= x2 – 4
Example: Find the Product of (b+7) and (b–7)
Solution: (b+7) (b–7)

= (b)2 – (7)2
= b2 – 49
Activity 4.3:
Q1. Find the following products by using the appropri ate formula.
(i) (y–5) (y+8) (ii) (4y–7) (4y–3)
(iii) (3x+7) (3x–7) (iv) (p–4)(p+4)
(v) (z+7) (z+9) (vi) (5x+3) (5x+2)
163
Q2. Expand the following by using formula.
(i) (8a+3b)2 (ii) (x2+y2)2
2
 3x 4 
  
(iii) (3x+1)2 (iv)  4 3x 
2 2
 1  1
x  x 
(v)  x (vi)  x
2 2
 1   1 
 2a    4 y  
(vii)  2a  (viii)  4 y 
Fill in the blanks.

(i) (2x+y)2 = (_______)2 + 2(2x) (y) + (_______)2
2
(ii)  2 1  1
x  2 
 x  = x4 + _______ + x 4 =
2
(iii)  1   1 
 2 a    2 a   22a    ____ 
2 2
 3b   3b 
(iv) (3x+ ___)2 = (3x)2 + (3x)(____) +(2y)2
(v) (4x+6y)2 = 16x2 + () xy+36y2
(vi) (x–2) (x+2) = x2 – _______
(vii) (ax+by) (ax–by) = a2x2 – _______.
(viii)  x y  x y    x 2
 _____ 
2
2
Ix  1  1 1
 x   x    ___    
2
 x  x x
(x) (x+2) (x+5) = x2 + (___) x+10
164
4.4 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equations
Linear Equation
An equation consisting of polynomial of degree one is called a linear

equation. Linear equation may contain one or two variables with no variable
having an exponent other than 1.
A linear equation in one variable x,. is an equation that can be written in
the form ax+b=0, where a and b are real numbers and a≠0
An equation such as 2x+3=0 is a linear equation. We also refer to
equations such as x+8=0, 3x=5, 2x+9=5 and 3+5(x–1) = –7+x as linear equations.
Because these equations could be written in the form ax+b=0 using the Properties
of zero.
4.4.1 Solution of a Linear Equation in one Variable
To solve an equation means to find all of the solutions to the equation. The set of
all solutions to an equation is the solution set to the equation. To find the value of
variable remember the following rules. We can solve the linear equation in one
variable, by these following methods.
1– Adding the Same Number to both Sides
When equal quantities are added to both sides of equation the results are
also equal.
[Think of an equation like a balance scale, to keep the scale in balance,
what you add to one side you must also add to the other side]
For example:
Solve x–3 = –7
Solution:
We can remove the 3 from the left side of the equation by adding 3 to each
side of the equation.
x–3 = –7
x–3+3 = –7+3 :Add 3 to each side
165
x+0 = –4 :Simplify each side
x = –4 :Zero is the additive identify
Since –4 satisfy the last equation; It should also satisfy the original
equation because all of the previous equations are equivalent.
Check that –4 satisfy the original equation by replying x by –4:

x–3 =–7 : original equation
–4–3 =–7 : Replace x by –4
–7 = –7 :Simplify
Since –4 –3 = –7 is correct, {4} is the solution set to the equation.
2– Subtracting the Same Number from Both Sides.
When equal quantities are subtracted from both sides of equation, the
result are also equal. Think of an equation like a balance scale, to keep the scale in
balance, what you subtract to one side you must also subtract to the other side.
For example;
x+6 = 9
Subtract 6 from both sides of equation.
x+6–6 = 9–6
x =3
Check that 3 satisfies the original equation by replacing x by 3.

x+6 = 9 original equation
(3)+6 = 9 Replace x by 3
9 =9 Satisfied
Since 3 is correct, {3} in the solution set of the equations.
Our goal in solving equation is to isolate the variable.
166
3– The Multiplication Property of Equation
Multiplying both sides of an equation by the same non–zero number does

not change the solution of are equation. In symbols, if a = b and c≠0, then ac = bc.
For example:
1
x  4:
3
Solution:
We isolate the variable x by multiplaying each side of the equation by 3.
1
3. x  3.4
3
1.x  12
x  12
Hence {12} is the solution set to the equation.
Because dividing by a number is the same as multiplying by its reciprocal,

the multiplication property of equality allows us to divide each side of the
equation by any non zero number.
Example: Solve –5w = 30
Solution:
1
Since w is multiplied by –5, we can isolate w by multiplying by or by dividing
5
each side by –5.
 5w 30

5 5
w  6
Therefore {–6} is a solution set to the equation.
167
Example: Solve
4
P  40
5
5 4
Solution: Multiply each side by 4 , the reciprocal of 5 to isolate P on the
left side.
5 4 5
  P    40
4 5 4
200
P 
4
P  50
 50 is the solution set .
iv. Multiplying by –1
If –x appears is an equation, we can multiply by –1 to get x or divide by –
x
- –1 to get x, because –1(–x)=x and x
1
Example: –x = 12
Solution: Multiply each side by –1 to get x on the left side

–1(–x) = –1(12)
x = –12
Hence solution set is {–12}
V. Variables on Both Sides

If variable occurs on both sides of the equation because the variable
represents a real number, we can still isolate the variable by using the addition
property of equality. Note that it does not matter whether the variable ends up on
the right side or the left side.
168
Example: Solve 4x–20 = 2x+6
Subtracting 2x on both sides of the equation

4x–20–2x = 2x–2x+6
2x–20 =6
Now adding 20 on both sides
2x–20+20 = 6+2
2x = 26
Divide both sides by 2
2x 26

2 2
x = 13
Hence solution set = {13}
You can also collect together the like terms on both sides and simplifying.
For example:
4x = 5–x
4x+x=5 collecting like terms on both sides
5x = 5
Divide by 5 on both side, we have
5x 5

5 5
x=1
Solution set is {1}.
169
Activity 4.4:
Solve the following equations.
1– 2x + 5 =19
2– 13x–19 = 27x+11
3– 3y+17 = 2y+23
y 1 y 1

4– 2 3
4 1
z  2z 
5– 5 3
y y y y
  
6– 2 3 4 5
7– 5x+2(2x–1) = 3x–14
z 2z
3  4
8– 2 3
1 3
t 
–9 2 4
1 1
m
10– 19 19
11– 3 = x+5
y
0.05 
12– 80
170
Q.1 True or false? Explain your answer.
(i) The solution to x–5 = 5 is 10

3 3
(ii) To solve y  12 , we should multiply each side by
4 4
x 1
(iii) The equation  4 is equivalent to x  4
7 7
(iv) Multiplying each side of an equation by any real number will result
in an equation that is equivalent to the original equation.
(v) To isolate y in 2y = 7+y, subtract y from each side.
(vi) The equation 5x=0, is equivalent to x=0
(vii) The solution to 2y–3=y+1 is 4.
(viii) The equation –x=9 is equivalent to x= –9
(ix) The solution to 7x=5x is 0.
171
4.4.2 Concept of Linear Equation in two Variables
A linear equation in two variables x and y in of the form ax+by+c=0,
where a, b, c, are real numbers and a and b are not both zero.
Where a is the coefficient of x,
b is the coefficient of y,
and
c in the constant term.
Consider 4x+3y=7, 2y=4x+6, are linear equations in two variables.
4.4.3 Solution of Simultaneous Linear Equation in two Variables
A pair of linear equation in two variables is said to form a system of

simultaneous linear equation.
The solution set of the system will consist of the common solution of two
given equation. OR a pair values of x and y satisfying each one of the equations is
called a solution of the system. In general simultaneous linear equation are written
in the form.
a1x + b1y =c1
a2x+b2y = c2
Algebraic methods of solving two simultaneous linear equation:

The most commonly algebraic method of solving linear equation in two
variables are
(i) Method of eliminating by equating the coefficients.
(ii) Method of elimination by subtraction.
(iii) Method of cross multiplication.
172
(i) Method of Elimination by Equating the co–Efficient
In this method, we eliminate one of the two variable to obtain an equation

in one variable which can be solved easily. Putting one value of this variable in
any one of the equations, the value of the other variable can be found.
The following steps may be noted.
Step I: Obtain the two equations.

Step II: Multiply the equations to make equal co–efficient to the eliminated
variables.
Step III Add or subtract the equations obtained in step II to eliminate the
variable having equal co–efficient.
Step IV: Obtain the value of variable.
Step V: Substitute the value obtain in step IV in any one of the given
equations to obtain the value of other variable.
Now we learn this method throughout examples
Example 1
 x  2 y  2

Use the elimination method to solve this system: 3 x  2 y  10
Solution:
x+2y = –2 (i)
3x–2y = 10 (ii)
Add the second equation to the first to eliminate y. because y–coefficient,
2 and –2, are additive inverse.
x+2y= –2
3x–2y = 10
4x = 8 By adding the variable y is eliminated
Solve for x
173
4x 8

4 4
x  2
Now, find y by substituting 2 for x in either original equation.
Substitute x = 2 in first equation OR
x + 2y = –2 substitute x = 2 in 2nd equation
2 + 2y = –2 3x – 2y = 10
2y = –4 3(2) –2y = 10
solve for y –2y = 4
y = –2 y = –2
the solution is (2, –2).
Check:
First equation:
x+ 2y = –2
Put x = 2, y = –2
2+2(–2) = –2
2 – 4 = –2
–2 = –2
Second equation:
3x – 2y = 10
x = 2 , y = –2
3(2) –2 (–2) = 10
6 + 4 = 10
10 = 10
174
Example 2
Use the elimination method to solve this system.
2x + 3y = 2
3x – 4y = 14
Solution: 2x + 3y = 2 (i)
3x – 4y = –14 (ii)
This time, adding the two equations will not eliminate either of the
variables.
However, if we multiply the first equation by 4 and the second equation by
3, the variable y can be eliminated by addition.
Multiply eq (i) by 4, we get
8x + 12y = 8 (iii)
Multiply eq (ii) by 3, we get
9x – 12y = –42 (iv)
Now add the eq (iv) to the eq (iii) to eliminate y; because y–coefficients,
12 and –12, are additive inverses.
8x + 12y = 8
9x – 12y = –42
17x = –34
Here the variable y is eliminated, now we solve it for x.

17 x  34

17 17
x  2
Find y by substituting –2 for x in either original equation:
175
Substituting x = –2 in eq (i)
2x + 3y = 2
2(–2) + 3y = 2
–4 + 3y = 2
3y = 2 + 4
3y = 6
y= 2

The solution is (–2, 2)
We could also solve the system by eliminating x first.
Multiply the first equation by 3 and second by –2.
6x + 9y = 6
–6x + 8y = 28
17y = 34
y=2
Then solve for x by substituting y = 2 in either original equation. i.e.
2x + 3y = 2
2x + 3(2) =2
2x = –4
x = –2
solution set (–2, 2)
If the equations have fractions, you can multiply each equation by the
LCD to eliminate the fractions. Once the fractions are cleared, it is easier to see
how to eliminate a variable by addition.
176
Example 3: Solve the following system of equations by elimination method
1 2y
x 2
2 3
1 1
x y 6
4 2
Solution: Multiply the first equation by 6 and second by 4 to eliminate the
fraction.
1 2 
6 x  d   2 6
2 3 
1 1 
4 x  y   6 4
2 2 
3x – 4y = 12
x + 2y = 24
Now multiply x+2y = 24 by 2 to get 2x+4y=48, and then add:
3x– 4y = 12
2x + 4y = 48
5x = 60
x = 12
Substituting x = 12 in x + 2y = 24
12 + 2y = 24
2y = 12
y=6
The solution set is (12, 6)
You can also check x = 12 and y = 6 in the original equation
177
Inconsistent And Dependent System
When the elimination method is used, an inconsistent system will be
indicated by a false statement. A dependent system will be indicated by an
equation that is always true.
Example: Solve –2x+3y = 9
2x – 3y = 18
Solution: Adding the equation
–2x + 3y = 9
2x – 3y = 18
0 = 27
False.
There is no solution to the system.
The system is inconsistent.
Method of Elimination By Substitution

By this method, we express one of the variable in term of the other
variable from either of the two equations and the same expression is substitute in
the other equation to obtain an equation in one variable.
Strategy for solving a system by substitution.
Step I: Obtain the two equations.
Step II: Solve one of the equations for one variable in terms of the other.
Step III: Substitute this value into the other equation to eliminate one of the
variables.
Step IV: Solve for the remaining variable.
Step V: Insert this value into one of the original equation to find the value
of the other variable.
178
Step VI Check your solution in both equations.
Now we learn this method through examples.
Example: Solve a system by substitution method.
2x–3y=9
y–4x=–8
solution:
2x–3y=9 (i)
y–4x=–8 (ii)
first solve the second equation for y :
y–4x=–8
y=4x–8
now substitute 4x–8 for y in the first equation
2x–3y=9
2x–3(4x–8)=9
2x–12x+24=9
–10x+24=9
–10x = 9–24
–10x=–15
 15
x
 10
3
x
2
3
Use the value x  in y  4x - 8 to find y :
2
y = 4x –8
179
3
y  4   8
2
y = 6–8
y= –2
3 
Check that  ,2 satisfies both of the original equations. The solution t o the system is
2 
3 
 , 2  .
2 
Example 2: Solve the system by substitution.
3x+4y=5
x = y –1
Solution 3x+4y = 5 (i)
x = y–1 (ii)
because the second equation is already solved for x in terms of y, we can
substitute y–1 for x in the first equation.
3x+4y=5
3(y–1)+4y = 5
3y–3+4y=5
7y–3=5
7y=5+3
8
y
7
180
8
Now use the value y  is one of the original equation to find x. The
7
simplest one to use is x = y - 1
8
x 1
7
1
x
7
1 8
Check that , Satisfies both equations. The solution to the system is
7 7
1 8
,
7 7
Activity 4.5:
Q.1. Solve the following system of equations by elimination method.
(i) 9x+4y=5 (ii) 2x+y=3
3x–5y=8 3x–2y=–6
(iii) 3x–y=12 (iv) 2x+y=3
2x+y=13 3x–2y=1
y 1 3

(v) x2 2 (vi) 2x+y=3
2x–2y=1
y2 1

x 1 3
Q.2. Solve the following system of equation by substitution method.
(i) 3x–y=12 (ii) x–y=5
2x+y=13 x+y=19
181
y
x 4
2
x 2
(iii) 2x+3y=5 (iv)  5
3 y
x–y=2
(v) 2x+3y=5
3x+2y=10
Q3. Solve each system of equation. (use either algebraic method).
(i) 4x+4y=–6
5x+3y=6
(ii) a–b=0
3a+2b=–15
(iii) m+n=6
m–n=4.5
(iv) 5a+2b=–8
4a+3b=2
1 7
x y
4 2
(v) 2x  y  4
(vi) 3y–2x=4
1
3 y  4x   1
6
s  3t
3
(vii) 7
11s – t = –7
182
1. True or fals? Explain systems.
a) y = x–7 b) x + 2y = 1
2x+3y=4 2x – 4y = 0
(i) If we substitute x–7 for y is system (a), we get 2x+3(x–7)=4
(ii) The solution of the system (a) is (5,–2)

1 1
 , 
(iii) The Point  2 4  satisfies system (b).
(iv) Any system of two linear equations can be solved by substituting
2. What do we decide which variable to eliminate when using the addition
method?
3. What do we sometimes do before we add the equations?
183
4.5 Quadratic Equation:
A polynomial equation of the second degree is called a quadratic equation.
The standard form of the quadratic equation is given below:
ax2+bx+c=0 where a, b, c  Q and a ≠ 0
In this equation a, b and c are rational number and a≠0 a and b are called
coefficients of x2 and x respectively. This equation is in variable x and c is a
constant.
The following equations are examples of the quadratic equation.
x2 + x – 6 = 0 , 2x2 – x – 1 = 0
2y2 + 6y + 3 = 0 , z2 –20z + 25 = 0
We say that equations like this have a degree two since the greatest
exponent of the variable two. Notice that a quadratic equation only has one
variable, and all the exponents are positive.
Solution of an equation is also called a roots of the equation.
(The values of the variable that satisfy an equation are called solution of
the equation)
4.5.1 Solution of a Quadratic Equation
In this topic we will discuss how to find the solution of the quadratic equation.
We can solve the quadratic equation by following the different methods.
1– Factorization method
2– Completing square method
3– Quadratic formula
1 Solving Quadratic Equations by Factorizing
The main idea used to solve quadratic equations, the zero factor property
is simply a fact about multiplication by zero.
184
The zero Factor Property
The equation a.b=0 is equivalent to a=0 or b =0 so if the product is zero,

then one or the other of the factors is zero. We use the zero factor property to
solve quadratic equation.
The procedure of the solution of quadratic equation by factorization is
explained through examples.
Example: Solve by factorization.
12x2–5x–7=0
Solution: 12x2–5x–7=0
We have to find two numbers whose Product = (12) (–7)

sum is –5 and prduct in –84. The = –84
selected pair is (7, –12) Because Possible pairs
(Sum) 7+(12)=5
(Product) 7×(–12)= – 84
Hence 12x2–12x+7x–7=0
or 12x(x–1)+7(x–1)=0
or (x–1)(12x+7)=0
 (x–1=0) or (12x+7)=0
x=1 or 12x= –7
7
Or x =
12
   7
Solution set  1, 
 12 
Element, of the solution set of an equation are called the roots of the
equation and roots of the equation satisfy the equation.
185
Example2: Solve by factorizing x+2+5x+6=0
Solution:
x2 +5x+6=0
The product of 1st and last term is 6x2 and middle term of equation is 5x.
We have to find two numbers whose sum is 5x and product is 6x2
(Sum) 2x+3x=5x
(Product) 2x×3x=6x2
Hence x2+5x+6=0
x2+2x+3x+6=0
x(x+2)+3(x+2)=0
(x+2)(x+3)=0
Applying zero property
(x+2) = 0 or (x+3) = 0
X = –2 or x = –3
Solution set = {–2, –3}
Example 3 Solve by factorizing
x2–10x+1= –24
Solution: x2–10x+1= –24
One side of the equation must be zero.
x2–10x+1+24=0
x2–10x+25=0
Product of 1st term and the last term is 25x2. So we here to find two
numbers whose sum is –10x (The middle term of the quadratic equation) and
Product is 25x2.
186
To solve this type of equation, the following step may be noted.
(a) If the Product and sum are positive then both the number must be positive.
(b) If the product is positive and sum is negative then both the numbers are
negative.
(c) If the product is negative and sum is positive, then one number is positive
and other is negative; the greater number must be positive.
(d) If the Product is negative and sum is also negative, then again one number
is positive and other is negative, the greater number must be negative.
Here x2–10x+25=0
only two number are –5x and –5x, whose sum is –10x and Product is 28.
so x2–5x–5x+25=0
x(x–5)–5(x–5)=0 : Factor.
(x–5)(x–5)=0
Applying –zero property
x–5=0 or x–5=0
x=5 or x=5
Solution set = {5, 5}
Remember, quadratic equation always have two solution. Sometimes those
two solutions may be the same number.
4.5.2 Completing Square Method
This method is based on the process of transforming the standard

quadratic equation ax2+bx+c=0 in to the form (x+A)2=B
187
Where A and B are constant. The second equation can easily be solved by
using the square root property. But how do we transform the first equation into
the second? The following discussion provides the key to the process.
To complete the square of a quadratic of the form x2+bx, what number
must be added to x2+bx so that the result is the square of a first degree
polynomial?
There is a simple mechanical rule for finding the number, based on the
square of the following binomials:
(a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b2
(a–b)2=a2–2ab+b2
In either case, we see that the third term on the right is square of one half
of the co–efficient of x in the second term on the right. This observation leads
directly by to the rule for completing the square.
So to complete the square of a quadratic of the form x2+bx, add the square
2
b
of one half the coefficient of x; that is, add  Thus
2
x2+bx
2
b
= x2 + bx +  
2
2
 b
x 
 2
Procedure is explained through examples.
Example 1.
Solve: x2+6x–7 = 0 by completing square.
x2+6x–7=0
x2+6x=7  Isolate the constant on one side
Now to complete the square on left side, Add the (6÷2)2 or (3)2 to each
side.
x2+6x+(3)2 = 7+(3)2
188
(x+3)2 = 7+9 Factor the left side.
(x+3)2 = 16

(x+3)2 = (±4)2 (±4)2 = 16
(–4)2 = 16
Taking square root on both sides.
x  32   42
x+3 = ±4
x = –3±4
x=–3+4 or x=–3–4
x=+1 or x=–7

Solution set = {1, –7}
Example2: Solve 2x2–11x–3=0 by completing square.
Solution: 2x2–11x–3=0
Isolate the constant on one side.
2x2–11x=3
Dividing by 2 on both side, we get

11 3
x2  x
2 2
2
  11  121
  2 or
Add  2  4 to each side
11x 121 3 121
x2    
2 4 2 4
189
2
 11  127
x  
 2 4
2 2
 11   127 
x     
 2  2 
 
Taking Square root on both sides

2
2
 11   127 
x    
 2  2 
 
11 127
x  
2 2
11 127
x 
2 2
11 127 11 127 
S.S    ,  
2 2 2 2 
Or It can be written as
11 127 
S.S   
2 2 
4.53. Solution By The Quadratic Formula
We learned that every quadratic equation can be solved by factorization
method, completing square method. In this section we use completing the square
to get a formula, the quadratic formula, for solving any quadratic equation.
Developing the Quadratic Formula
The formula is derived from solving the general form of a quadratic
equation for x.
ax2+bx+c=0
190
and solve it by completing the square.
Assume that is positive for now, and divide each side by a. (to get 1 for the
coefficient of x2)
ax 2  bx  c 0

a x
by simplifying
bx c
x2  0
a a
c
Subtract a from each side to isolate the x2– and x– terms
b c
x2  x
a a
b b
Now completing the square on the left, one–half of is ,
a 2a
2
 b  b2
and    2
 2a  4 a
2
b
Add to each side.
4a 2
2 b b2 b2 c
x  x 2  2 
a 4a 4a a
Factor on the left–hand side
2
 b  b2 c
 x    2

 2a  4a a
Adding the fraction on the right side

2
 b  b 2  4ac
x  
 2a  4a 2
191
Take the square root of each side
2
 b  b 2  4ac
x   
 2a  4a 2
b b 2  4ac
x    a  0, 4a 2  2a
2a 2a
b
Subtracting from each side, we get
2a
b b 2  4ac
x  
2a 2a
Combining the two expression on right side; we get
 b  b2  4ac
x 
2a
This equation is known as the Quadratic formula. and b2–4ac is called
Discriminate.
The quadratic formula can be used to solve quadratic equation when other
method fail or are more difficult to apply.
Example 1: Use the quadratic formula to solve equation. x2+2x–3=0
Solution: To use the formula, we first identify a, b and c. for the equation
x2+2x–3=0 by comparing with ax2+bx+c=0
1x2 + 2x –3 =0
  
a b c
a=1, b=2 and c=–3, Now use
these values in the quadratic formula:

192
 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a
 2  22  41 3
x
21
 2  4  12
x
2
 2  16
x
2
24
x
2
24 24
x or x
2 2
x=1 or x=–3
solution set = {1, –3}
Example2: Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation 4x2=–9+12x
Solution: The given equation is
4x2 = –9+12x
Write the equation in the form
ax2+bx+c=0 to identify a, b and c
4x2 = –9+12x
4x2–12x+9=0
Now a=4, b=–12, c=9 use these values in the formula:
 b  b2 4ac
x 
2a
193
x 
  12   122  449
24
12  0
x 
8
12
x 
8
3
x 
2
3
 The only solution is .
2
Example 3: An equation with an irrational solution

Solve: 3x2–6x+1=0
Solution: For this equation, a =3, b=–6 and c=1
  6   62 431
x 
23
6  24

6
62 6

6


2 3 6 
6
3 6

3
The two solutions are irrational numbers

3 6 3 6
and
3 3
194
Note: Quadratic equation such as x2= –9 that do not have any real number
solutions. In general, you can conclude that a quadratic equation has no
real number solutions if you get a square root of a negative number in the
quadratic formula. i.e.
Solve 5x2–x+1=0
Solution: For this equation we have
a = 5, b = –1 and c = 1
x
  1   12  451
25
1   19
x
10
The equation has no real solution because  19 is not real.
195
Activity 4.6:
Q.1. Solve the following equations by factorization.
(i) x2+–8Px+12P2=0
1 2 3
y  y2  0
(ii) 2 2
1 2
x  2x  3  0
(iii) 3
(iv) 5z2–12=17z
(v) 2(x2–15)=11z
Q.2. Solve the following equations by completing square method.
(i) a2–5a–10=0
(ii) 12r2–17r–5=0
(iii) x2+8x–84=0
(iv) m2+3m–180=0
3 1
(v) b2 - b + =0
4 8
2
(vi) 3z –12z+4=0
(vii) ax2+bx+c=0
(viii) x2+bx+c=0
Q.3. Solve the quadratic formula.
(i) x2+2x–15=0
(ii) 4x2+8x+3=0
1 1 5
 
(iii) x x  2 12
196
1 2
z  6z  3  0
(iv) 4
(v) 2y2–6y+3=0
Q.4. Solve each equation by whichever method is appropriate.
(i) x2+x=12
(ii) (x–5)2=7
(iii) 3n2–5=0
(iv) 4q2+2q–1=0
(v) P2–0.9P+0.18=0
Q.1 What is the quadratic formula?
Q.2 What is the quadratic formula used for?
Q.3 What is the discriminate?
Q.4 What is the zero factor property?
Q.5 Can a quadratic equation have more, than two solutions? Why or why not?
Q.6 What property allows you to conclude that if the roots of a quadratic
equation are 5 and –7, then (x–5) (x+7) = 0?
197
4.6 Discriminant &Nature of the root of a Quadratic Equation
Dear Student, as you know the quadratic formula
 b  b2  4ac
x , and b2  4ac in the quadratic formula is called the
2a
discriminant.
A quadratic equation can have two real solutions, one real solution, or no
real number solutions, depending on the value of b2–4ac. If b2–4ac is positive,
then there will be two real solutions to the quadratic equation.
If b2–4ac is zero “0”, then there will be only one real solution to the
quadratic equation, If b2–4ac is negative, then there will be no real number
solution of the equation.
For example:
Find the value of the discriminent, and determinant the number of real
solutions to each equation.
(a) 3x2–5x+1=0
(b) x2+6x+9=0
(c) 2x2+1=x
Solution:
(a) For the equation 3x2–5x+1=0 we have a=3, b=–5, c=1 Now find the value
of discriminent: b2–4ac = (–5)2–4(3)(1) = 25 – 12 = 13
Because the discriminent is in positive, there are two real solution to this
quadratic equation.
(b) For the equation x2+6x+9=0, we have a=1, b=6, and c=9
 b2–4ac=(6)2–4(1)(9)=36–36=0
198
Since the discriminent is zero, there is only one real solution to the
equation.
(c) We must first rewrite the equation
2x2+1=x
2x2–x+1=0
Now a=2, b=–1, and c=1
b2–4ac =(–1)2–4(2) (1)
= 1–8
= –7
Because the discriminant is in negative, the equation has no real number

solution.
Following Table summarize these facts.
Value of b2–4ac Number of Real solutions to ax2+bx+c=0

Positive 2
Zero 1
Negative 0
The quantity b2–4ac is called the discriminent because its value determines
the number of real solution to the quadratic equation.
199
Activity 4.7:
Q Find the value of discrimnant, and state has many real solutions there are
to each quadratic equation.
(i) x2+2x+3=0
(ii) –5t2–t+9=0
(iii) x2+x+4=0
(iv) x–5=3x2
(v) 6x2–7x+4=0
(vi) –3x2+5x–7=0
(vii) 4x2–4x+1=0
4.7 Elimination
Consider the following simultaneous linear equations:
y+3=7 (i)
y–5=6 (ii)
The above equation (i) & (ii) are true for y=4 and y=11 respectively.
Therefore, {4} and {11} are the solution sets of equation (i) and (ii) respectively.
However, both the equations are not true for a unique value of y.
Now consider the following simultaneous linear equation.
x+l=6 (i)
l +m=3 (ii)
200
The equation (i) in true for x=6–l and the equation (ii) is true for x=3–m.
But to get a single value of x for which both the equation are true, we put.
6– l =3–m

l –m=3 (iii)
We see that for obtaining such a value, we establish a new relation (iii)
which is independent of x. The above procedure is called elimination and relation
(iii) thus obtained is called the eliminant.
Hence the procedure to find a relation from two equation independent of a
variable involved in both the equation is called elimination and the result/relation
obtained by elimination is called climinant.
Remember that:
(a) At least two equations are required for elimination of one variable.
(b) Both equations should have the variable that has to be eliminated.
(c) Eliminant shows that the solution set of both equations is not empty.
There are different method, of elimination, we will discuss following three
methods, through examples.
(i) Eliminator of one variable by substitution or by comparison method.
(ii) Elimination of one variable by applying formulae.
(iii) Elimination of one variable by using the method of cross multiplication.
201
Elimination By Substitution or By Comparison Method
Example: Elilimate x from the following equation.

ax–b=0 ; cx–d=0
Solution: by substitution method

ax–b=0 (i)
cx–d=0 (ii)
eq (i) gives
ax=b
b
or x 
a
Substituting the value of x is eq (ii), we get
cx–d=0
b
c   d  0
a
cb
d 0
a
cb  ad 0

a 1
cb–ad=0
cb=ad
This equation is independent of x. so is eliminated.
202
Solution By Comparison Method
ax–b=0 (i)
cx–d=0 (ii)
eq 1 gives
ax=d
b
x= (iii)
a
eq ii gives
cx=d
d
x (iv)
c
comparing eq (iii) & (iv), we get
b d

a c
bc  ad
This equation is independent of x so is eliminated.
Example: Find relation independent of t from the following equation:
ct5=d ; at3=b , c≠0 , a≠0
Solution: at3=b (i)

ct5=d (ii)
Eq (i) gives
b
t3 
a
th
Taking 5 power of both the sides, we get
5
b
t 
3 5
 
a
203
15 b5
or t  5 (iii )
a
d
Eq (ii) gives t 5 
c
Take cube on both sides, we get
d3
t 
5 3

c3
d3
t 15  (iv )
c3
Comparing eq (iii) & (iv), we get
b5 d3

a5 c3
or c3b3 = a5d3
It is the required relation which independent of t.
Activity 4.8:
Q.1 Eliminate x from the following equation by comparison method.
x
t
(i) xt= l ; m
x
m
(ii) x–pq=0 ; l
(iii) ax=t ; 2ax=y
(iv) v=x+at ; 2as=v2–x2
1
s = xt + at 2
(v) v = x + at ; 2
t  2x y  6x
(vi) ;
204
Q.2. Eliminate x as Q.1 by substitution method.
Complete the following:
(i) If x=a and y=a then the relation free from a is __________.
(ii) To eliminate any variable from the equation is called __________.
(iii) The relation free from y for equation y=3t and yt=1 is __________.
(iv) The relation free from t for equations x+t=2a and y–t=3a is __________.
1
(v) The relation free from t is for equationt 2  and t3 = q is __________.
P
(ii) Elimination by using Formulae
Example1. Eliminate x from the following equation by using the formulae.

1 1
x l ; x2  2
 m2
x x
1
x l (i)
Solution x
1
x2  2
 m2 (ii)
x
Taking square of both sides of the equation (1) we have
2
 1
x   l 2
 x
1
or x2  2  l2
x2
1
or x2   l2  2 (iii)
x2
205
Now L.H.S of equation is same like eq (ii) so we can compare eq (ii) &
(iii), we get
m2 = l2–2
This is the required relation.
Example2: Eliminate t from the following equation.

2at
x (i )
1 t2
y
b 1 t2   (ii )
1 t2
Solution: Equation (i) gives

x 2t

a 1 t2
Taking square of both sides

2 2
 x  2t 
    
a 1 t 
x2 4t 2

or a2 1  2t 2  t 4
y 1  t2

eq (ii) gives b 1  t2
Taking Square of both sides

2 2 2
 y  1 t 
    
2 
 b  1 t 
y 2 1  2t 2  t 4
 (iv )
b 2 1  2t 2  t 4
206
Adding eq (iii) & (iv) we have
x2 y2 4t 2 1  2t 2  t 4
  
a 2 b 2 1  2t 2  t 4 1  2t 2  t 4
4t 2  1  2t 2  t 4

1  2t 2  t 4
1  2t 2  t 4
 1
1  2t 2  t 4
x3 y
3
 2 1
Thus a b is the relation independent if t.
Activity 4.9:
Q. Eliminate x from the following equation.

1 1
x m ; x2  2
 n2
(i) x x
1 1
x2  2
 a2 ; x3  3
 b3
(ii) x x
x3 a3 x3 a3
 m ;  n
(iii) a 3 x3 a3 x3
(iv)  
a 1  x 2  2 yt ;  
b 1  x 2  2 zx
1  x2 1  x2
P ; q
(v) 2 ax 2bx
Elimination by using cross Multiplicion

We explain the prcedure of elimination by applying cross multiplication
method on the followling quaolratic equations.
a1 y2 + b1 y + c1 =0 (i)
2
a2 y + b2 y + c2 = 0 (ii)
207
on multiplying both the sides of equations (i) and (ii) by a2 and a1
respectively, we get.
a2 a1 y2 + a2 b1 y + a2 c1 = 0 (iii)
2
and a1 a2 y + a1 b2 y + a1 c2 = 0 (iv)
subtracting equation (iii) from equation (iv), we get
(a1 b2 –a2 b1) y + (a1 c2 – a2 c1) = 0
or (a1 b2 – a2 b1) y = -(a1 c2 – a2 c1)
= a2 c1 – a1 c2
Dividing both the sides by (a1 b2 – a1 b1) (a2 c1 – a1 c2) we have
y 1
 (v)
a2 c1  a1 c2 a1 b2  a2 b1
Now multiplying equations (i) and (ii) by b2 an b1 respectively and
solving accordingly as above, we get
(a1 b2 – a2 b1) y2 = (b1 c2 – b2 c1)
y2 1
 (vi)
a1 c2  b2 c1 a1 b2  a2 c1
From equation (v) and (vi) we have
y2 y 1
  (vii)
b1 c2  b2 c1 a2 c1  a1 c2 a1 b2  a 2 b1
Equation (vii) can be directly stated through the following arrangement:
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2 a2 b2 c2
b1c2–b2c1 a2c1–a1c2 a1b2–a2b1
208
The Product b1 c2 – b2 c1 , a2 c1 – a1 c2 and a1 b2 – a2 b1 are taken from the
terms which are joined by arrow as shown above. The product of the terms
joined by arrow ( ) is taken Positive and joined by ( ) is taken negative.
First Product i.e., (b1 c2 – b2 c1), second Product i.e., (a2 c1 – a1 c2) and
third Product i.e., (a1 b2 – a2 b1) are taken as the denominators of y2 , y and
1 respectively. We can express equration (vii) as:
y2 1 b c b c
 y2  1 2 2 1 (viii)
b1 c2  b2 c1 a1 b2  a2 b1 a1 b2  a2 b1
And
y 1 a c a c
 y  2 1 1 2 (ix)
a2 c1  b1 c1 a1 b2  a2 b1 a1 b2  a2 b1
Taking the square of both the sides of (ix) have

(a 2 c1 - a 1 c 2 ) 2
y2 = (x)
( a1 b2  a2 b1 ) 2
From equation (viii) and (x), we have

b1 c2  b2 c1 ( a2 c1  a1 c2 ) 2

a1 b2  a2 b1 ( a1 b2  a2 b1 ) 2
Or (a1 b2 –a2 b1) (b1 c2 – b2 c1) = (a2 c1 – a1 c2)2
This is the required eliminate
Example:
Eliminate x by using cross multiplication method from the following
qualratie equations.
a y2 + b y + c = 0 , l y2 + m y + n = 0
Solution: a y2 + b y + c = 0 (i)
2
ly +my+n=0 (ii)
209
y2 y 1
  (iii)
bn  mc cl  an a mbl
From equaion (iiI), we have
y2 1

bn  mc a m  bl
bnmc
y2  (iv)
a m  bl
y 1
And 
cl  an a m  bl
cl  a n
y  (v)
a m  bl
taking square of both sides of equation (v), we got
(c l a n ) 2
y2 = (vi)
(a m  b l ) 2
From equation (iv) and (vi) we have
bn  cm (c l  a n) 2

a m  bl (a m  b l ) 2
(a m – b l) (b n – c m) = (c l – a n)2
This is the required eliminants
Activity 4.9:
Find the relation independent of y for the following equations:
1. y2 – 2y + l = 0 ; – y2 + 3y + m = 0
2. m y2 + 3y + 2 = 0 ; n y2 + 5y + 1 = 0
3. – 2y2 – 2y = p ; – y2 + y = q
4. a y2 – 4y + 5 = 0 ; b y2 + c y – 6 = 0
5. 7y2 – t y + 5 = 0 ; 3 y2 + s y – 3 = 0
210
211
ANSWERS
Activity 4.1:
Q1 (i) 7x4 – 5xy + 9 ; degree 4
(ii) 5 ; degree zero
(iii) – 7x2 + 4x2 – 8x + 5 ; degree 3
Q2 (i) Two (ii) one (iii) Four (iv) eight
(v) Two
Q3 (i) Binomial (ii) Monomial (iii) Trinomial
(iv) Ploynomial (v) Trinomial
Q4 (i) 7 (ii) Trinomial (iii) Sentence
(iv) a (v) b
Self Assesment 4.1:

Q1. (a) (c)
Q2. (a) No (b) Yes (c) No
(d) Yes
Q3. (a) Binomial (b) Monomial (c) Trinomial
(d) Binomial
Q4. (a) Two (b) Three (c) Zero
(d) Five
Q5. (a) Cefficient 2 , Variable x , Exponent 3
(b) Cefficient 3 , Variable x y , Exponent 1
(c) Cefficient 4 , Variable z , Exponent 3
Q6. (i) True
Activity 4.2:
Q.1 (i) 1 + 2 x2 (ii) 4 x2 + 6x -3 (iii) 3b3 + 2 a b2
Q.2 2x – y2 + 2 x y – 3
Q.3 x4 – 4x +1
212
Q.4 3 x3 + 3x2 – 3x – 23
Q.5 (i) x3 + 27
(ii) 15 x4 + x3 – 17x2 – 18 x –12
(iii) a3 + b3 + c3 + 2b c2 – 3 a b c
Q.6 (i) x2 – 2x + 2 (ii) x2 – 2 xy + y2 (iii) x2 +2 a b + b2

(iv) x2 – y2
Q.7 2x3 + 2x2 + 5
Self Assesment 4.2:

(i) 7x + y (ii) - 2x – 7y (iii) 3x3 + 7x2 + 8x + 1
(iv) 2x2 + 5 (v) 3x5 – 3x4 + 3x3 + x2 – 4x
Activity 4.3:
Q1 (i) y2 = 3y – 40 (ii) 16y2 – 40y – 21
(iii) 9x2 – 49 (iv) p2 – 16
(v) z2 +16z + 63 (vi) 25x2 + 25x + 6
Q2 (i) 64a2 + 9b2 + 48 ab (ii) x4 + y4 + 2x2 y2

9x2 16
(iii) 9x2 + 1 + 6x (iv)  2 2
16 9x
1 1
(v) x2  2 (vi) x2  2
x2 x2
1 1
(vii) 492  2 (viii) 16 y 2  2
4a 2 16 y 2

1
(i) 2x , y (ii) 2 (iii) (iv) 2y, 2y
3b
213
(v) 48 (vi) 4 (vii) b2 y2 (viii)  y 2
(iv) x2 (x) 7
Activity 4.4:
15 
1. { 7}, 2.  , 3. { 6 },
7
17 
4. { -5 }, 5.  , 6. { 0 },
15 
1 
7. { -2 }, 8. { 6 }, 9.  ,
4
10. { 0 }, 11. { -2 }, 12. {4}
Self Assesment 4.4:

Q1. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True
(v) True (vi) True (vii) True (viii) True
(ix) True
Activity 4.5:
Q1. (i) s.s = {1, -1} (ii) s.s = {0, 3} (iii) s.s = {5, 3}
 - 2 11  7 2 
(iv) s.s = {-1, 1] (v) s.s =  ,  (iv) s.s =  , 
7 7 6 3
11 1 
Q2. (i) s.s = {5, 3} (ii) s.s = {12, 7} (iii) s.s =  , 
 5 5
(iv) s.s = {3, 2} (v) s.s = {4, -1}
 21  27  3
Q3. (i)  ,  (ii) { -1, -1} (iii)  
4 4  4
(iv) {-4, 6} (v) {3, 1} (vi) {1, 2}
(vii) {0, 7}
214
Self Assesment 4.5:
1- (i) True (ii) True (iii) True (iv) True
2. See definition
3. See definition
Activity 4.6:
Q1. (i) {2P, 6P}, (ii) {4, -1}, (iii) {3},
  3
(iv) 4, 
 5 
 5  65   5
Q.2 (i)   (ii) 1,  (i)  14,6
 2   12 
1 1   2 2
(iv) 12,1 (v)  , , (vi) 2  
2 4  3
  b  b 2  4ac   b  b 2  4c
(vii)   (viii) { }
 2a  2
  1  3   7
Q3. (i) {3, -5}, (ii)  ,  (iii) 4, 
2 2   5 
3  3 
(iv) 12  2 33  (v)  
 2 
 5
Q4. (i) {3, -4} (ii) 5  7  (iii)  
 3
1  5 
(iv)   (v) {o.6, 0.3}
 4 
Self Assesment:
1. Qaadratic formate for ax2 + bx + cx = 0 is
 b  b 2  4ac
X
2a
215
2. See definition
3. b2 – 4ac
4.  a, b  R; a.b = 0 is equivalant to a = 0 or b = 0 or a = b = 0
5. See definition
6. Zero property
Activity 4.7:
(i) Zero (ii) Two (iii) Zero
(iv) zero (v) Zero (vi) Zero
(vii) one.
Activity 4.8:
Q1 (i) l = mt2 (ii) pq = lm (iii) 2a2 = yt
y2 z2
(iv)  1 (v) a2 p2 – q2 b2 = 1 (vi) 3t  y
a 2 b2

(i) x = y (ii) elimination (iii) 1 = 3t2
1
(iv) x + y = 5a (v) q2 =
p2
Activity 4.9:
Q.1 (l + m)2 = –(2 n + 3 l)
Q.2 (2n–m)2 = –7 (5 m – 3n)
Q.3 (p – 2 q)2 = –4 (p + 2 q)
Q.4 (5b + 6 a)2 = (24 – 5 c)(a c + 4 b)
Q.5 (57)2 = (6 t – 5 s) (7s + 3 t)
216
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Merril Algebraic Trigonometry Applications And Connections
2. Kaufman j.e, ‘College Algebraic and Trigonometry; Pws–Ken Company,
Bostan, Latest Edition
3. Intermediate Algebraic Steeter Hutchison Bergman Huelle [4th Edition]
4. 5th Edition College Algebra Ramond A.Barnett Michael R.Leigler
5. Kramer Klass, Teaching Elementary School Mathematics 2nd ed. Bostan:
Allyn and Bacon.
217
UNIT––5
GEOMETRY
Written By: Sehar Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Ms. Saima Kashif
217
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ...................................................................................................219
Objectives ...................................................................................................219
5. Geometry .................................................................................220
5.1 Fundamental of Geometry ........................................................220
5.2 Practical Geometry....................................................................227
5.2.1 Construction of Angles .................................................227
5.2.2 Construction of Triangles .............................................230
5.3 Demonstrative Geometry ..........................................................237
5.4 Characteristics of Circles ..........................................................242
5.5 Pythagoras Theorem .................................................................250
5.6 Hero’s Formula .........................................................................259
218
INTRODUCTION
Geometry is a branch of mathematics that is concerned with the properties of

configurations of basic geometric objects like points, lines and circles. We can
also say that geometry is the study of the site, shape and position of 2 and 3
dimensional sapes, low knowledge of geometry is used daily by almost every one.
It is knowledge of geometry that is required in act, architecture, engineering,
robotics, land surveys, astrouocuy, sculptures, space study of nature, sports
machines, Therefore it is necessary to provide our students a storey base of
geometry. Consequently, it is required that the teaches may have in depth
knowledge of this subject. And hence in this unit, you will read about
fundamentals of geometry, practical geometry, characteristics theorem and Hero’s
formula.
OBJECTIVES
After going therefore this unit, prospective teaches will be able to:
 define geometry
 understand basic concepts of geometry i.e. line, plane, line segment,
congruent etc
 distinguish the different of types of any les triangles.
 measure angle with the help of protector.
 draw the circle of different radii with the help of compass.
 understand the difference between practical & demonstrative geometry
 define & prove Pythagoras theorem & solve different problems using
Pythagoras theorem.
 explain and apply Hero’s formula.
219
5. GEOMETRY
The term geometry has been derived from two Greek words, Geo means earth &
Metria means measurement. Thus it is a study which measure, the shapes, sizes &
positions of objects & figures on earth. (www.geometry.formulas.com) Geometry
is found in almost every field of life as in engineering, nature, architecture,
robotics, land surveys, astronomy, sculptures, space, nature, sports, machines,
cases & much more.
Geometrical formula enables us to understand & to explore geometrical patterns
through inductive reasoning & logics. It is an aid which is helpful to identify &
enables us to apply functional use of geometrical concepts such as definitions,
postulates, geometrical statements etc. Geometry basically consists of points,
lines, angles, triangles, rectangles, squares & circles.
5.1 Fundamentals of Geometry

Some of fundamentals of geometry are as follows.
1) Point
A point has position but no size no dimension. It is usually represented by
a dot named with an upper case letter. A
2) Line
A line consists of an infinite no of points that extends Infinitely in both
directions
l
A B
A line denoted by ‘l’ can be named in two ways AB or BA .

3) Collinear
Points are collinear if they lie on the same line.
A, B, C & D are collinear points
A B C D
4) Line Segment
Line segment is a set (collection) of points with two end points. If we join
two points A & B with the help of scale or ruler, a line segment AB is
formed.
220
A B
The line segment AB is denoted by AB or BA . It has definite length. The

length of line segment is denoted by m AB .
If we extend a ray AB in one direction, we get a ray AB denoted by AB
A B
We cannot measure the length of the ray. Ray BA is opposite to the ray
AB
5) Midpoint
Midpoint is a point that divides a line segment into two equal line
segments. M is the midpoint of the line segment AB i.e. AM  MB
AB
A M B M
2
6) Congruent
Two line segments of the same length are said to be congruent AB & CD
are congruent
A B C D
7) Bisect
Two lines when divided into two congruent (equal) parts are bisectors of
each others Two lines when divided into two congruent (equal parts are
bisectors of each others, ie AB bisects CD and CD bisect AB .
221
C
A B
8) Plane
A plane is flat two dimensional surface. i,e figure
Fundaments of Angles
Right Angle:
An angle which is of 90o is C
known as right angle
triangle having one ufala
of 90o is called right
angled triangle.
A B
o
Or right angle a triangle is a triangle with one angle of 90
There are two types of right angled triangle
1) An isosceles right angled triangle
2) A scalene right angled triangle.
222
1) Isosceles:
C
One angle is of 90o & other two 45o
are of 45o
mA=mC= 45o & mB = 90o
45o
A B
2) Scalence
One angle is of 90o, other two are unequal
C
60o
mA= 30o ≠ mC=60o

Example
& mB = 90o
30o 90o
A B
How to measure angles

Protector is a tool used for measuring angles. The starting point is the
vertex of the angle. Vertex is the point where two rays of angle meet
B
O is the vertex
O A
223
Put protector’s initial line at point O & calculate the angle.
(Draw shape of Protector, Copy it from internet).
Two lines are 45

perpendicular
 if they meet
at 90o 45
O
m AB = 90O  they are  to each other

Parallelogram
Denoted by //m . A parallelogram has two pairs of parallel sides. Parallel
B
D
A
sides are sides which have no intersecting points C

line AB is parallel to CD . AB // CD .
Parallelogram consists of two opposite sides that are equal in length,
opposite angles are congruent & the diagonals bisect each other
C D
AB = CD CD congruent to AB
AC = BD AC congruent to BD
A B
Naming Angles
224
C
Acute Angle
An angle that is less than 90o is acute
angle. mABC = 45o is acute angle. 45O
A B
C
Right Angle
That is exactly of 90o. i.e.
mABC = 90o
A B
Obtuse Angle C
An angle that is greater than 90o but

135o
less than 180o. mBAC = 135o is
A B
obtuse angle.
Straight Angle
An angle that is exactly 180o.
mAOB = 180oe Which is
B O A
deviously a straight line.
Reflex Angle
o
o
An angle that is greater 220 A
than 180o
mAOB = 220o B
225
Supplementary Angles:
Two angles are called supplementary
if their sum is equal to 180o 40o 140o
Complementary Angles
Two angles are called complementary if their sum is equal to 90o
Interior Angle
An interior angle is an angle inside
40o
the shape sum of exterior angle +
interior angle = 180o = 150o + 30o
= 180o 50o
Exterior Angle
Is an angle outside the figure as explained above:
Activity 1:
1) With the help of protector draw angles of
i) 45o ii) 90o iii) 75o
o o
iv) 135 v) 270
2) Find the exterior angle of a triangle if its interior angle is 120o & also
draw the diagram
3) Find an interior angle of a triangle if its exterior angle is 98o?
4) Differentiate between supplementary & Complementary angles?
226
5.2 Practical Geometry
Geometry is a science which investigates & demonstrates the properties of
lines on surface & sides; hence, practical geometry is the method of applying the
rules of science to practical purposes.
How to draw a perpendicular to a given line using compass:
X Y
Steps of construction.
X A Y
1) Draw a line XY
2) Take a point A on the line
3) With center A draw a semicircle

intersecting the line at points B & C
respectively X B A C Y
4) Draw two arcs above & below the line
from centers B & C.
5) Two arcs intersects at point D

D
6) Join point A to D. The line AD is
perpendicular
X B A C Y
D
5.2.1 Construction of Angles

Steps of construction C
1) Draw a line segment AB

2) With center as A, draw an arc Q
of suitable radius intersecting 60
o
AB at P. A P B
3) With center at P, draw another
227
arc of same radius intersecting
first arc at Q
4) Draw AC passing through Q
5) mBAC = 60o
Angle of 30o C
1) Construct an angle of 60o as F

Q X
R
above.
2) Now draw an arc with center A P B
at point Q & other with center

at Point Q.
3) Draw AD passing through X
4) mBAD = 30o
Angle of 15o
(i) Construct an angle of 30o as
above.
C
(ii) Draw an rac with centre at P
X F
and other with centre at R Q R
E
which intersect each other at K.
A P B
(iii) Draw AE passing through K.
(iv) mBAE = 15o
Angle of 120o
C
Steps of constructions:
1) Draw a ray AB R Q
2) With center as A, draw an arc 120o

A B
intersecting AB at P.
228
3) With center as P, draw another
arc intersecting first arc at Q.
4) With center as Q, draw another
arc intersecting first arc at R.
5) Draw AC passing through R.
6 BAC is 120o
Angle of 90o
1) Construct an angle of 120o
D
2) With centers as Q & R draw R S Q
two arcs of same radius O
90
A B
intersecting at point D.
3) Draw AD through S
4) mBAD = 90O
Angle of 45o
C
Steps of construction
1) Draw an angle of 90o D
T
2) With center P & S draw two arcs of same
S Q
R
radius intersecting at T.
3) Draw AD passing through T
A P B
4) mBAD = 90o
229
D
o C
Angle of 75
1) Draw an angle of 90o
L
2) With center at Q & S draw two arcs
of same radius intersecting at L.
S
3) Draw AC passing through L. R Q
mBAC = 75o
A P B
C
Angle of 105o
D
1) Draw an angle of 90o
2) With center of R & S draw two arcs T
of same radius at T
3) Join AD through T. Q
R
mBAD = 105o A P B
Activity 1:
1) Draw a line segment AB = 6cm. Construct an angle of 45o at one end & an
angle of 30o at other hand of the line segment. Join the terminal arms of
angles.
2) Draw an angle of 75o at one end & an angle of 90o at other end. Join
terminal arms.
3) Draw an angle of 60o by using compass.
5.2.2 Construction of Triangles

Triangle is a simple closed figure having three sides. There are six elements in a
triangle. They are three sides & three angles. If any three quantities including at
least one side is given. We can construct a triangle.
Thus construction of triangle is possible when
1) Measure of three sides of a triangle is given (SSS)
2) Measure of two sides & one angle is given (SAS)
230
3) Measure of two angle & one side is given (ASA)
4) Measure of hypotenuse & one side of right angled triangle are given.
1) Measure of three sides of a triangle is given, in this construction measure

of three sides of a triangle are given in such a way that sum of measures of
any two sides must be greater then the measure of third one.
Example 1:
Construct a triangle ABC when
AB = 4.2cm, BC = 5.1cm AC = 4.5cm
Steps of construction:
1) Draw a line segment AB = 4.2cm.
2) With center as B draw an arc of radius C
5.1cm.
3) With center as A draw an arc of radius 4.5 5.1
4.5cm intersecting the first arc at C.
4) Join A to C & B to C
5) ABC is the required triangle A 4.2 B
2) Measure of two sides & angle is given.

In such construction measure of two sides & included angle is given:
Example 2:
Construct a triangle when AB = 5.2cm, BC = 6cm, mA = 60o

1) Draw a line segment AB = 5.2cm C
2) Construct an angle of 60o at pint A
3) Draw an arc of 6cm with contact B.
4) Join C to B
5) ABC is the required angle. 6cm
Q
P 5.2cm B
231
3) Measure of two angles & one side if given. In such construction measure
of two angles & included one side is given.
Example 3:
Construct a ABC when AB = 6cm, mA = 45o, mB = 60o
Steps of constructions
D T
1) Draw a lien segment AB = 6cm
2) Draw an angle of 45o at A with the help of C
compass
3) Draw an angle of 60o at B.
S Q
4) The line AD intersects BO at some point C. R
5) Join AT & BD to C. ABC is the required
triangle. A P 6cm B
Note: As sum of three angles of triangle is 180o As in previous example

MC = 180o – mA – m B
= 180o – 60o – 45o = 75o
Right angle triangle construction

In a right angled triangle lengths of hypotenuse by one side are given.
Hypotenuse is the side opposite to right angle.
Example 4:
Construct triangle ABC when AB = 5.2cm, mB = 90o & AC (hypotenuse) =
6cm
232
T
1) Draw AB = 5.2cm
2) Construct an angle of 90o at B with the C
help of compass.
3) With center of A draw an arc of 6cm
intersecting BT at C
4) Join A To C
m
6c
5) ABC is the required triangle.
90o
A 5.2cm B
Note: In a triangle sum of measure of any two sides is greater than measure of
third side & difference of measure of any two sides is less than measure of
third side.
Activity 2
1) Construct the triangles where possible
(a) 3cm, 4cm, 5cm (b) 5cm, 7cm, 2cm
(c) 2cm, 4cm, 7.3cm (d) 4.6cm, 4.6cm, 3.5cm
2) Construct triangle ABC when
i) m AB = 4cm, mA = 75o m BC = 5.2cm
(ii) m AB = 6cm, m AC = 3.8cm, mB = 120o
(iii) mA = 45o, mB = 90o & m AB = 6.5cm
(iv) mB = mB = 60o, m AB = 6cm
3) Construct right angle triangle in which length of hypotenuse is 7cm & one
side is 8cm.
4) Construct right angled triangle if m AB = 6cm, m BC = 5.3cm &
mB = 90o.
Construct of Circles
A circle is a set of all points in a plane which are equi distant from a fixed point of
the plane. The fixed point is called the centre of circle.
Some of the methods for constructing circles are as follows.
a) Circles connected with triangle
233
b) A tangent at a point of the circle
a) i) Circum circle
A circle passing through the three vertices of a triangle is called the
circumcircle of that triangle. Construction of circumcircle of a triangle
Given: A triangle ABC
Required: To draw the circumcircle of  ABC
A
P
U
S
T
O
Q
B C
Construction
(1) Take any triangle ABC
(2) Draw the right bisects of the sides AB , BC & CA with the help of
compass.
(3) All the three bisectors intersect at a common point O of the triangle ABC.
(4) Take the point O as the centre of the circle & radius equal to the length m
OA = m OC draw the circle
The circle is called the circumcircle of the given through & its is denoted
by R.
ii) Inscribed Circle (In-Circle)
A circle touching the three sides of a triangle is called In-Circle of that
triangle. Its radius is denoted by r & center by I.
Construction of In-Circle of a triangle.

Given: A triangle ABC
Required: To draw the in-circle of ABC
234
A
Q
N
B M C
Construction Steps:
(i) Construct any triangle ABC
(ii) Draw the bisector AM of the angle A
(iii) Draw the bisector BN of B.
(iv) Draw the bisectors CQ of the angle C.
(v) The three angle bisectors intersect at a common Point I.
(vi) Draw a perpendicular, from the point I on any side of the ABC (say BC
as ID )
(vii) Now take the point I as centre & draw the circle of radius mID.
(viii) The circle until touch the three sides of the triangle internally.
This circle is the required inscribed circle, or in-circle of the given triangle.
Construction of Escribed circles (e-Circle) of a triangle.

A circle touching one side of a triangle externally and the other two produced
sides internally is called the escribed circle (e–circle)
Construction of escribed circle of a triangle.
There are three cases
i) A circle opposite to the vertex A of the given triangle, its center will be
denoted by I1 & radius r1.
235
ii) A circle opposite to the vertex B of the given triangles; its centre will be
denoted by I2 & radius r2.
iii) A circle opposite the vertex C of the given triangle; its centre will be
denoted by I3 & radius by r3.
Construction fo the e-circle opposite to the vertex A of the triangle ABC.
Given the triangle ABC.
A
4.6cm 4cm
3.5cm
B C
L
D
r1
N M
Construction Steps:
(i) Produce AB beyond B & AC beyond C.

(ii) Draw bisector AI of A.
(iii) Bisect the exterior angles BCM & CBN. The interior bisector of angle
A & exterior bisectors of angles B & C will intersect each other of
point I1 i.e. all the three angles bisectors are concurrent at the point I1.
236
(iv) Draw a perpendicular from point I1 on the line segment AB produced
intersecting it at point D.
(v) Similarly, if perpendiculars from I1 on the sides AN & AM are drawn,
the three perpendiculars will be found to be equal in length.
(vi) Draw a circle with centre at l1 & of radius m l1 D . That will be the e-circle
opposite to the vertex A.
Similarly, e-circle can be drawn opposite to the vertices B & C of the
triangle ABC.
Activity 3
1 Draw (ii) & (iii) of e-circle
2 A  where m AB = 5.3cm, m BC = 5.8cm & mB = 60O. Draw right
bisectors of its sides.
3 construct a triangle where m AB = 4.1cm, m BC = 4.6cm & mB = 45o.
Draw a circumcircle of the triangle.
5.3 Demonstrative Geometry

The branch of mathematics in which the theorems on geometry are proved
through logical reasoning, is called demonstrative geometry.
Following are the basics of reasoning.
1) Some concepts are accepted without defining them for example, point,
line, plane.
2) Some statements are accepted true without proofs. These are called basic
assumptions. These assumptions are of two types.
a) Axiom Axiom is a fundamental agreement related to almost
all branche of mathematics.
b) Postulate Postulates is a fundamental agreement related to
particular branches of Mathematics. In geometry, we
shall make use of the following postulates.
(1) There is one & only one line that can pass through two distinct points.
(2) Infinite Number of lines can pass through one point.
(3) Every plane contains at least three non-collinear points.
(4) One & only one plane passes through three non-collinear points.
237
(5) If any two points of a line l lie on a plane P, the whole line l lies in the
plane P.
(6) If a point D is an interior point of BAC, then mDAB+mCAD =
mCAB.
(7) Two intersecting lines cannot be parallel to the same line.
(8) If there is a correspondence between the two triangles, such that the
measure of two sides and there included angle of one triangle are
congruent
Logical Reasoning
Greek Mathematician, Eucbid proved the results of geometry with logical
reasoning. There are two methods of logical reasoning.
(i) Inductive Reasoning (ii) Deductive Reasoning
(i) Inductive Reasoning

From the statements
A was a man & he died B was a woman & she died
C was a boy & he died D was a girl & she died
We conclude that all human beings die. This is inductive reasoning. In this way,
we have developed a general result from particular examples. However, the result
drawn in this way may be doubtful. For example if x is a whole number, then for
different values of x, the expression x2 + x + 41 has following values.
Value of x Value of x2 + x + 41
0 0 + 0 + 41 = 41 (a prime no)
1 12 + 1 + 41 = 43 ( _________ )
2
2 2 + 2 + 41 = 47 ( _________ )
3 32 + 3 + 41 = 53 ( _________ )
: : :
39 (39)2 + 39 + 41 = 1601 ( _________ )
40 (40)2 + 40 + 41 = 1681 (a composite no)
Which shows for x = 0, 1, 2,… 39, x2 + x + 41 is a prime number, but for

x = 40 it is not a prime number. It means that results obtained through inductive
method may not be always true.
238
(2) Deductive Reasoning
Let us demonstrate it through an example:
It is a principle that human die. From this general principle, if x is a
person. He shall die. In the study of geometry, we use the method of deductive
reasoning & for every statement we give a sound statement.
Geometrical Theorems
The theorems which can be proved with the help of principles of geometry
are called geometrical theorems. For example, the opposite angles of a
parallelogram are congruent.
Corollary
Some results which can be deduced directly from the theorems are called
corollaries. For example, one corollary of the above mentioned theorem is that the
opposite angles in a rhombus are congruent.
Elements in proving a geometrical Theorem

(i) Statement (ii) Figure (iii) Given
(iv) To Prove (v) Construction (vi) Proof
Statement, Given, to Prove

Description of a geometrical theorems in words is called its statement.
This statement in general is written in the form of an expression, which starts with
the word if is called given of the theorem. The second part of the statement states
with the word then, which is result of the theorem to be proved is called To
prove. .
Figure
In the light of the statement, the complete drawing of all the points, lines,
angles etc is called the figure.
239
Construction
Sometimes, we require addition in the given figure, which is very much
necessary for the proof of the theorem, this addition in the figure is called
construction.
Proof
Proof consists of statements and facts through which we obtain the
required results.
Converse of a Theorem
In some theorems, the given of one theorem is to prove. Of the other and
the given of the other is the to prove of the first one. Such theorems are called
converse theorems of each other. In our daily life we say:
(i) If Farooq is the father of the Musa then Farooq’s son is Musa. This can
also be said like if Farooq ‘s is Musa, then Musa’s father is Farooq.
(a) If the two sides in a triangle are congruent, then their opposite angles are
also congruent. In this theorem given statement is two sides of a triangle
are congruent & we have to prove that opposite angles are congruent.
(b) If the two angles in a triangle are congruent, then their opposite sides are
also congruent.
In this theorem given statement is two angles in triangle are congruent &
we have to prove that opposite sides are also congruent.
Note: Not every theorem has its converse. For example, vertical angles are
congruent, but it does not mean that all congruent angles are vertical.
Methods to Prove Theorems

The most important part of a theorem is its proof, which is based on sound
reasons. Remember, that the truth of the theorem is accepted only when the given
reasons are in a certain sequences beside this, there is a need of some additions in
the figure. In this case before, giving the proof, we must know about the required
addition in the figure. The following methods have been developed by experts to
prove the geometrical theorems.
(i) Analytical Method
(ii) Analysis Method
240
(iii) Analysis – Synthesis Method
(iv) Reduction – Ad – Absurdum Method
First, let us explain the meaning of Analysis & Synthesis.
Analysis & Synthesis

To separate the elements of something is called its analysis, & unification
of these elements is called as synthesis. For example, we know that oxygen &
hydrogen are the elements of water. If oxygen & hydrogen are separated from
water, then this process is called analysis of water. Contrary to this, if we form
water by mixing oxygen & hydrogen in a particular ratio, then this process is
called as synthesis method.
a) Analysis Method
In order to prove a demonstrative theorem, if we research out a way
starting from unknown items to be proved & reaching the given items, then it is
called a solution of the theorem by Analytic method. Although the method of
Analysis, in solving problems in mathematics is lengthy & sometime difficult but
reasons for steps of construction are clear. Particularly the reason for extension of
figure is obvious.
b) Synthesis Method
In order to prove a demonstrative theorem, if we find out the steps while
starting from the “given items” & reaching “to prove”, then this method is called
as the Synthesis method to solve theorems. This method is frequently used in
solving theorems in mathematics, but we solve a question by synthesis method,
steps of constructions are not clear.
c) Analysis – Synthesis Method
The use of both the methods analysis & synthesis is called analytic
synthetic method.
Analytical method is actually the research process, whereas synthesis, in
the light of analysis, provides the guide line to reach the desired result. Therefore,
in teaching mathematics, particularly in geometry analytic & synthesis methods
are used at a time. In this method after finding the solution of the theorem by
Analysis, the same solution of the theorem is written in a sequence with the help
of synthesis. It means that the Analysis & Synthetic work for the completion of
each other. This shall be explained in the demonstration theorem. We know that
241
in mathematics the statement of every theorem consists of two parts. In first
section some information is given whereas in the second part there is a demand to
give a proof of the given statement which is called as to be proved.
5.4 Characteristics of Circles

Circle:
A circle is a set of all points in a plane Q
which are equal distant from a fixed

point of the plane.
The fixed point is called the centre of
the circle & the segment joining this
point to any point on the circle is called r
the radial segment & the distance P
O
between any point on the circle and its
centre is called the radius of the circle.
(i)
In above figure O is the centre of the circle & m OP = r is the radius of the
circle.
Note:
(i) Centre of a circle is not a point on the circle
(ii) All radial segments of a circle are equal in length
(iii) There is only one centre of circle.
In above fig O is the centre of the circle & OP, OQ are the radii of the
circle the points P & Q being points of the circle.
Circumference of a Circle
The length of the line joining all points of the circle is circumference of
the circle. Or the boundary of a circle is also called the circumference of the
circle.
242
Chord of a Circle
A line segment whose end points
are any two points of a circle is P Q
called a chord of the circle.
PQ & LM are the chords of the
circle of centre O.
L M
O
(ii)
Diameter of a Circle
A chord passing through the centre of the circle is called a diameter of the
circle.
In fig (ii) the chord LM is a central chord of the circle as it passes through O, the
centre of the circle & LM is a diameter of the circle.
Arc of a Circle
Any portion or part of the circle is called the arc of the circle.
In fig (iii) arc PQ is the arc of P
the circle. Q
(iii)
Half Circle or Semi circle.

The portion of a circle intercepted by any
P Q
central chord is a half circle or semi-circle.
(iv)
243
Minor arc
An arc which is included in a semi circle is called minor arc. PQ is minor
arc
Major arc
An arc which includes a semi-circle is called
major arc P Q
RPS (taking clock wise) is a major arc.
The symbols is read as arc.
O
R S
Note:
Minor arc is always less than semi-circle & major arc is always greater
than semicircle.
Central Angle
The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a
A B
circle is called a central angle. In the fig angle
subtended by arc AB at centre C is ACB is the
central angle of the minor arc AB.
Congruent Circles & Arcs

Two circles are congruent if their radii are equal.
244
E A
F B
m
2c
2c
C C
D
In the figure two circles of centre C & C are congruent.
Two arcs of the same circle or of different circles of same radii are called
congruent arcs if their lengths are equal.
In above fig
m AB = m CD = m EF
So AB  CD
& AB  EF
Segment of a Circle
The chord of the circle divides the circular region into two parts. These
parts are called segments of the circle.
The region bounded by the chord & the Minor Segment
minor arc is called the minor segment &
region bounded by the chord & major arc is
P O
called its major segment.
Major Segment
245
Sector of a Circle
The circular region bounded by an
arc of a circle & is the corresponding radial
segments is called a sector of the circle.
OPQ & OPR are the sectors of the circle O
centred at O. R
Q
P
Note
(i) A Circular region can be subdivided into more than one sectors.
(ii) If a circle & a line lie in the same plane then
(a) The line may pass through two points of the circle
(b) The line may touch the circle at one point only.
(c) The line may not touch or pass through the circle.
L M B
A l
A O1
C1
P
O2
C2
O3
C3
Secant of a Circle
A line which has two distinct points in common with a circle is called a
secant line.
In above figure, line l is a secant line of the circle C1 centerd at O1
246
Tangent to a Circle
A line which touches a circle at one point only & more of its points be in
the interior of the circle is called a tangent line to the circle in above fig the line
AB is the tangent to the circle C2 & is neither a secant nor a tangent to the circle
C3 .
Tangent Circles
l
Those circles which have only one point in
common are called tangent circles.
Two circles can have one point in common
in two ways.
(i) One circle is inside the another
O2 O1
circle as in figure. P
(ii) One circle is outside other circle as
in the figure below the tangent line
at their common point is called
their common tangent.
l
A
P
O2 O1
The tangent at the common point of the two circles, in each case, is called
a common tangent to the two circles.
247
Length of Tangent
If a tangent is drawn to a circle, then
the distance between that point & the point of
tangency is called length of the tangent
segment. In figure m AB is the length of A
O
tangent segment.
B

1. Define the following
i) A chord of a circle
ii) Secant line
iii) Minor arc
iv) Central angle
v) Tangent to a circle
2. Fill in the blanks:

i) Points are collinear if they lie on the _________ .
ii) Midpoint divides a line segment into _________ line segments.
iii) Isosceles right angle triangle has one angle 90o and other two
_________ .
iv) Reflex angle is greater than _________ .
v) Two angles are complementary if they add upto _________ .
True or False:
i) Two line segments of the same length are said to be congruent.
ii) In scalence, one angle is of 90o and other two are equal.
iii) Two lines are perpendicular if they meet at 45o
iv) Parallel sides have no intersecting points.
v) Exterior angle is an angle less than 180o, and is inside the shape.
248
Answers of Self Assessment Exercise
2. Fill in the blanks: 3. True or False: 4.
i) Same line i) True i) 360
ii) Two equal ii) False ii) fixet
iii) 45o iii) False iii) chord
iv) two
iv) 180o iv) True
v) radial
v) 90o v) False segment
Self Assessment Questions (Constructions of Circles)

Fill in the blanks:
i) Circle has angle _________ .
ii) Centre of the circle is also known as _________ point.
iii) A line segment that joins two points of a circle is called _________ .
iv) Length of diameter is equal to _________ radii.
v) A line segment which joins any point of a circle is _________.
249
5.5 Pythagoras Theorem
Thousands of years ago the Egyptian used a very strange method to
measure their lands after flood in the river Nile. They used a rope or chain making
a triangle having sides in the ratio 3:4:5. A famous Greek mathematician is
Philosopher Pythagoras observed this strange method in the 6th century B.C. &
Try to explain it. At last he was able to find a relationship between the lengths of
sides of such triangles which were identically right angled triangles. This
relationship is known as Pythagoras theorem. It is of fundamental importance in
geometry & trigonometry nowadays.
Statement of Pythagoras Theorem

According to this theorem.
“in a right angled the square of hypotenuse (the length of side opposite to right
angle) is equal to sum of squares of lengths of other two sides for example, in a
right angled triangle ABC,
A
mC = 90o is right angle

and m(AB)2 = m(BC)2 + m (CA)2
if a, b, c are the lengths of opposite sides se
nu
Perpendicular
te
to the vertices A, B, & C respectively po
Hy c
b
then,
C2 = a2 + b2
(Hypotenuse)2 = (Base)2
+ (Perpendicular)2
a
B Base C
Application of Pythagoras Theorem

The theorem is used to find length of third side when lengths of any two
sides of a right angle triangle are given. It is also used to find length of diagonals
of rectangles, squares and height of equilateral and isosceles triangles. It is of
fundamental importance in the construction of buildings & bridges where
hypotenuse plays an important role.
250
Example 1:
Find hypotenuse of right angle triangle if
Base = 5cm & perpendicular = 12cm
Solution:
According to Pythagoras theorem
(Hyp)2 = (Base)2 + (Perp)2
= (5)2 + (12)2
= 25 + 144
= 169
Hyp = 13cm
Example 2: Find x for the given figure

A A
5 x
(i) x (ii) 6
B 4 C B 8 C
Solution:
(i) (5)2 = (4)2 + x2
25 = 16 + x2
x2 = 25 – 16  x2 = 9  x = 3cm
(ii) x2 = 62+82
x2 = 36 + 64
x2 = 100
x = 10cm
251
Example 3: Find value of x for following figures.
D C
D C
x xm
(i) 9 (ii)
A 12 B
A B
(i) ABCD is a rectangle
So mB = 90o
So ABC is a right angle triangle
x2 = (9)2 + (12)2
x2 = 81 + 144
x2 = 225
x = 15cm
(ii) ABC is a right angle triangle
Where
AC = 18m
AB = BC = x m
(Hyp)2 = (Base)2 + (Perp)2
 18 2
= x2 + x2
18 = 2x2
x2 = 9
x = 3m
Example 4: Find the height of isosceles triangle if length of base is 6cm &
length of each side of the other two is 5cm.
252
C
Solution:
Draw a line segment from touches C
Touches AB at point D.
Now ADC & BCD are right angle 5cm x 5cm
triangles.
A 6cm B
D
Consider ADC
mD = 90o
AB
AB = 6cm AD = = 3cm
2
AC = 5cm
CD = x cm
According to Pythagoras Theorem
(AC)2 = (CD)2 + (AD)2
25 = 9 + x2
x2 = 25 – 9
x2 = 16cm2
x = 4cm
Activity 4
1) Find length of unknown side of right angled triangle ABC where mC =
90o
(i) a = 8cm b = 6cm c=?
(ii) a = 4cm c = 32cm b = ?
(iii) b = 24cm c = 30cm a=?
253
2) Find unknown value i.e. x in the following figures.
A A
(i) 3 x (ii) x 13
C 4 B B 12 C
C C
(iii) 2 2 (iv) 6 6
A x B A 6 B
D C
A F
(v) 7 x (vi) 6 4
B x C 4 D
A 7 B
3) Diagonal of a square region is 50 cm long. Find length of its sides.
254
4) A ladder is put against a wall at a height of 12m. Its foot is at a distance of
9m from the foot of the wall. Find length of ladder.
5) Height of an equilateral triangle is 6cm. Find length of its diagonal.
In order to prove demonstrative theorems, we try to find a relation
between the “given” & “to prove”.
(d) Reduction-Ad-Absurdum Method

There is an other method to prove demonstrative theorems which is called
reduction-Ad-Absurdum Method. This method is based upon the following
assumptions.
(1) A statement is true or false. For example out of a = b, a≠b, only one is
true.
(2) If one assumption is correct, then the result obtained from it are also
correct, whereas from a wrong assumption, the results obtained shall also
be wrong. Further if no result is possible from an assumption, then this
assumption is wrong. In Reduction-Ad-Absurdum method:
(1) “To prove” is assumed to be wrong.
(2) Assuming “to prove” to be wrong, a possible correct form is supposed.
(3) According to this supposed form, results are drawn through logical
reasons.
(4) Comparing it with the “given items”, it is provided that these results are in
contradiction to the “given items”.
(5) From the contradiction, it is proved that the contrary assumption leads to
impossibility. Therefore, the given items are provided to be correct.
Proofs of some theorems are stated below:
Theorem 1: If two lines intersect each other, then the vertical angles are
congruent
A C
O
B
D
255
Given: Two lines AB & CD intersect each other at point O.
To Prove: mAOD  mBOC& mAOC  mBOD.
Proof:
Statements Reasons
MAoC + mBoC = 180o (i) Supplementary angles postulate
o (ii) from (i) & (ii)
& mBoD + mBoC = 180
 mAoC + mBoC = mBoD +
mBoC Subtracting mBoC from both sides.
or
mAoC = mBoD
Similarly mAoD = mBoD (Proved)
Hence AoC  BoD
& AoD  BoD
Theorem 2
If two sides of a triangle are congruent, then the angles opposite to these sides are
also congruent
B D C
Given: In ABC AB  AC
Construction: Draw the bisector AD of A, which intersects BC at the point D.
256
Statements Reasons
In ABD  ACD Given
AB  AC Construction
BAD  CAD Common
S.A.S Postulate
AD  AD Corresponding angles of congruent
 ABD   ACD triangles are congruent.
Hence B  C
Corollary: The angles of an equilateral triangle are congruent.
Theorem3:
The sum of the measures of the three angles of a triangle is 180o.
A
1 2
Given D E
A triangle ABC
To Prove:
mA + mB + mC =
180o
B C
Construction:
Through A, draw DE || BC & name the angle 1 & 2 as shown in fig
Proof
Statements Reasons
mB = m1  (i) Alternate angles are congruent
mC = m2 (ii)
 mB + mC = m1 + m2 from (i) & (ii)
add mBAC on both sides
& mBAC + m1 + m2  mBAC + m1 = mCAD
= mCAD + m2 = 180o
 mA + mB + mC = 180o
257
Activity 5
1) Describe the three terms in geometry, which are accepted without defining
them.
2) Describe the properties of a geometrical term.
3) What are the elements of a demonstrative theorem.
4) Describe the difference between axiom & postulate with the help of
example.
a) There can pass ________ through one point.
(i) Two lines (ii) Three lines
(iii) Infinite no of lines
b) In an isosceles triangle ________ sides are congruent.
(i) Two (ii) Three (iii) None
c) The angles of measure 50o & 130o are called as ________ angles.
(i) Complementary (ii) Supplementary (iii)
Adjacent
d) The angles of measures 50o & 40o are called as ________ angles.
(i) Supplementary (ii) Complementary (iii) Obtuse
Fill in the blanks (Ans (1) one & only one (2) Procedure (3) Reason (4) Converse
1) From two points _______ lines can be drawn.
2) The addition in the figure formed according to the statement is called as
_______.
3) In the proof of a Demonstrative theorem _______ is written in front of
every statement.
4) Two theorems are called _______ of each other, if their given & to prove
are interchanged.
Self Assessment Exercise 3 (Pythagoras Theorem)

True or False:
1) In a right angled, the side of triangle opposite to right angle is called T
hypotenuse.
2) Square of hypotenuse is equal to sum of lengths of other two sides in F
a right angled triangle.
3) The Theorem is used to find length of third side when length of other T
two sides of a right angle triangle is given.
258
5.6 Hero’s Formula
Hero was a famous Greek Mathematician. He adopted a method to find
the area of a triangular region when lengths of all three sides are given. This
method is known as Hero’s formula.
Statement:
C
If a, b, c, are lengths of sides of

triangle ABC opposite to the vertices b a
A, B & C respectively then according
to Hero’s formula
A c B
Area of triangle region ABC  S s  b s  b s  c 

abc
where S 
2
S is called the half perimeter of the triangle.
Example 1: Find area of the following triangular regions whose lengths of

sides are in cms.
259
C C
(i) 7 6 (ii) 5 3
A 5 B A 4 B
(i) a=6cm, b=7cm, c=5cm

a  b  c 6  7  5 18
S    9cm
2 2 2
 Area of ABC = S s  a s  b s  c 
 99  6 9  7 9  5 
 932 4 
 216  14.70cm2
(ii) a=3cm b=5cm c=4cm
a  b  c 3  5  4 12
S    6cm
2 2 2
 Area of  ABC = S s  a s  b s  c 
 66  36  56  4 
 6312 
 36  6cm 2
Example 2: Find area of triangular region if
s=12cm, a=6cm, c=10cm
abc
Solution: S
2
b= 2s-a-c = 24 – 6 –10
= 8cm
260
 Area of  ABC  S s  a s  b s  c 
 1212  6 12  8 12  10 
 12  6  4  2
 576
= 24cm2
Area of quadrilateral regions by using Hero’s formula.

Quadrilateral is a simple closed figure D C
having four sides (four vertices). A
line segment which joins two opposite
vertices of quadrilateral is called
diagonal.
As in quadrilateral ABCD, AC &
BD are diagonals.
A B
Since quadrilateral is divided into two triangles by diagonal. Therefore
area of quadrilateral region ABCD is equal to the sum of areas of triangular
region ABC & ADC.
i.e. Area of quadrilateral region = Area of ABC + Area of ADC
Area of Both triangular region can be calculated with the help of Hero’s formula.
Example 3: Find the area of quadrilateral region ABCD.
13cm
D
m
15c 11cm
8cm
A 12cm B
Solution: Consider ABC
a=11cm b=15cm c=12cm
261
a  b  c 11  15  12
S   19cm
2 2
Area of ABC = S s  a s  b s  c 
 1919  1119  15 19  12 
 19  8  7  4  4256
= 65.24cm2
Now consider ADC
a=13cm c=8cm d=15cm
a  c  d 13  8  15
S   18cm.
2 2
Area of ADC S s  a s  c s  d 
 1818  1318  8 18  15 
 18  10  5  3
 2700
= 51.96cm2
Area of quadrilateral region ABCD = Area of ABC + Area of
ADC
= 65.24 + 51.96
= 117.2cm2=
Example 4: Find area of the quadrilateral region ABCD
When
m AB = 4cm, m BC = 3cm, m CD = 9cm
m AD = 8cm & m BD = 10cm
Solution:
9cm 3cm
10cm
D B
4cm
8cm
262
Solution: Area of triangle region ABD
8  4  10
S  11cm.
2
Area of  ABC  S s  a s  b s  c 
 1111  811  4 11  10 
 11  3  7  1  231
=15.20cm2
Now consider the area of triangle region BCD.
b  c  d 3  9  10
S   11cm
2 2
Area of BCD = S s  b s  c s  d 
 1111  311  9 11  10 
 11  8  2  1
 176
= 13.27cm2
 Area of quadrilateral region ABCD
= Area of ABD + Area of BCD
= (15.20 + 13027) cm2
= 28.47cm2
Activity 5
1) Find area of following triangular regions.
(i) 6 6
A 8 B
263
A
(ii) 5 13
B 12 C
2) Find the area of triangular regions when lengths of sides are given.
(i) 5m, 12m, 13m
(ii) 9.5cm, 12.5cm, 8cm
3) Find the area of the triangular regions ABC when
(i) a=7cm, b=7cm, s=10cm
(ii) Perimeter = 18cm, a=6cm, c=8cm
(iii) a=5cm, c=8cm and a=b
4) Find area of following quadrilateral regions.
S 12cm R
cm
(i) 10cm 16 10cm
P 14cm Q
C
4cm
D
3cm
(ii) 5cm
A
4cm
B
264
UNIT – 6
TRIGONOMETRY
Written By: Yasmeen Akhtar

Reviewed By: Ms. Saima Kashif
265
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ...................................................................................................267
Objectives ...................................................................................................268
6.1. Fundamentals of Trigonometry ............................................................269
6.1.1 Concept of an Angle .................................................................269
6.1.2 Sexagesimal System..................................................................269
6.1.3 Circular System .........................................................................272
6.1.4 Definition of Radian .................................................................272
6.1.5 Central Angle and Arc Length .................................................272
6.1.6 Conversion of Radian into Degree and Voice Versa ................274
6.1.7 General Angle (Coterminal Angles) .........................................276
6.1.8 Angle in The Standard Position ................................................277
6.2 Trigonometric Ratios ............................................................................283
6.2.1 Trigonometric Ratios of an Acute Angle ..................................283
6.2.2 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles .....................289
6.2.3 Definition of Trigonometric Function of Any Angle ...............290
6.3 Trigonometric Identities........................................................................298
6.4 Solution of Right Triangles ...................................................................305
6.5 Application of Trigonometry ................................................................313
6.5.1 Angle of Elevation or Angle of Depression ..............................314
266
INTRODUCTION
The word trigonometry has been derived from three Greek words Tri (Three),
Goni (Angles), Metron (measurement). Literally it means “measurement of
triangle”. Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics, which deals with sides and
angles of a triangle as well as the relevant functions of its angles. In the
development of trigonometry, the Muslim mathematician, particularly Abu-
Abdullah Albatafi, Alberuni and Muhammad Bin Musa Alkwarzimi made a value
able contribution.
When we make use of a ruler or measuring tape to measure the height of a chair,
the length of a pencil, or dimensions of a classroom we are making direct
measurements.
In some cases, it is not possible to obtain direct measurements, because these are
difficult and dangerous. For example, it is difficult to climb up a flag pole to
measure its height. To measure the height of a cliff is difficult and dangerous.
These problems can be solved by indirect measurements with the help of
trigonometry.
For indirect measurements of distances or height, it is very useful. It also plays an
important role in the field of astronomy (especially for locating apparent positions
of celestial objects, in which spherical trigonometry is essential) and hence
navigation (on the oceans, in aircrafts, and in shape), music theory, acoustics,
optics, analysis of financial markets, electronics, probability theory, statistics,
biology, medical imaging (CAT scans and ultrasound), pharmacy, chemistry,
number theory (and hence cryptology), seismology, meteorology, oceanography,
architecture, phonetics, economics, electrical engineering, mechanical
engineering, civil engineering, computer graphics, cartography, crystallography
and game development.
We make use of these concepts of trigonometry to solve many of the problems in
these fields.
267
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the perspective teachers will be able to:
 Convert degree into radian measure and vice versa
 Determine the six trigonometric ratios for a given acute angle of a right
angle
 State the function value for 30°, 45°, and 60°
 Find the function value for its complement.
 Solve right triangle
 Recognize and write the fundamental trigonometric identities
 Use the fundamental trigonometric identities to evaluate trigonometric
functions, simplify trigonometric expressions, and rewrite trigonometric
expression
 Understand application of trigonometry
268
6.1 Fundamentals of Trigonometry
6.1.1 Concept of an Angle
The study of Trigonometry depends on the concept of angle. We know that the
two rays with a common end point form an angle, one of the rays of angle is
called initial side and the other as terminal side. A counterclockwise rotation
produces a positive angle, and a clockwise rotation produces a negative angle.
Angles are usually denoted by Greak letters such as α (alpha), β (beta), γ
(gamma),
In fig 6.1
B O initial side C
Clockwise
e
id
rotation
s
al
in
Te
rm
rm
Te
Anti-clockwise in
rotation al
sid
e
O initial side A D
(fig. 6.1)
There are two commonly used measurements for angles: Degrees and Radians,
which are explained as below.
6.1.2 Sexagesimal System: (Degree, minute and second)

An angle formed by one complete rotation is said to have a measure of 360°
1
degrees (360°). An angle formed by 360 O of a complete rotation is said to have a
measure of 1 degree (1°). The symbol “O” denotes degrees.
Certain angles have special names. Figure 6.2 shows a straight angles a right
angle, an acute angle, and an obtuse angle.
269
o
180
90o
Straight Angle Right Angle Acute Angle Obtuse Angle

1  1  (0° ∠ θ ∠ 90°) (90° ∠ θ ∠ 180°)
 rotation   rotation 
2  4 
(fig. 6.2)
A degree can be divided further using decimal notation. For example, 42.75°
represents an angle of degree measure 42 plus three – quarters of 1 degree. A
degree can also be divided further using minutes and seconds just as an hour is
divided into minutes and seconds. Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts
called minutes, and each minute is divided into 60 equal parts called seconds.
Symbolically, minutes are represented by ′ and seconds by ″.
As this system of measurements of angle owes its origin to the English and
because 90, 60 are multiples of 6 and 10, so it is known as English System or
Sexagesimal System.
Thus 1 rotation (Anti-clockwise) = 360°
One degree (1°) = 60′
One minute (1′) = 60″
Conversion from D° M′ S″ to a decimal form and vice versa.
Example (i) Convert 21.256° to degree minute second form.

Solution: 0. .256°=(0.256) (1°)
  
 1   1   1 
1    and 1      
 60   60   60  60 

   1   1 
 21 4712  21  47   12 
  60   60  60 
= (21 + 0.783 + 0.003)°
= 21.78°6
270
Example (ii) 0.256° = (0.256) (1°)
= 0.256 (60′)= 15.36′
and 0.36′ = (0.36) (1′)
= (0.36) (60″) = 21.6″
 21.256″ = 21° + 0.256°
= 21° + 15.36′
= 21° + 15′ + 0.36′
= 21° + 15′ + 21.3″
= 21° 15′ 22″ rounded off to nearest second
Example (iii) Convert (16.25625)° into degree-minute-second form
Solution:
(16.25625)° = 16° + 0.25625°
= 16° + 0.25625(1°)
= 16° + 0.25625(60°)
= 16° + 15′ + 0.375
= 16° + 15′ + 0.375
= 16° + 15′ + 0.375(1′)
= 16° + 15′ + 0.375(60″)
= 16° + 15′ + 0.375
= 16° + 15′ + 22″
= 16° 15′ 22″
271
6.1.3 Circular System (Radians)
r
There is another system of r
angular measurement, called the 1 radian

circular system. This type of O r A
measure is especially useful in
calculus.
(fig. 6.3)
6.1.4 Definition Of Radian

One radian is the measure of a central angle of a circle that is subtended by an are
whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.

In the above figure 6.3, consider a circle of radius r, construct an angle AOB at
the centre of the circle whose rays cut off an arc A B on the circle whose length
is equal to the radius r.
Thus mAOB = 1 radian.
6.1.5 Central Angle and arc length:

We can expcess the length of an arc of a circle in terms of the length of the radies
and measure of the central angle in radians.
Suppose S is the number of length unit in arc PQ, r is the number of length units
of the same kind in radius of and Q is the number of radians in AOB .
272
As the length of an area is B
Proportional to the measure of its central 
angle, we have S
S  

2r 2 O P A
S

r
Or S = r
Fig. (6.4)
Note the number  is the quotient of the length of the are divided by the length of
the radius. In particular, if n=1, that is, if a circle with unit radius is taken, then the
number of radians in a central angle is the same as the number of length units in
its arc, because if r =1, then  = S.
l
Theorem: Prove that   , where r is the radius of the circle, l is the length of the
r
arc and  is the circular measure of the central angle.
Proof:
B
B
r r
1 radian ½ radian
O A
O A
B 2r B
r
2
ra
di
r
n a
radian
A A
O O
By definition of radian;

An angle of 1 radian subtends an are A B on the circle of length = 1.r
273
1  1
An angle of 2 radian subtends an arc A

B on the circle of length = 2 .r
An angle of 2 radian subtends an arc A B on the circle of length = 2.r

 An angle of θ radian subtends an arc AB on the circle of length = θ.r
 AB   .r
 l   .r
l
  
r
Thus the central angle θ (in radian) subtended by a circular arc of length l is given
l
by  , where r is the radius of the circle.
r
Remember that r and l are measured in terms of the same unit and the radian
measure is unit-less, i.e., it is a real number.
For example, if r = 8 cm and l = 16cm
l
then   r
16

8
 2
6.1.6 Conversion of Radian Into Degree and Voice Versa

From geometry we know that the circumference c, of a circle is given by the
c
formula c = 2πr. Thus r  2 so there are 2π radians in a complete rotation of
360° about a point. Therefore 2π radians = 360°
Dividing by 2 produces this fundamental relationship between radians and
degrees:
π radians = 180°
when both sides of the equation 180° = π radians are divided by 180, we obtain
this

1o  radian
180
3.1416
1o  radian ≈ 0.01745 radian
180
274

Since each degree equals 180 radian, degrees can be converted into radians by

multiplying number of degrees by 180 .
Example 1: Convert the following angles in degree:
2
(i) 3 radians (ii) 3 radians
2
Solution: (i) 3 radians
2
= 3 (π radians)
2
= 3 180   120
O O
(ii) 3 radians
= 3 (1 radian)
 180 
≈ 3  
 180 
≈ 3  3.1416 
≈ 3(57.296)°
≈ 171.888°
Example 2 Convert 30° and 135° into radians. Express the results in terms of π
and as a decimal rounded to three places.
Solution:
 For simplicity, we use the equals
o
30° = 30 180 radian sign & write 30 = 0.524 radian,
even though it is not an exact
 equality.
= 6 radian
275
30° = 0.524

135° = 135 180 radians
3
= 4 radian
= 2.356
30 x
Another way to convert 30° to radians is to make use of this proportion : 180 = 
From now on, radian measures will (in most instances) be stated without using the
word “radian”. Thus the angle measure 2 automatically means 2 radians unless
degree measure is explicitly stated. using relation π = 180°
Radians    2 2 3 5 π 3 2π
6 4 3 4 3 4 6 2
Degrees 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
6.1.7 General Angle (Coterminal Angles)

There can be many angles with the same initial and terminal sides. These are
called conterminal angles. Consider an angle ∠ AOB with initial side OA and
terminal side OB with vertex O.

Let m ∠ POQ = θ radian, where O ≤ θ ≤ 2π

O P
Now, if the side oB comes to its present position after one or more complete
rotations in the anti-clock wise direction, then m AOB will be (i) θ + 2π , after
one revolution (ii) θ + 4π , after two revolutions,
276
B B
B

O
However, if the rotations are made in the clock-wise direction as shown in the
figure,
m ∠ AoB will be:
(i) θ – 2π , after one revolution,
(ii) θ – 4π , after two revolution,
It means that oB comes to its original position after every revolution of 2π

radians in the positive or negative directions.
In general, if angle θ is in degrees, then θ+360 k where K  Z, is an angle
coterminal with θ. If angle θ is in radians, then θ+2kπ where K  Z, is an angle
coterminal with θ.
⇒ General angle is θ + 2kπ , K  Z
6.1.8 Angle in the Standard Position

An angle is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin of a
rectangular system and its initial side along the positive x – axis.
The following figures shows four angles in standards.
e
sid
Te
al
rm
in
ina
rm
Te
ls
ide

 initial side initial side
x x
(a) (b)
277
initial side  initial side
x x
e
Te
id
s
rm
al
in a
in
rm
ls
Te
id
e
(c) (d)
(fig. 6.5)
An angle in standard position is said to lie in a quadrant if its terminal side lies in
that quadrant.
In the above figure (6.5):
Angle α lies in I Quadrant as its terminal side lies is I Quadrant.
Angle β lies in II Quadrant as its terminal side lies is II Quadrant.
Angle  lies in III Quadrant as its terminal side lies is III Quadrant.
And Angle θ lies in IV quadrant as its terminal side is IV Quadrant.
If the terminal side of an angle falls on x-axis or y – axis, it is called a qudrantal

angle. i.e., 90°, 180°, 270° and 360° are quadrantal angles.
278
y y
90o 180o
(a) (b)
y y
o
270o 360
x x
(d)
(c)
(fig. 6.6)
Certain angles have special names as shown in the following figure
279
o
180o
90
Straight Angle ( 1 rotation) Right Angle ( 1 rotation)

2 4
(a) (b)
O O O O
Acute Angle (O <  < 90) Obtuse Angle (90 <  < 180)
(c) (d)
Fig. (6.7)
Two positive angles are complementary if their sum is 90°; they are
supplementary if their sum is 180°.
Activity 1:
Q1. Express the following sexagesimal measures of angles in radians:
(i) 90° (ii) 105° (iii) 150°
(iv) 120′ 40″ (v) 75° 6′ 30″ (vi) 3″
Q2. Convert the following radian measures of angles in to the measures of

sexagesimal system:
11 17 5
(i) (ii) (iii)
27 24 6
 2 13
(iv) 2 (v) 3 (vi) 16
280
Q3. Find the radian measure of a central angle θ opposite an arc l in a circle of
radius r, where r and l are as given:
(i) r = 4 centimeters , l = 24 centimeters
(ii) r = 12 feet , l = 30 feet
Q4. Find the exact degree measure of each angle:

 2 4 5
(i) , , , 2
3 3 3 , 3 ,
 3
(ii)
2 ,
  , 2 ,  2
Q5. Indicate whether each angle, I, II, III or IV quadrant angle or a quadrantal
angle. All angles are in standard position in a rectangle coordinate system.
7
(i) 130° (ii) –1.34 (iii)
4
 5
(iv) (v) –835° (vi) 9.73
2
Q6. Which angles are coterminal with 120° if all angles are placed in standard
position in a rectangular coordinate system?
2
(i) –600° (ii) 960° (iii)
3
 3
Q7. Which angles are coterminal with if all angles are placed in
4
standard position in a rectangular coordinate system?
11 13
(i) (ii) (iii) –495°
27 4
Q.8. What is the length of the arc intercepted on a circle of radius 13 inches by
a central angle of 41O ?

Q.1. Determine whether the statement is true or false. If true, explain why. If
false, give a counter examples.
(i) If two positive angles are complementary, then both are acute.
281
(ii) If two positive angles are supplementary, then one is obtus and
other is acute.
(iii) If an angle is right angle, then it is a quadrantral angle.

(iv) 1° contains
180 radians, which is approximately 0.01745 radian.

 180 
(v) A radian contains    , which is approximately 57.296°.
Key Points:
 Two rays with the common end point from an angle.
 The angle is identified by showing the direction of rotation from the initial
side to the terminal side.
 An angle is said to be positive/negative of the rotation is anti
clockwise/clockwise.
 1 rotation (anti-clock wise = 360o
1
 rotation = 180o
2
 One degree (1o)=60’
 One minute (1’) = 6”

 1o = radian
180
180O
 1 radian =

282
6.2 Trigonometric Ratios
6.2.1 Trigonometric Ratios Of An Acute Angle
Our first look at the trigonometric functions is from a right triangle perspective.
Consider a right triangle ABC, one

of whose acute angles is labeled θ
a = Perpendicular
(theta) = ∠BAC with m∠ ABC = 90°
e
us
ten
in anti-clockwise direction from AB
po
hy
to AC . In the triangle ABC, the side
=
b
BC opposite to the angle θ is called
perpendicular.

A c = base B
(fig. 6.8)
The side AB , common arm of θ and right angle is the base and the side AC ,
opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse.
In many applications of trigonometry, you are given the measure of two sides of a
right triangle or the measure of an acute angle and one side, and are asked to find
the measures of the remaining sides and acute angles. This is called solving a
triangle.
Solving a triangle can be accomplished by using special trigonometric ratios
associated with each acute angle θ. In above figure 6.8, six possible ratios of the
side of a right triangle can be computed for each angle θ.
Because of their importance, each is given a name:
Sine (sin), Cosine (cos), tangent (tan), cosecant (cosce), and cotangent (cot).
Using the abbreviated forms, we state the definition of six trigonometric functions
of acute angles (Fig, 6.8)
Perpendicular a hypotenuse b
Sin   Co sec  
hypotenuse b perpendicular a
base c hypotenuse b
Co sec   Sec  
hypotenuse b base c
283
Perpendicular a base a
tan    Cot  
base c perpendicular b
It is important to note that a right triangle can be oriented in many different ways,
but irrespective of the orientation, the hypotenuse is always opposite the right
angle. Also, note that since the hypotenuse is always longer than either of the
other two sides, the sine and cosine are always less than 1, and the cosecant and
secant are always greater than 1.
Example 1: Evaluating Trigonometric

Functions
Use the triangle in figure 6.9 to find the
values of six trigonometric functions of θ.
e
us
Solution:
en
ot
4
yp
H
By the Pythagorean Theorem,
(Hypotenuse)2 = (Perpendicular)2 + (Base)2


It follows that 3
(fig. 6.9)
hypotenuse  4 2  32  25  5
So the six trigonometric functions of θ are
perpendicular 4 base 3 perpendicular 4

Sin   , Cos   , tan   
hypotenuse 5 hypotenuse 5 base 3
hypotenuse 5 hypotenuse 5 base 3

Cosec   , Sec   , cot  
perpendicular 4 base 3 perpendicular 4
Example 2 Evaluating Trigonometric function of 45°

Find the value of sin45° , cos45° , and tan45°
284
Solution:
45o
Construct a right triangle having 45° as
one of its acute angles, as shown in figure
2 1
6.10 choose the length of the adjacent side
to be 1. From geometry, you know that the
other and angle is also 45°. So, triangle is
isosceles and the length of the opposite
45o side is also 1. Using the Pythagorean
1 Theorem, you find the length of the
hypotenuse to be 2
(fig 6.10)
perpendicular 1
sin 45  
hypotenuse 2
base 1
Cos45  
perpendicular 2
perpendicular 1
tan 45   1
base 1
Example 3
Evaluating Trigonometric Function of 30° and 60° use the equilateral triangle
shown in figure 6.11 to find the values of sin 60°, cos 60°, and cos 30°.
285
30o
3 2
60o
1
(fig. 6.11)
Solution:
Try using the Pythagorean Theorem and the equilateral triangle in figure 6.11 to
verify the lengths of the side given in Figure 6.11. for θ = 60°, you have
Base = 1, perpendicular = 3 and hypotenuse = 2, therefore,
perpendicu lar 3 base 1
Sin 60    and cos 60  
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2
For θ = 30°, base  3 , perpendicular = 1, hypotenuse = 2
perpendicular 1 base 3
Sin30   and cos 30   
hypotenuse 2 hypotenuse 2
These results in the form of a table can be written as

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
1 1 3
sin θ 0 1
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 0
2 2 2
1
tan θ 0 1 3 Not defined
3
286
Learn the table of values at the right is worth the effort. Doing so will increase
both your efficiency and your confidence.
Do you observe?
Reciprocal identities
1
cos ec 
sin 
1
Sec  
cos 
1
cot  
tan 
Quotient identities
sin  cos x
tan   , cot x 
cos  sin x
6
Example 3 if sin   and  is an acute angle, find the other five
7
trigonometric function values for  .
6
Solution: We know from the definition of the sine function that the ratio is
7
perpendicular
hypotenuse
287
Using this information, let us A
consider a right triangle in which the
hypotenuse has length 7 and the side
opposite  (perpendicular) has
length 6.
7 6
B C
To find the length of the side adjacent to  (base), we can use the Pythagorean
Theorem.
Base2   perpendicular 2  hypotenuse2

(a)2 + (6)2 = (7)2
a2 + 36 = 49
a2 = 49 – 36
a2 = 13
a = 13  choosing the positive square root, since we are finding
length
we can use a = 13 , b = 6, and c = 7 to find the other five ratios in the original
triangle:
6 7
sin   csc 
7 6
13 7 7 13
cos   sec  , or
7 13 13
6 6 13 13
tan  , or , cot  
13 13 6
288
6.2.2 Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles
C
90o-
We consider a right-angled
triangle ABC, Recall that two
angles are complementary b a
wherever the sum of their measure
is 90°. Each is the complement of
the other. In a right angle the acute
angles are complementary, since
the sum of all three anlge 90o
measures is 180° and the right
angle accounts for 90° of this A c B
total.
(fig. 6.12)
Thus if one acute angle of a right triangle is  , the other is 90° –  . i.e.,
mA   , m  B  90  then, m  C  90    .
Using the trigonometric ratios of C , we get
m AB c
 
sin 90     (i)
m AC b
Using ratios of  A , we get
m AB c
cos    (ii )
m AC b
from (i) and (ii), we get
 
sin 90   cos
Similarly, we have
cos(90° –  ) = sin 
289
 
tan 90   cot
cot90    tan

sec90    cosec

cosec90    sec

These pairs of functions are called cofunctions. We Observed, the name cosine
originally meant the sine of the complement. The name cotangent meant the
tangent of the complement and cosecant meant the secant of the complement.
Example: Given that sin 18° = 0.3090 , cos 18° = 0.9511,

tan 18° = 0.3249 , cot 18° = 3.078,
sec 18° = 1.051 , csc 18° = 3.236,
Find the Six function values for 72°.
Solution: Since 72° and 18° are complements, we have sin 72° = cos 18°,
and so on.
Thus the function values are
sin 72° = 0.9511 , cos 72° = 0.3090,
tan72° = 3.078 , cot 72° = 0.3249,
sec 72° = 3.236 , csc 72° = 1.051
6.2.3 Definition of Trigonometric Function of any Angle
Let  be an angle in standard position with (x, y) a point on the terminal side of
2 2
 and r  x  y  0
290
y
sin  y
r
x (x , y)
cos 
r
y
tan 
x
y r
csc  , y0
r

r
sec  , y0 x
x
x
cot   , y0
y
(fig. 6.14)
Because r  x 2  y 2 can not be zero, it follows that the sine and cosine function
are defined for any real value  . However, if x = o, the tengent and secant of 
are undefined.
For example, the tangent of 90° is undefined. Similarly, if y = 0, the cotangent
and cosecant of  are undefined.
Example: Evaluating Trigonometric functions.

Let (-3, 4) be a point on the terminal side of , Find the sine, cosine, and tangent
of .
291
y
(-3, 4)
4
3
r 2
1
x x
0 1
-3 -2 -1
(fig. 6.15)
2 2
Referring to figure 6.15, you see that x = – 3, y = 4 and r  x  y
  32  42
r  25
r 5
so, you have the following
y 4 x 3
sin   , cos  
r 5 r 5
y 4
tan  
x 3
The signs of the trigonometric functions in the four quadrants can be determined
x
easily from the definitions of the functions. For instance because cos  r it
,
follows that cos is positive wherever x > 0, which is in Quadrant I and IV.
(remember, r is always positive.) in the similar manner, you can verify the result
shown in figure 6.16.
292
y
Quadrant II Quadrant I
sin : + sin : +
cos : - cos : +
tan : - tan : +
Quadrant III Quadrant IV

sin : - sin : -
cos : - cos : +
tan : + tan : -
(fig. 6.16)
/2 <  <  0 <  < /2

x<0 x>0
y>0 y>0
x<0 x>0
y<0 y<0
 <  < 3/2 3/2 <  < 2
5
Example: Given tan    cos   0 , find sin  and sec  .
4 and
Solution: Note that  lies in Quadrant IV because that is the only quadrant
in which the tangent is negative and the cosine is positive.
Moreover using
y
tan 
x
5

4
293
and the fact that y is negative in Quadrant IV, you can let y = – 5 and x = 4, so
r  16  25  41 and you have
y 5 r 41
sin     0.7809 sec    1.6008
r 41 x 4
5
Example: If tan  =
6 and the terminal side of the quadrant is in the third
.
quadrant. Find the remaining trigonometric ratios of 
Solution: In third quadrant both x and y are negative.

Perpendicular  5 5
 Tan   
Base 6 6
According to Pythagorous theorem.
(Hypotenuse)2 = (Base) 2 + (Perpendiculars) 2

= (–5) 2 + (–6) 2
= 25 + 36
(Hypotenuse)2 = 61
61
Hypotenuse = -6
1 6 -5
O x
 Cot  
tan  5 61
Perpendicu lar 5
Sin   
Hypotenuse 61
1 61
Co sec   
Sin 5
Base 6
Cose   
Hypotenous e 61
1  61
Sec  
Cos 6
294
Activity – 6.2:
Q1. For each of the following right-angled triangles, find the trigonometric
ratios:
C C
 
4 5 8 17
 
B 3 A B 15 A
5 13
12
(i) sin  (ii) cos  (iii) tan  (iv) sec 
(v) cos ec (vi) cot  (vii) tan  (viii) sin 
(ix) sec  (x) cos 
Q2. For the following right – angled triangle find the trigonometric ratios for
which
295
(i) sin mA
(ii) cos mA B A
(iii) tan mA
(iv) sin mC
(v) cos m C
(vi) tan mC C
2
Q3. If sin   lies in
3 , then find the remaining trigonometric ratios when
the first quadrant.
3
Q4. If cos  5 , then find the remaining trigonometric ratios when  lies in
the first quadrant.

Q1. Considering the adjoining triangle ABC, verify that
C
(i) sin cosec =1

5 3
(ii) cos sec  = 1
(iii) tan  cot  =1 
A 4 B
Q2. Fill in the blanks

(i) sin30° = sin(90° – 60°) = cos ________________
(ii) cos30° = cos(90° – 60°) = sin ________________
(iii) tan60° = tan(90° – 30°) = cot ________________
(iv) sin60° = sin(90° –30°) = cos ________________
(v) cos60° = cos(90° – 30°) = sin ________________
296
(vi) sin45° = sin(90° – 45°) = cos ________________
(vii) tan45° = tan(90° – 45°) = cot ________________
(viii) cos45° = cos(90° – 45°) = sin ________________
Q3. For each of the following right angled triangles, name the
(i) hypotenuse (ii) side opposite to x (perpendicular)
(iii) side adjacent to x (base)
C A
(a) (b)
x
B A C B
Key Points:
Best way to remember trigonometric ratios.
“Some people have Curly Brown Hair through proper brushing.”
People Perpendicular
Some ........ Sine 
have Hypotenuse
Brown Base
Curly ........ Cos 
Hair Hypotenuse
Proper Perpendicular
Through ........ Tan 
Brushing Base
297
6.3 Trigonometric Identities
A trigonometric identity is an equation that is true for all values of the variable for
which the expressions in the equation are defined.
In this unit we review the basic identities used in Trigonometry. the key to these
basic identities is the Pythagoras theorem in geometry.
“The square of the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum
of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.”
For example
5
c2 = a2 + b2 c= a=3
2 2 2
5 =3 +4

25 = 9 + 16
b=4
(Fig. 6.13)
Remember that:
(i) Sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of
third side.
(ii) Difference of lengths of two sides of a triangle is less than the length of
third side.
Consider fig 6.14,

c a
By Pythagoras Theorem, we have.


b
(fig. 6.14)
a2  b2  c2 (i )
298
a2 b2 c 2
or 2  2  2 (dividing by c2)
c c c
a perpendicular
sin  
c hypotenuse
or sin 2   cos2   1
b base
cos  
c hypotenuse
Now dividing (i) by b2, we have
a 2 b2 c 2
 
c 2 b2 b 2
a perpendicular
tan   
or b base
tan 2   1  sec 2  1 1 c
sec   
cos  b b
c
Now dividing equation (i) by a2, we have
a2 b2 c 2
 
a2 a2 a2
1 1 b
cot    
tan  a a
b
or 1  cot 2   cos ec 2
1 1 c
cos ec   
sin  a a
c
All these identities, together with some alternative forms, will be used throughout
our work. It is therefore important that you learn to recognize them.
299
Fundamental Identities
Fundamental identity Common alternative Restrictions on 
forms
1 1 Not conterminal with 0,
csc   sin  
sin  csc  
sin  . csc   1
1 1 Not coterminal with
sec  cos 
cos sec  3
,
cos .sec  1 2 2
1 1 Not a quadrantal angle
cot   tan  
tan  Cot 
tan  cot   1
sin  Not coterminal with
tan  
cos  3
,
2 2
cos Not coterminal with 0,
cot  
sin  
sin   cos 2   1
2
sin 2   1  cos 2  None
cos 2   1  sin 2 
tan 2   1  sec 2  tan 2   sec 2   1 Not coterminal with
 3
,
2 2
1  cot 2   csc 2  cot 2   csc 2   1 Not coterminal with 0,

The last three identities are called Pythagorean identities because they are based
on the Pythagorean Theorem.
Example 1: Verify the identify: cos  tan   sin 
Verification: Generally, we proceed by starting with the more complicated of

the two sides, and transform that side into the other in one or more
step using basic identities, algebra, or other established identities.
Thus,
L. H .S  cos  tan 
sin 
 cos Quotient identify
cos
 sin  Algebra
= R.H.S
300
Hence cos  tan   sin 
Example 2: Verify the identity : cot  cos   sin   csc 

Verification: L.H .S  cot  cos   sin 
cos
 cos  sin  Quotient identity
sin 
cos2 
  sin Algebra
sin
cos 2   sin2 
 Algebra
sin 
1
 Pythagorean identity
sin 
 csc Reciprocal identity
 R.H .S
Hence cot  cos  sin   csc
1  sin  cos
Example 3: Verify the identity:   2 sec
cos 1  sin 
Verification: L.H .S  

1  sin    cos 2
2
Algebra
cos 1  sin  
1  2 sin   sin 2   cos 2 
 Algebra
cos  1  sin  
1  2 sin  1
cos 1  sin 
2  2 sin
 Algebra
cos 1  sin 
21  sin  
 Algebra
cos  1  sin  
2
 Algebra
cos
 2 sec  Reciprocal identity
 R.H .S
301
Hence   2 sec
tan   cot 
Example 4: Verify the identity:  1  2 cos2 
tan   cot 
tan   cot 
Verification: L.H.S 
tan   cot 
Change to sine and cosines (quotient identity)
sin  cos

 cos  sin 
sin  cos

cos sin 
Multiply numerator and denominator by (sin x) (cos x), and use algebra to
transform the compound fraction in to a simple fraction.
sin  cos  sin   cos 
  cos sin  
sin  cos  sin   cos 
 cos  sin  
sin2   cos2 
 2
sin   cos2 
1  cos2  cos2 
1
 1  2 cos 2  Algebra
 R.H .S
Example 5: Verify the identity:
sin2   2 sin  1 1  sin

cos2  1  sin
2
sin   2 sin  1
Verification: L.H .S 
cos2 

sin   12 Algebra
cos 2 
2

 sin   1
Pythagorean identity
1  sin 2 

1  sin  2 Algebra
1  sin  1  sin  
302
1  sin 
 Algebra
1  sin 
 R.H .S
sin2  2 sin  1 1  sin
Hence 
cos2  1  sin
2
 2 2

Example 6: Verify that Sec   1 cos   sin 
Verification:

L.H.S  sec2   1) cos2  
 tan2  .cos2  Pythagorean identity
sin2 
 2
.cos2  Quotient identity
cos 
 sin 2 
 R.H .S
 2
 2
Hence sec   1 cos   sin 
2
303
Activity – 6.3:
Q1 Prove the following identities.
(i) 2 cos 2   1  1  2 sin 2 
1  tan2 
(ii) cos2   sin2  
1  tan2 
1  sin  cos
(iii) 
1 1
(iv)   2 Sec 2
1  sin  1  sin 
tan   sec   1
(v)  tan   Sec
tan   sec   1
(vi) sec  tan 1  sin   cos
(vii) tan 2   sin 2   sin 2  tan 2 
cot2   1
(viii) 2
 cot2 
tan   1
sec2 
(ix) 2
 csc2 
sec   1
(x) tan  12  sec2   2 tan
1 1
(xi) 2
1
sec  csc 2 
(xii) sec 4   cos 4   cos 2   sin 2 
(xiii) sin 2
  cos 2    1
5
304
Q1. Show that each expression is equal to 1.

(i) sin  cot sec 
(ii) cos tan csc 
(iii)  
cos2  tan2   1
(iv) 
tan2  csc2  1
Q2. Complete by using the fundamental identities.
1
(i) 
csc _________________
(ii) 1  sin2   _____________
(iii) csc2   cot2   _________
(iv) tan  cos   __________ __
(v) sin  cot   __________ __
Key Points:
 Pythagoras Theorem: (Hypotenuse)2 = (Base) 2 + (Perpendiculars) 2
 Pythagorean identities are

a. Sin2  + Cos2 = 1
b. Tan2 + 1 = Sec2
c. 1 + Cot2 = Csc2
 (Sin)2 = Sin2, (Cos)2 = Cos2 and (tan)2 = tan2 etc.
 Relation between six trigonometric functions as follows:
1 1 Sin 
Csc  ; Sec  ; tan   ;
Sin  Cos Cos
Cos 1
Cot  ; Cot 
Sin tan 
305
6.4 Solution of Right Triangles
To solve a triangle means to find the length of all its side and measures of all its
angles, provided they are not already known, here we learn the solution of a right
angled only.
CasI: when measure of one side and one angle are given.
Example: Solve triangle ABC, in which mB  90 , mA  30 , a = 2
Solution:
C
 o
Now mC  90  mA 60
 90  30  b a=2
mC  60 ___________ ⋆1

o
30
A c B
a
and  sin 30
b
2
or  sin 30  a  b
b
2 1
or 
b 2
or b4 ___________ ⋆2
a
and  tan 30
c
2 1
or 
c 3
thus c = 2 3 ___________ ⋆3
hence ⋆1, ⋆2 and ⋆3 give the required result.
Case II: when measure of the hypotenuse and an angle are given
Example: Solve triangle ABC, when m A  60  , b  5cm , m B  90 
306
Solution: we are required to find a, c and mC
C
m  A  60 
m  B  90 
m
m  C  90   m  A 5c a
b=
 90   60 
60o
 30  ________________ ⋆1
A c B
a
Now  sin 60
b
a 3   3
or   b  5cm, sin 60  
5 2  2 
5 3
or a
2
or a  4.33cm _______________ ⋆2
c
and  cos 60
b
c 1  1
or   b  5cm, cos 60  
5 2  2
5
or c
2
or c  2.5cm _______________ ⋆3
Case III: when measure of two sides are given.

Example: Solve triangle ABC, when a  3cm, c  1cm and m  B  90 
Solution: we are required to find b, m  A, m  C , By Pythagorean Theorem,
we have
307
C
2 2 2
b =c +a
or b2 = (1)2 +  3
2
(Putting values)
a = 3 cm
or b2 = 1 + 3 b
or b2 = 4
60o
A c = 1cm B
or b=2 _________________ ⋆1
a
Now sin A 
b
3
sin m A 
2
 3
mA  sin 1  

 2 
m  A  60  _________________ ⋆2

and m  C  90  m  A
 90   60 
 30  _________________ ⋆3
Equation ⋆1, ⋆2 and ⋆3 give the required result.
Case IV: When measure of one side and hypotenuse are given.
Example: Solve triangle ABC, when a  2cm, b  2 2cm and mB  90
Solution: We are required to find m A, m  C and By Pythagoras Theorem,
we have
308
b2 = a2 + c2 C
or c2 = b2 – a2
 2
= 2 2 – (2)2 cm
2
2 a = 2cm
=8–4 b=
=4
A c B
or c = 2cm _________________ ⋆1
c
Now  cos mA
b
c 1
or cos mA  
b 2
 1 
mA  cos1  
 2
 m  A  45  _________________ ⋆2
Thus m  C  90   m  A
 90   45 
m  C  45  _________________ ⋆3
Equation ⋆1, ⋆2 and ⋆3 give the required result.
Example: Find mB.

C
Solution: Since the angle measures of
any triangle add up to 180°
and the right angle
measures 90°, the acute.
Angle must add up to 90°
mA  mB  90 ,
o
32
so
A B
m  B  90   32   58 
Activity 6.4:
Q1: Find the values of x, y and z from the following right angled triangles.
309
A C C
y  3cm
m
(i) y (ii) x (iii)
2c
z
z=
o
60o 30 45
o
C x B A y=4cm B
A x B
Q2: Find the unknown sides and angles of the following triangles.
c = 1cm
B A
a = 3cm
Q3: Calculate the length x in the adjoining figure.
B x C
10cm 8cm
A 17cm D
310
Q4: If the ladder is placed along the wall such that the foot of the ladder is 2m
away the wall. If the length of the ladder is 10m. find the height of the
wall where ladder is placed?
Q5: Solve for x.
30
(i)
o
30
x
32
(ii)
o
60
x
Q.6 Find the unknown angles and sides of the following triangles.
5
O
50 15
8
4 10
O O
45 40
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
311
Key Points:
We can solve a right angles triangle if:
I. When measure of one side and one angle are given.
II. When measure of the hypotenuse and an angle are given.
III. When measure of two sides are given.
IV. When measure of one side an hypotenuse and given.
312
6.5 Application of Trigonometry
Many application of trigonometry involve a process called solving right triangles.
In this type of application, you are usually given one side of a right triangle and
one of the acute angles and asked to find one of the other side, or you are given
two sides and asked to find one of the acute angles.
One of the chief advantages of trigonometry lies in finding heights and distances.
For example, Engineers have to design the construction of roads and tunnels for
which the knowledge of heights and distance is very useful to them.
Moreover, they are also required to find the heights and distances of the out of
reach objects. Here are some general guidelines for solving trigonometric
problems that involve geometric figure:
1- After carefully reading the problem, draw a figure that matches the given
information. Try to draw it as close to scale as possible.
2- Record any given values directly on the corresponding parts, and label the
required unknown parts with appropriate unknown parts with appropriate
letters.
3- Determine the trigonometric ratios and geometric formulas that can be
used to solve for an unknown part, and use table or calculator to find the
solution.
Right triangles have many applications. To solve a problem, we locate a right
triangle and then solve that triangle, or at least partially solve it.
Example 1: An observer stands on level ground, 200m from the base of a TV

tower, and looks up at an angle of 26.5° to see the top of the tower.
How heigh is the tower above the observer’s eye level?
313
Solution:
o
26.5
200m
We draw a diagram and see that a right triangle is formed. We use one of the
trigonometric functions. The tangent function is most convenient. From the
definition of the tangent function, we have
h  perpendicular 
 tan 26.5  tan  
200  base 
By consulting a table or using a calculator, we find that tan 26 .5  0 .4986 ,

approximately.
Thus
h
 0.4986
200
h  200  0.4986
h  99 .72
 The height of the tower is about 99.7m.
6.5.1 Angle of Elevation or Angle of Depression

Many application with right triangle involve an angle of elevation or angle
of depression.
314
object Horizontal
observer
Angle of depression
ation
el ev
le of
Ang object
Observer
Horizontal
The angle between the horizontal and a line of sight above the horizontal
is called an angle of elevation. The angle between the horizontal and a line of
sight below the horizontal is called an angle of depression.
For example, suppose you were looking straight ahead and then you
moved your eye upward on coming airplane. The angle your eyes pass through is
an angle of elevation. If the pilot of the plane is looking forward and then moves
his eyes down toward you, his eyes pass through an angle of depression.
Example 1: A string of a flying kite is 200 meter long, and its angle of
elevation is 60°. Find the height of the kite above the ground
taking the string to be fully stretches.
Solution: B
Let O be the position of the
observer, B be the position of the
kite and OA be the horizontal ray
0m
through O. x
20
Draw BA  OA
Now m  O  60 
o
And OB = 200m 60
O
Suppose AB = x meters A
In right AOB,
x
 sin 60
200
x  200sin 60 
 3
x  200 

 2 
315
x  1001.732
x  173.2
Hence the height of the kite above the ground = 173.2m
Example 2: From the top of a lookout tower, the angle of depression of a

building on the ground level is of 45°. How far is the building from
the foot of the tower if the height of the tower is 30m?
Solution: A 45
o
In right triangle ABC,

We have
m AB  30m
m  A  m  C  45  30m
m BC  x
m AB
tan 45 
mBC
o
30 45
or 1 C
x B xm
or x = 30m
Example 3: An aeroplane is reported to be directly over a forward observation

Post which is 3000 m from an anti-aircraft battery. From the
battery, measure of the angle of elevation of the plan is 27o, Find
the height of the plain.
B
a
Solution: Here  tan 27 o
3000
a
  0 .5095 c
3000
a
a= 3000 (0.5095)
a= 1528.5 m O 3000
27
A C
b
316
Activity – 6.5:
Q1. A tree is 72m high. Find the angle of elevation of its top 100m away on
the ground level.
Q2. From a point 100m above the surface of a lake, the angle of elevation of a
peak of a cliff is found to be 15° and the angle of depression of the image
of the peak is 30°. Find the height of the peak.
Q3. A vertical pole is 8m high and the length of its shadow is 6m. what is the
angle of elevation of the sun at that moments?
Q4. When the angle between the ground and the sun is 30°, flag pole casts a
shadow of 40m long. Find the height of the top of the flag.
Q5. The angle of elevation of an 80 foot ramp leading to a bridge above a

highway is 10.o5. Find the height of the bridge above the highway.
Q6. From the top of a house the angle of depression of a point on the ground is
25°. The point is 35 meters from the base of the building. How high is the
building?
Q7. The angle of elevation to the top of a flag pole is 35° from a point 50
meters from the base of the pole. What is the height of the pole to the
nearest meter?
Q8. At a point 100 feet away from the base of a giant redwood tree a surveyor
measures the angle of elevation to the top of the tree to be 70°. How tall is
the tree to the nearest tenth of a foot?
Q9. An observation post along a shoreline is 225 feet above sea level. If the
angle of depression from this post to a ship at sea is 6.7°, how far is the
ship from the shore to the nearest foot?
Q10 A kite flying at a height of 67.2m is attached to a fully stretched string

inclined at an angle of 55° to the horizontal. Find the length of the string.
Q11. Two building A and B are 100m apart. The angle of elevation from the top
of the building A to the top of the building B is 20°. The angle of elevation
from the base of the building B to the top of the building A is 50°. Find
the height of the building B.
317
Q12. A light house tower is 150m high from the sea level. The angle of
depression from the top of the tower to a ship is 60°. Find the distance
between the ship and the tower.
Q13. Measure of angle of elevation of the top of a cliff is 25°. On walking 100
meters towards the cliff, measure of angle of elevation of the top is 45°.
Find the height of the cliff.
Key Point:
 The problems of finding a height or a distance are generally the same as
solving a right – angled triangle.
 An angle of elevation is the angle defined by horizontal ray through the
observer’s eye and ray through the observer’s eye and some point at a
higher level.
 An angle of depression is the angle defined by the horizontal ray through
the observer’s eye and a ray through the observer’s eye and some point at
a lower level.
318
ANSWERS
Activity 6.1:
 7 5 181
Q1: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2 12 2 15200
9013 
(v) 21600 (vi) 216000
Q2: (i) 105° (ii) 127° 37′ (iii) 150° (iv) 90° (v) 120°
(vi) 146° 15′
Q3: (i) 6 (ii) 2.5
Q4: (i) 60° , 120° , 180° , 240° , 300° , 360°

(ii) –90° , –180° , –270° , –360°
Q5: (i) Quadrant II (ii) Quadrant IV

(iii) Quadrant IV
(iv) Quadrant angle (v) Quadrant III
(vi) Quadrant III
Q6: (i) Coterminal (ii) Not Coterminal

(iii) Coterominal
Q7: (i) Not coterminal (ii) Coterminal

(iii) Coterminal
Q.8. 9.3 Inches.
Activity 6.2:
Q1.
4 3 4 5 5
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
5 5` 3 3 4
4 3 3 5 4
(vi) 3 (vii) 4 (viii) 5 (ix) 4 (x) 5
mBC m AB mBC
Q2. (i) (ii) (iii)
m AC m AC m AB
319
m AB mBC m AB
(iv) (v) (vi)
m AC m AC mBC
5 2 5 3 3
Q3. cos  tan   cot   sec  cos ec 
3 , 5, 2 , 5, 2
4 4 3 5 5
Q4. sin   tan  cot   cos ec  sec 
5, 3, 4, 4, 3

Q2. (i) cos60° (ii) sin60° (iii) cot30°
(iv) cos30° (v) sin30° (vi) cos45°
(vii) cot45° (viii) sin45°
Q3. (a) (i) AC (ii) BC (iii) AB
(b) (i) AC (ii) BC (iii) AB
Activity 6.4:
Q.1 (i) x = 1, y 3
4 8
(ii) x , z
3 3
(iii) z  3, z 6
Q.2 b=2, mA  60 , m  C  30 
Q.3 5 5
Q.4 4 6
32 3
Q5 (i) 30 5 (ii)
3
Q.6 (i) 4, 4 5 , 45 o
(ii) 9.5341 , 12. 445, 50o
(iii) 8.3878, 12.435, 34o
320
(iv) 5 3 , 60o , 30o
Activity 6.5:
Q(1) 35.75° Q(2) 273.1179 Q(3) 53° 8′ Q(4) 23m
Q(5) 14.6 approx Q(6) 16 Q(7) 35m Q(8) 274.7ft
Q(9) 1915ft Q(10) 82 m Q(11) 155.5m Q(12) 86.60m
Q(13) 87.26
Symbols:
Symbol Stands For

< is less than
> is greater than
 is less than or equal to
 is greater than or equal to
= is equal to
 is not equal to
is not less than
is not greater than
 belong to
 for all
square root
x absolute value of x
 implies that
 if and only if
 because/as
 therefore/so
: ratio
AB line AB
 summation
AB AB ray
AB line AB
 angle
∆ triangle
 perpendicular
321


AB
is approximately equal to
arc AB
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Algebra & Trigonometry; Marwin L. Bittinger Judith A. Beecher
Algebra & Trigonometry; Max Sobel Norbert Lerner
Algebra and trigonometry; Larson. Honstdler
College Algebra with Trigonometry; Raymoral A. Barnat Michal R. Ziegler Karl.

E. By lean
322
UNIT––7
MENSURATION
Written By: Sehar Ahmed Khan

Reviewed by: Ms. Saima Kashif
323
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction .......................................................................................................325
Objectives .........................................................................................................325
7.1 Perimeter ...............................................................................................326
7.1.1 Permeter of Square ....................................................................326
7.1.2 Permeter of Rectangle ...............................................................327
7.1.3 Permeter of Triangle .................................................................330
7.1.4 Permeter ofa parallelogram ......................................................331
7.1.5 Permeter of Rhombus ...............................................................333
7.1.6 Permeter of Trapezium .............................................................334
7.1.7 Circumference of Circle ...........................................................335
7.2 Calculation of Area ..............................................................................339
7.2.1 Area of Square .........................................................................339
7.2.2 Area of Rectangle ....................................................................341
7.2.3 Area of Parallelogram ..............................................................343
7.2.4 Area of Triagnle .......................................................................345
7.2.5 Area of Trapezium ...................................................................347
7.2.6 Permeter Circular Region .......................................................349
7.3 Surface Area of Solids ..........................................................................353
7.4 Volume..................................................................................................367
7.4.1 Volume of Cube ...................................................................368
7.4.2 Volume of Cylinder ..............................................................369
7.4.3 Volume of Sphere .................................................................372
7.4.4 Volume of Right Cricular Cone ..........................................373
324
INTRODUCTION
The literal meaning of mensuration is to measure. It is generally used
where geometrical figures are concerned i.e the determination of various physical
quantities such as area, length or volume. Measuring these quantities is called
mensuration. To find the distance access a closed figure in two dimensional
figures are those figures which can be drawn on plane, implies only x & y axis are
required. So some of two dimensional figures are square, rectangle, triangle &
parallelogram etc. Perimeter is the distance outside the closed figure which can be
observed or calculated through nuke eye.
In this unit you will learn to calculate the perimeter, area and volume of
these figures.
OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit the prospective teachers will be able to calculate:
 perimeter of two dimensional objects i.e square, rectangle, triangle,
rhombus, trapezium & circle
 area of two dimensional objects
 surface area of three dimensional objects i.e Cuboid, Cube, Sphere,
cylinder & cone
 volume of cuboid, cube, sphere, cylinder & cone
 and establish relation between perimeter of square & rhombus,
parallelogram & rectangle
 establish relation between volume of sphere, cylinder & cone
325
7.1. Perimeter
The perimeter P, is the distance around a closed plane figure which
implies that finding perimeter simply means adding up the length of all of its
sides.
It can be measured in millimeters (mm), centimeters (cm), meters (m) &
Kilimeters (Km). These units are related as follows.
10mm = 1cm
100cm = 1m
1000m = 1Km
7.1.1. Perimeter of square

Square is an enclosed figure with all sides of equal length.
Perimeter of square is obtained by measuring & adding all sides of a
square. Consider a square ABCD having length of side x cm
Perimeter of square D x C
ABCD  x  x  x  x
x x
= 4x cm
A x B
 Perimeter of square = 4  length of side
= 4 x cm
Example1:
Length of side of suquare is 2cm. find its Perimeter.
Solution:
length of side = 2cm
Perimeter = 4 x (length of side)
=4x2
= 8cm
326
Example 2:
Perimeter of square is 16cm. find length of its sides.
Solution:
Perimeter of square = 16cm
But Perimeter = 4l
16
 16cm  4l l   4cm
4
 l  4cm (So length of its side is 4cm)
Activity 01
1 Find perimeter of square if lengths are given as:
a) 1.2m (b) 4.5cm
2 Find length of each sides of square if its perimeter is 20 cm
7.1.2 Perimeter of Rectangle

Rectangle is an enclosed figure with
parallel sides of equal length. If ABCD is C xcm D
a rectangle have length of sides AB &
CD Xcm and width or breath of sides BD ycm ycm
& AC of y cm Then Perimeter of
rectangle ABCD
A xcm B
= AB + AC + BD + CD (AB = CD = x cm & CA = BD = ycm)

=x+y+y+x
= 2x + 2y
= 2 (x + y) cm
 Perimeter of rectangle = 2x (length + breadth)
Example 3:
Length & width of rectangle is 5cm & 2cm, respectively. Find its
perimeter.
327
Solution:
length = 5cm
Width = 2cm
Perimeter = 2 X (length + width)
= 2 X (5 + 2)
= 2 X (7)
= 14 cm
Example 4:
Perimeter of rectangle is 50 cm. Find its width if length is 15cm.
Solution:
Perimeter of rectangle = 2 (length + width)
As length = 15cm
Let width = x cm
 2 (length + width) = 50cm
2 (15 + x) = 50cm
 30 + 2x = 50cm
2x = 50 – 30
= 20cm
 2x = 20cm
 x= = 10cm
Example 5:
Perimeter of rectangle is 100m. find its width if length is 10cm.
Solution:
Perimeter = 100m
1m = 100cm
100m = 100 X 100cm
= 10000cm
Length = 10cm
 Perimeter = 10000cm
2 (x + 10) = 10000cm (To evaluate any problem
2x +20 = 10000cm Units must be same)
2x = (10000 – 20)cm
328
2x = 9980cm ( 2 (l +w) = perimeter)
9980
x cm
2
 x  4990cm
As 1cm = 100cm
1
 1cm  m
100
4990
 width  m
100
= 49.9m
Example 6:
An athlete runs 5 times around a square of length 50cm. Find total
distance covered by him?
C 50cm D
Solution:
Length of one side of squre = 50cm
Perimeter is the total distance covered in 50cm 50cm
1 round = 4 x 50 = 200cm
Total distance covered in 5
A 50cm B
rounds
= 5 X 200
= 1000cm
Activity 02
1) Find Perimeter of rectangle of sides 4m & 3m respectively.
2) If Perimeter of rectangle is 12cm & length of its sides is 4cm. Find its
width in m?
3) Find Perimeter of the given figure
329
C 50cm D 9cm
(i) (ii)
50cm 50cm 4.5cm
A 50cm B
7.1.3. Perimeter of triangle:

Triangle is a closed plane figure having three sides & three angles which
always add upto 180o .
If ABC is a triangle having three sides a,b & c respectively. The Perimeter of
triangle is the sum of its three sides
Perimeter of triangle ABC C
=a+b+c
b a
A c B
Example 7:
Find Perimeter of triangle ABC C
having lengths of its rides 2 cm, 5cm

2cm 3cm
& 3cm respectively
A 5cm B
a = 3cm
b = 2cm
c = 5cm
perimeter = a + b + c
=3 +2+5
= 10cm
Example 8:
Find perimeter of equilateral triangle of sides 4cm
330
Solution:
Equilateral triangle is a triangle having all three sides equal i.e a = b = c =
4cm Perimeter =a+b+c=
= 4+4+4
= 12cm
Activity 03
1) Find semiperimeter of an equilateral triangle having length of side 2cm
2) Find Perimeter of triangle having length of sides 2cm 5cm & 9cm
respectively.
3) Find Perimeter of given triangle
C C
(i) (ii)
4cm 4cm 4cm 4cm
A 5cm B A 4cm B
7.1.4 Perimeter of a Parallelogram

A Parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel to each
other. It is the parent of some other quadrilaterals which are obtained by
adding restrictions of various kinds.
i) A rectangle is a parallelogram but with all interior angles fixed at 90o

ii) A rhombous is parallelogram but with all sides equal in length
iii) A square is a parallelogram but with all sides equal in length & all angles
fixed at 90o.
Consider the parallelogram ABCD Its D C
perimeter is defined as Perimeter of
Parallelogram
A B
= 2x (length + height)
= 2x (l+h)
331
Example 9:
Find Perimeter of parallelogram having length 2cm & height 4cm.
Solution:
Length = 2cm
Height = 4cm
Perimeter = 2 X (l+h)
=2 (4 + 2)
= 2 (6) = 12cm
Example 10:
Find height of parallelogram if its perimeter is 24cm and length is 3cm.
Solution:
Perimeter of Parallelogram = 24cm
let height = x cm
length = 3cm
Also Perimeter = 2(l+h)
 2(3 + x) = 24cm
3 + x = 12 cm
X = 9cm
332
Activity 04
1) Find Perimeter of Parallelogram if its length & height are 2cm & 5cm
respectively.
2) Perimeter of parallelogram is 12cm if its length is 4cm. Find its height
3) Find Perimeter of given figure
D C D C
(i) (ii)
2.5cm
1.2cm
A B A 7.5cm B
7.1.5 Perimeter of Rhombous:

Rhombous is a quadrilateral with all four sides C
equal in length. All sides of rhombous are
congruent (all are of same length) and opposite
angles are also congruent (same in size & D B
measure). The intersection of the diagonals of
rhombous form 90o right angles.
A
This means that they are perpendicular. Perimeter of rhombous is the total
distant around outside, which can be found by adding together the length
of each side. In case of rhombous all sides are equal that is
AB = BC = CD = DA
Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA where
 Perimeter = 4S (S is the length of any side)
Example 11:
Find perimeter of rhombous of side 1.5cm
Solution: Perimeter = 4 (length of side)

= 4 (1.5)
= 6cm
333
Example 12:
Find length of sides if Perimeter of rhombous is 16cm
Solution:
Perimeter of rhombous = 16cm
 4S = 16cm
16
 S= = 4cm
4
So length of its side is 4cm.
Activity # 05
Find Perimeter of given figure
C C
7cm 7cm 2.5cm 2.5cm
D B D B
7cm 7cm 2.5cm 2.5cm
A A
7.1.6 Perimeter of Trapezium:

There are two common definitions of trapezium. In American definition
trapezium is a quadrilateral with no parallel sides
According to British definition trapezium is a quadrilateral with two sides

parallel.
Thus trapezium is a shape with four sides that has one set of parallel sides
334
Perimeter = a + b + c + d (where a, b, c &d are lengths of four sides)
Example 13:
Find Perimeter of trapezium having lengths of four sides as 2cm, 5cm,
1.2cm & 2.4cm respectively.
Solution:
Perimeter = 2 + 5 + 1.2 + 2.4
= 10.6cm
Activity 06
1) Find Perimeter of trapezium if a = 12cm, b = 2cm, c = 14cm & d = 9cm.
2) Find Perimeter of the following:
C 1.9cm D D 2.4cm C
1.2cm 2cm
1.4cm 1.5cm
A 5cm B
A 4.6cm B
7.1.7 Circumference of Circle:

Circle is a line forming a closed loop, every point on which is fixed
distance from a center point to the fixed point is called center of the circle. A line
segment which joins any point of a circle to its center is called radial segment &
its length is called radius. O is center of circle OA is radial segment. A line
segment that joins 2 points of circle is called chord. CD is chord. A chord passing
through center is called diameter of a circle. The circumference of a circle can be
calculated from its diameter using the formula
C D
A O B C
335
C=  d
But d = 2r ie diameter = 2 times radius r
 C = (2r)  = 2  r d
It is the formula for finding circumference of circle if diameter or radius

are known Perimeter of circle is called the circumference.
Example 14:
Find Circumference of circle if
i) radius = 7cm
ii) diameter = 4cm
Solution:
(i) r = 7cm
22
C=2  r = 2   44cm
7
(ii) diameter = 4cm

22
C = d = 4 = 12.57cm
7
Example 15:
Calculate radius & diameter of circle having circumference 330m
Solution:
Circumference = 330m Also C = 2r
 2 r = 330m
330
r = = 52.5m As d = 2r
2 
 d = 105m.
336
Activity # 07
1) Find circumference of the Circle when
12
(i) r = 10.2cm (ii) d= cm
7
2) Find radius of circle in cm if circumference of circle is 249m.
Key points:
The Perimeter usually denoted by P is the distance around a closed plane
or summing up the length of all sides of the closed geometrical figure. In this
section, we find Perimeter of square which is four times length of its side which is
same to the perimeter of rhombous. Both are quadrilateral (four sided polygons)
where all four sides have same length but in square all angles are right angles i.e
90o angles unlike rhombous. It does nto have all 90o angles. Similarly we find
perimeter of rectangle which is 2 time (length + width) which is same to that of
parallelogram. The only difference is that parallelogram is a four sided Polygon
having opposite sides parallel in length and rectangle is a type of parallelogram
with all angles of 90o. Perimeter of triangle is sum of its three sides. Similarly
perimeter of trapezium can easily be obtained by adding length of its four sides.
Perimeter of circle is known as circumference of circle denoted by C and given by
formula C = 2 r
337
Self – Assessment Questions:
1) State true or false.
a) Perimeter of square will be 5cm. if length of its side is 1cm.
b) Perimeter of rectangle & Parallelogram are equivalent.
c) Perimeter has no units.
d) An equilateral triangle is a triangle having two sides of equal
length.
e) Perimeter of square is 2×(length + width)
2) Fill in the blanks with the appropriate answers given below.
a) Perimeter of rectangle is ___________
(i) 4 × length (ii) 2×(length + width)
abc
(iii)
2
b) Semi-perimeter of triangle is equal to __________ of its perimeter
(i) twice (ii) thrice (iii) half
c) Perimeter of square is 4 ___________ .
(i) length (ii) width (iii) height
d) Circumference of circle is ___________
(i) a+b+c (ii) rd (iii) r
e) Rectangle is special type of ___________ having measure of angle
90O of each side
(i) Circle (ii) Square
(iii) Paralellogram
f) Perimeter of ___________ & square are same
(i) Rhombous (ii) Rectangle
(iii) Triangle
g) If length of one side of square is 5Km. Then perimeter of square in
meters will be ___________ meters
(i) 12,000m (ii) 20,000m
(iii) 15,000m
338
7.2 Calculation of Area:
Area:
Area usually denoted by ‘A’ is a two dimensional quantity representing
amount or space inside the geometrical shape & boundary. The standard unti of
area in the international System of Units (SI) is make square(m2).
Area is usually measured or defined on a that surface, also called as
Euclidean plane. Square centimeters (cm2) to measure the area of small surfaces
& square Kilometer (Km2) is used to measure the area of large surfaces.
7.2.1 Area of Square

Consider a square and divide each
square into small squares containing C 4cm D
each small box of 1cm length. Count
small squares they are 16. If area of
each small square is 1cm2, then area of 4cm
square is 16 cm 2 Showing that length
of each side of square ABCD is 4cm and
4cm × 4cm = 16cm2
A B
Thus area of square region is = length × length
Area = l cm × l cm (l is the length of each side)
= l2cm2
Example 1:
Perimeter of square is 44cm. Find its area.
Solution:
Perimeter of square = 4 × length
Also P = 44cm
 = 4l = 44
 l = 11cm
Area of square =l×l
= 11 × 11
339
= 121cm2
Example 2:
Find area of shaded region
D C
D C
3cm
A B
A 4cm B
Solution: Length of square ABCD = 4cm
 Area of =4×4
= 16cm2
Length of square A’ B’ C’ D’ = 3cm
Area =3×3
= 9cm2
Area of shaded region = Area of square ABCD – Area of Square A’ B’ C’ D’
= 16 - 9 = 7cm2
Activity 01
1) Find area of square in cm2 if length of its sides is 24m.
2) Find area of shaded region
2cm
5cm
3) Find area of square if its perimeter is 12cm
340
7.2.2 Area of Rectangle
Consider a rectangle & divide it in 4 columns D C
& 3 rows as it is 4cm long & 3cm wide
Length of each square inside rectangle must
3cm
be 1cm count total squares they are 12.
4cm × 3cm = 12cm2
A 4cm B
Showing that area of rectangle = length × width

Area = l cm × w cm = lwcm2 (where l is length & w is width of rectangle)
From above formula
Area cm2
Length = = cm
width cm
Area
Similarly width 
length
Example 3:
Perimeter & length of rectangle are 12cm & 4cm respectively. Find its
area.
Solution:
Perimeter of rectangle = 12cm  (i)
Length = 4cm  (ii)
But Perimeter = 2(l + w)  (iii)
From (i) & (iii)
2(l+w) = 12cm
As length = 4cm
2(4 + w) = 12
8 + 2w = 12
 2w = 12–8
2w = 4cm
W = 2cm  width = 2cm
Area of rectangle = length × width
= 4cm × 2cm
= 8cm2
341
Example 4:
Find area of the given figure.
2cm
A 1cm
2cm B 2cm
8cm
Solution:
The figure consist of two rectangles
2cm
2cm
1cm
8cm
So let us calculate the area of both rectangles separately & then adding
them to find area of given figure.
D 2cm C
1cm
A B
(i)
Consider rectangle ABCD where length AB = 2cm & width BC = 1cm
Area of rectangle = length × width
= 2cm × 1cm
= 2cm2
D’ C’
2cm
(ii) A’ 8cm B’
Consider rectangle A’B’C’D’

Where length A’B’ = 8cm
Width B’C’ = 2cm
Area = length × width
342
= 8cm × 2cm = 16cm2
Thus
2cm
2cm
8cm
Area of above figure = area of ABCD + Area of ABC D

= 2cm2 + 16cm2
= 18cm2
Activity 02
1) Find area of rectangle having length & width 2.5cm & 1.5cm
2) Find area of given figure
8cm
5cm
10cm
7.2.3 Area of Parallelogram

The parallelogram is a figure in which D C
A B Fig. (i)
i) Opposite sides are parallel
ii) Opposite sides are equal in length
iii) Diagonals bisect each other & each diagonal divides parallelogram into
two equal parts
Altitude
The length of the perpendicular drawn from any point of D F C
one side to another side (perpendicular between parallel
sides) is called altitude of a parallelogram. In the given
figure DE is altitude of parallelogram ABCD and DE is A E B
also altitude of triangle ABD.
343
Fig (ii)
Base:
Any one of the pair of parallel sides is called the base of parallelogram. AB in CD
is the base of parallelogram AB is also the base of triangle ABD in fig. (i).
Area:
Cut the triangle AED from parallelogram, D D C B
similarly cut the triangle BFC from parallelogram
ABCD. The figure obtained is a rectangle showed
ABCD is converted into rectangle EFDC A E E FF C
Area of parallelogram ABCD
= Area of rectangle EFDE
= length EF × width of FC
But EF = AB length of base of parallelogram ABCD
& FC = DE altitude of parallelogram
 Area of parallelogram ABCD = AB × DE
= Base × altitude
Example 5:
Find area of parallelogram
D C
2cm
A 5cm B
Solution:
Area of parallelogram = base × altitude
Where Base AB = 5cm
Altitude = 2cm
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Example 6: Area of parallelogram is 48cm2. If its base is 12cm. find its height
Solution: Height = altitude
Area = Base × altitude
48 = 12 × altitude
48
 altitude = cm
12
= 4cm
Activity 03
1) Find area of parallelogram whose length is 4.2cm & altitude is 1.7cm
2) Find altitude if area of parallelogram is 156cm2 & base is 14cm
7.2.4 Area of Triangle

We know that diagonal of parallelogram divides it into two equal
triangles.
D C
A E B
1
 Area of triangle = Area of Parallelogram
2
1
= × AB × DE
2
1
= × Base × Altitude
2
If length of three sides of triangle are given then area can be determined
using Hero’s formula i.e
Area = ss  as  bs  c
abc
Where S stands for semiperimeter & S =
2
345
b
For isosceles triangle area = 4a 2  b 2
4
Example 7: C
Find area of triangle if
1.5cm
A 2cm B D
Solution:
Base AB = 2cm, Height CD = 1.5 cm
1 1
Area of DABC = AB × CD = (2) (1.5) = 1.5cm2
2 2
Example 8:
Perimeter of equilateral triangle is 24cm if its height is 6cm Find its area
Solution:
Equilateral triangle is a triangle having all three sides equal in length
If length of one side = 9cm
 Perimeter = 3a
 3a = 24cm
 a = 8cm
1
Area of  ABC = base × height
2
1
= 8×6
2
1
= (8 × 6)
2
= 24cm2
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Activity 04
1) Find area of given figures
(i) (ii)
8cm 3cm 3cm
3cm
5cm
3cm
2) Find area of parallelogram having same base & height as height & base of
triangle which is h = 10cm & b = 12cm
3) Find area of triangle if its height is 5cm & base is 8.2cm
7.2.5 Area of Trapezium:

Trapezium is a quadrilateral in which one pair of opposite sides are
parallel & other two opposite sides are non parallel.
D C
A B
By joining A & C two triangles ABC & ABD are formed.
D CCF
A E B
Draw a perpendicular DE from point D on AB which meets BC at point E.

Extend DC to point such that DF & BF are perpendicular to each other
Here BF is the height of the triangle BCD.
Note that OE = BF
1
Find area of triangle ABD = AB × DE
2
1
Similarly of triangle BCD = BF × DC
2
Finally area of trapezium ABCD = area of triangle ABD
+ area of triangle BCD
347
1 1
= (AB × DE) + (BF × DC)
2 2
1 1 
=
2
(AB × DE) +  2 DE  DC   DE  BF 
 
1
= DE × (AB + DC)
2
1
= height × (sum of parallel sides)
2
Note: Height of trapezium is the perpendicular distance between its parallel
sides.
Example 9:
Find area of trapezium given below.
D 5cm C
4cm
A 8cm B
Solution:
Height = 4cm
length of side AB = 8cm
length of side DC = 5c
1
Area of trapezium = height × (sum of parallel sides)
2
1
= (4) × (8 + 5)
2
= 2 × 13
= 26cm2
Example 10:
If area of trapezium is 400m2 and the length of its parallel sides are 30m &
50m. Find height of trapezium.
348
Solution:
1
Area of trapezium = × height × (sum of parallel sides)
2
1
 400m2 = × h (30 + 50)
2
800m2 = 80h
h = 10m
Activity 05
1) Find area of following trapeziums
D 80m C 16m
12m
(I) (ii) 10m
A 100m B 20m
2
2) Area of trapezium is 800m , if lengths of parallel sides are 120m & 80m,
Find its height
7.2.6 Area of Circular Region

Divide a circular region into 8, 16 & 32 equal parts. Cut these regions
carefully & re-arrange them in the following ways.
Note that figures obtained after re-arrangements of the parts of circular

region look like parallelogram. As the no of equal parts increases, the area of
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circular region becomes closer & closer to the area of parallelogram. On dividing
the last radial segment into two equal parts & placing at both ends, a rectangle is
obtained as shown if figure below.
It is clear that half of the radial segments of circular region are arranged
upwards & half downwards. Therefore length of rectangle is half of the
circumference (2 r ) & width of rectangle is equal to the radius of circular region.
So area of circular region = area of rectangle obtained from circular region
= length of rectangle × width of rectangle
2
= r × r =  r
2
 Area of curcular region =  r
Example 11:
Find area of circular region having radius 7cm
Solution:
Radius = r = 7cm
2 22
Area = r = × (7)2
7
= 22 × 7 = 154cm2
Example 12:
The circumference of circle is 88m. Find its area
Solution:
Circumference =C = 2r = 88
88 88 7
 r= = = 14cm
2 2  22
2 22
Area = r = × (14)2
7
= 616cm2
350
Example 13:
Area of circular region is 385cm2. Find its radius & diameter
Solution:
2
Area = r = 385
385
 r2 =

2
r = 61.25cm2  r  61.25cm2
Diameter =2r
= 2 (7.83) = 15.65cm
Activity 06
1) Find area of circular region if its
(i) radius = 56cm (ii) diameter = 28m
2) Find area of circle if circumference is 628m
Key Points:
Area is the amount of surface covered by any geometrical shape, its
standard international units are m2. In this section we found area of different
shapes, Area of square is square of its length for rectangle region area is defined
as length multiplied by its width parallelogram is special type of rectangle with
area height (or altitude) multiplied by its base. Dividing parallelogram form its
diagonal two triangles are obtained which implies that area of triangle is half the
area of parallelogram. Area of triangle can also be determined using Hero’s
formula if length of three sides are known and given by formula Area
a bc
 S s  as  bs  c where ‘S’ stands for semiperimeter & S 
2
b
For isosceles triangle area  4a 2  b2
4
Area of trapezium is given by the formula half the height of trapezium and
adding (sum of its Parallel sides)
351
1
Area of trapezium  × height × (sum of its Parallel sides) and similarly
2
2
area of circular region is  r where r is the radius of circular region
Self Assessment Question

1) In column A figures are given match with their area given in column B
Column A Column B
2 × (l + b)
base × length
l2
r 2
S s  as  bs  c
1
(height) (sum of Parallel sides)
2
2) Fill in the blanks with appropriate word.

1) S.I units for finding area is ___________
2) Area of triangle is half the area of ___________
b
3) Area of ___________ is 4a 2  b2
4
4) Area of circular region is same as the area of ___________ obtained from
circular region
5) Opposite sides of ___________ are equal
6) Diameter is ___________ time the radius
7) ___________ is a quadrilateral in which one pair of opposite sides are
parallel
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8) ___________ unit is used to find area of small surfaces
9) Area is ___________ dimensional quantity
10) Area of square is ___________ is length of its side is 4cm
7.3. Surface Area of Solids:

Cuboid, cube, Cone, cylinder and a sphere are all three dimensional solids.
Area of the surface forming these solids is called the surface area.
In previous section we found the area of the given figures.
These figures are drawn in plane and are called as plane or two
dimensional figures. To draw then we need length & width only.
Three dimensional figures.
These cannot be drawn in plane as we need length, width & height. So

they are known as three dimensional figures or solids
Cuboid
It is a solid bounded by six rectangle plane
face. Such solid is called cuboid. A cubiod
Length
has; height vertices, six faces & twelve Width
edges. Length
Example:
A brick, match box & all books.
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Example: Dices
Sphere
A sphere is a solid bounded by a single curved surface
such that all points on the surface are equidistant from fixed
point lying inside. It is round.
A sphere has no vector, no edge and one curved surface
Example:
A ball, globe
Cylinder
A cylinder is a solid in which all the points on its surface
area are equidistant from fixed point lying at the center.
A closed cylinder has no vertex, two round shaped eyes
& a curved surface. Central line
Example:
Oil drums, tins of ghee & oil.
Cone:
A cone consists of two parts
(i) Circular base
(ii) Curved surface Central line.
A cone has
 One vertex
 One round shaped edge
 Two faces. From the two faces one face is plane & other is round.
Example:
A funnel, a carrot
Note:
We live in three dimensional world called space.
354
a) Surface Area of Cuboid
A cuboid is a rectangle solid bounded by H G
six rectangular faces. The opposite faces
of cuboid are equal implies they are of
F E h
equal area A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H are eight
vertices of cuboid. ABEF, DCGH, EFGH,
D
BCGE, ADFH & ABCD are six faces of C
cuboid.
A B

AB, BE , BC , CG , GH , FH , FE , AD, CD, DH , EF & EG are twelve sides

(corners) of cuboid.
The horizontal edges AB, CD, EF & GH are breath while vertical edges,
BC , AD , EG , FH , are are known as height of Cuboid.
Now total surface area of Cuboid = Sum of areas of six faces

= Area of ABCD + Area of EFGH + area of BCGE +
area of ADHF + Area of ABEF + Area of CDHG  (i)
Area of ABCD = AB x CD D C
=lx w
W
A B
Area of EFGH = EF x GE H G
=lx w
W
F E
Area of BCGE = BC x GC E G
=w x h
B w C
355
F M
Area of ADHF = AD  DH
=wxh
A q D
Area of ABEF = AB x EB F E
=lx h
A B
H G
Area of CDHG = DC  CG
= l h
D C
Substituting all values in eq (i), we have:
Surface area of cuboid = (l x w) + (l x w) + (w x h) + (w x h) + (wl x h)
= 2lw + 2wh + 2lh
= 2 (lw + wh + lh)
Where l denotes the length, w is width & h is height of cuboid
Example 1:
Find surface area of cuboid having dimensions 2m, 5m & 3m respectively.
Solution:
length = 2m
width = 5m
height = 3m
surface area of cuboid = 2(lw + wh + lh)
= 2(2  5  5  3  3  2)
= 2(10+15+6)
= 2(31)
=62m2
356
Activity 01
1) Find total surface area of cuboid if
(a) l = 5m w = 9m h = 3.5m
(b) l = 9cm w = 3cm h = 0.5dm
(c) l = 2.2m w = 1.2m h = 50cm
b) Surface Area of Cube

A cubid in which length,
width & height are equal is called
a cube. i.e a cube
Length = width = height

l=w=h
surface area of cuboid = 2(lw+wh+lh)
surface area of cube = 2(l2+ l2+ l2) ( l = w =h)
= 2(3 l2)
= 6 l2
Surface area of cube = 6(area of one face)2
= 6(side x side)
Example 2:
Find surface area of a cube of side 2m.
Solution:
Surface area = 6l2
Length = 2m
 Surface Area = 6(2)2 = 6 x 4 = 24m2
Activity 02
1) Find surface area of cube if length of its side is
(a) 80m (b) 12dm (c) 3.5m
357
c) Surface Area of Cylinder
Example of cylinder from daily life are oil drums, tins of ghee or oil &
Pipes of water & gas etc. Some cylinders are hollow & some are closed.
Consider a hollow pipe with base radius r & height h. if we break this
cylinder along the line PQ, a rectangle is obtained.
S
P P
h
h
R
Q Q 2
Clearly the length of rectangle so formed is equal to the circumference

2r  h of the Pipe & width of rectangle is equal to the height of Pipe.
Area of curved surface of cylinder = Area of rectangle PQRS
= length x width
= 2 r  h
= 2 rh
Consider a closed cylinder (tin of ghee) width base radius r & height h as
shown in fig. if we cut the cylinder following figure is obtained.
A
h h
2 h
B
It is clear that closed figure has three surface in which two are circular &
one is curved.
 Total surface area of cylinder = 2(area of circular surface) +
area of curved surface
2
= 2r + 2rh
 Surface area of cylinder = 2r r  h 
Note:
2
Surface area of open cylinder = r  2rh .
358
Example 3:
Radius of base of cylinder is 14m & its height is 42m. Find area of curved
surface & its total surface area.
.Solution:
Radius = r = 14m
height = h = 42m
Area of curved surface = rh
22
 2   14  42
7
= 3696m2
2
Total surface area =  r  2 rh
= 616 + 3696
= 4312m2
Example 4:
Area of curved surface of pipe is 100cm2. Find radius of the base of pipe if
its length is 20cm.
Solution:
2
Area of curved surface = 2rh 100cm
length of curved surface = height of curved surface = h = 20cm
 2rh = 100cm2
100 100 700
r   
2h 22 880
2   20
7
= 0.8cm
Activity 03
1) Find surface area of cylinder if:
i) radius = 3.5cm height = 100cm
ii) radius = 1.4m height = 50cm
2) Area of curved surface of a pillar having cylindrical shape is 66dm2. Its
base radius is 2.5dm. Find its height.
3) An open cylindrical bottle has base area equal to 44cm2. Its length is
30cm. Find its total area.
4) Height of drum is 1.6m. Find total surface area if diameter of base is
168cm.
359
d) Surface Area of Sphere
As defined earlier sphere is a curved surface in such a way that all points
on its surface are equidistant from a fixed point.
The fixed point is in the center & known as center of sphere with any
point on the outer suface of sphere is called radial segment & length of a radial
segment is called the radius of sphere.
In the given sphere point ‘O’ which is inside the
sphere is center of sphere. DA is radial segment
A O
& m OA is radius of sphere.
radius
Center
Spheres are of two types

(1) Hollow Sphere
(2) Solid Sphere
If a surface is empty from inside, it is called hollow sphere e.g. ball or foot
ball.
If a sphere is not empty from inside, it is called solid sphere, it contains
surface of sphere together with its interior e.g. hockey, cricket, ball e.t.c
Archimedes a Greek mathematician and scientist found that a sphere &
cylinder with same height & equal radial have equal surface area.
r
r
Radius of sphere & radius of base of cylinder are equal

This shows radius of base of cylinder = r
Height of sphere = length of diameter of sphere
h = 2r
 Area of Sphere = 2r 2r 
2
= 4r
Example 5:
Find surface area of sphere having
(i) radius = 7cm
(ii) diameter = 56cm
360
Solution:
(i) l = 7cm
2
Area of Sphere = 4r
22 2
= 4  7  7 
= 616cm2
diameter 56
(ii) radius  = 2  28cm
2
2
Area of Sphere = 4  r
 22 
= 4   7   28 
2
= 9856cm2
Example 6:
Area of sphere is 24.64cm2.Find its radius & diameter.
Solution:
2
Area of Sphere = 4r = 24.64cm2
24.64 24.64
 r2 = 7
4 = 4  22
r2 = 1.96cm2
r = 1.4cm
d = 2r = 2.8cm
361
Activity 04
1) Find radius & diameter of spheres when area is given as
(i) 98.56cm2 (ii) 5544dm2
2) Radius of sphere is 70mm. Find the cost of painting its surface @ Rs 0.02
per mm2
3) If radius of sphere is 150cm, find its area in m2.
e) Surface Area of Cone

An ice cream cone, a joker’s cap, a conical vessel, a radish, a conical tent
etc are some examples of cone from daily life.
A cone has two parts

(i) Curved or lateral surface
(ii) Circular base
As AOC & BOA are right angles A
triangle for  AOC, consider the Curved Surface
Pythagoras theorem
h
B O C
Curved Surface
2 2 2
Hyp   Base   Pr ep 
m AC   mOC   mOA 
2 2 2
l2 = r2 + h2
l= r 2  h2
362
A
Finding the Surface Area

of a right circular cone.
Cut the cone AB & spread
the sector ABC
O
B
Cut these triangle regions & region them in such a way that base of any
two adjacent triangles are in opposite directions as shown below.
A D r C
B C
2 r A B
Rectangle like region is obtained, if we increase the number of triangle in
the figure given above be closer & closer to rectangle.
 Area of rectangle region ABCD = r  l = rl

Area of rectangular region is basically area of right circular cone
Area of curved surface of cone = rl

=  (radius of base) (slanting length)
Total surface area of right circular cone =
Area of curved surface + area of circular base
=  rl   r   r l  r 
2
Example 8:
Radius of base of right circular cone is 5cm. Its slant height is 13cm Find
area of curved surface
Solution:
Radius = 5cm
363
height = 13cm
According to Pythagoras theorem
h2 = l2 – r2
h= l2  r2
h = 169  25  144  12cm

Area of curved surface = rl
22
  5  12
7
Example 9:
Find diameter and circumference of circular base of a right circular cone.
If h = 8cm & l = 10cm. Also find surface area of cone
Solution:
height = 8cm
length = 10cm
As h  l2  r2
 r  l 2  h 2  100  64  36  6cm
As diameter = d = 2r = 12cm
22
circumference = C = 2r  2   6  37.71
7
Total surface area of cone =  r r  l
22
  610  6 
7
=301.71cm2
Example 10:
Radius of base of a right circular cone is 14cm. Area of its curved surface
is 800cm2. Find the following:
(i) lateral height
(ii) area of base
364
Solution:
r = 14cm
Curved surface area  rl  800
800 800  7
(i) (for lateral height) l = 
 r 14  22
= 18.18cm
lateral height = h = ?
h  l2  r2  18.18 2  14 2  11.60cm
(ii) Total surface area   r r  l 
  14 14  8  18.18 
= 1415.92cm2
2
(iii) Area of base =r
22 2
  14 
7
= 616cm2
Activity # 05
1) Find (i) curved surface area (ii) Total surface area if
(i) Radius of base = 7cm, slant height = 10cm
(ii) Radius of base = 21m, slant height = 5m
2) Slant height of a right circular cone is 4.2m. Find its total surface area is
4
base area is 12 m
7
3) Lateral area of a right circular cone is 132cm2.If slant height is 21cm. Find
radius & area of its base.
Key Points:
Area of three dimensional figures or solids have surface area e.g. Cuboid,
Cube, Cone & cylinder etc. Surface area of cuboid is 2(lw+wh+lh) where l, w & h
are its length, width & height respectively. Cube is called Cuboid if length =
width = height implies that its surface area is six times square of its length i.e 6l2
Similarly for finding surface area of cylinder as tin of ghee & cut it into
three pieces one is curved surface and other two are circular area.
So total surface area of cylinder = 2(area of circle) + (area of curved
2
surface) we also found area of sphere that is 4 r
365
 2 r 2  2 rh
 2 r r  h 
Similarly cone can be divided into two parts one is circular and other is curved
surface implies then:
Area of cone = Area of curved surface + Area of circular base
  rl   r 2   r l  r 
Where r is radius & l is slanting length of cone
Self Assessment Questions

1) State true or false
(i) Area of two dimensional solids is known as surface area.
(ii) Only one surface of cylinder is circular
(iii) Radius is 2 times diameter
(iv) Circumference is of circle is 4 r
2
(v) Curved surface area of cone is  r
2) In column A names of figures are given match them with surface area
given in column B
Column A Column B
Cube 2(lw + wh + lh)
Cone r r  l 
Cuboid 6l2
Cylinder 4r 2
Sphere 2r r  h 
3) Fill in the blanks.
(i) Surface area of cuboid will be equal to surface area of cube if
__________
(ii) A cone has __________ parts.
(iii) __________ & cylinder with same height & equal radius have
equal surface area.
(iv) Total surface area of cylinder is equals to __________ + area of
curved
(v) If Sphere is empty from inside it is called __________
(vi) We are living in __________ dimensional world.
(vii) A cube has __________ faces.
(viii) A cuboid has __________ vertices.
(ix) __________ faces of cuboid are equal.
(x) An ice cream is an example of __________.
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7.4 Volume
Volume is measure of amount of space occupied by three dimensional
figures. Volume is measured in cubic units. The most commonly used units of
volume are cubic meters (m3), cubic decimeters (dm3), cubic centimeters (cm3) &
cubic millimeter (mm3)
Volume of solids can be generally understood as the capacity of solid.
The volume of the cube in the figure

is lcm3 1cm
lcm
1cm
Area of base of cuboid = length × width
 A=l×w
Volume of cubiod = Area × Height
= length × width × height
= l × w × h = lwh
Example 1:
Find volume of cuboid 100m long, 50m high & 5cm wide.
Solution:
Volume of cuboid = length × width × height
length = 10cm
height = 5cm
width = 5cm
volume of cuboid = 10 × 5 × 5
Example 2:
Volume of rectangular wooden box is 2500m3. If it is 25m long & 5m
high. Finds its width.
367
Solution:
Volume = length × width × height = 2500
2500
 width 
25  5
Width = 20m
Example 3:
Area of base of a cuboid shaped water tank is 1.5m2. Its height is 1.6m.
How many liters of water can fill required to fill it..
Solution:
Area of base of cuboid = 1.5m2
height = 1.6m
volume= Area × height
= 1.5 × 1.6 = 2.4m3
So water required to fill it full= 2.4 liters
Activity 01
1) Finds volume of cuboid of following dimensions.
(i) l = 15cm w = 7cm
(ii) l = 2cm w = 10cm
(iii) l = 2cm w = 4dm h = 5cm
2) Volume of rectangular box is 1800dm3. Find area of its base if its height is
9dm.
7.4.1 Volume of Cube
As cube is a cuboid having same length, width & height
Thus volume of cube = length × length × length
= (length)3 = l3
Example 1:
Finds volume of cube having length 4cm.
368
Solution:
length = 4cm
volume = (length)3 = (4)3
= 64cm3
Note: If dimensions of any side of the cuboid are given in different units,
they should be converted into same units to find volume.
Conversion of units is given as
1
lm3 = 1000dm3 , ldm3  m3
1000
1
ldm3 = 1000cm3 , lcm3  dm 3
1000
1
lcm3 = 1000mm3 , lmm3  cm 3
1000
Activity 02
1) Finds volume of cube if
(i) l = 5m
(ii) l = 0.2cm
(iii) l = 4.2dm
7.4.2 Volume of Cylinder

Consider a cylinder of height ‘h’ and radius ‘r’
369
Divide the cylinder into eight equal parts & rejoin them in the shape of
cuboid.
Again divide the cylinder into sixteen equal parts & rejoin them to make
cuboid.
r
The figure will not actually look like a cuboid but dividing into more parts
i.e. 32, 64 the figure will be closers & close to cuboid having length of cuboid  r
, width r & height h.
 volume of cylinder = volumn of cuboid formed = length × width ×
2
height= r  r  h  r h
Example 1:
Finds volume of cylinder having height 35m & radius 5cm.
Solution:
Height = h = 35m
370
Radius = r = 5cm
 1m = 100cm
1
 m = 1cm
100
5
& m = 5cm
100
5cm = 0.05m
22
 .05   35
2
Volume of cylinder  r 2 h 
7
= 0.28m3
Example 2: Volume of cylinder is 426m3. Finds its height if radius of base is

6m
2
Solution: Volume =  r h = 426m3
radius = r = 6m
 r 2h = 426
426 426  7
h= 2 = 2 = 3.77m
r 22  6 
Example 3: Area of base of cylinder is 154cm2 Find volume of cylinder if

height of cylinder is 5dm.
2
Solution: Area of base =  r = 154cm2
Height of cylinder = 5dm
 ldm = 10m
5dm = 50cm
2
Volume = r h = 154 × 50 = 7700cm3
Example 4: A cylinder is filled with 700 liters of water. Finds the area of its
base if height of cylinder is 10dm.
Solution:
371
Volume = 700 liters
1litre = 1dm3
 volume = 700dm3
height = 10dm
2
volume =r h
2
 700 =r h
700 700  7
 r2 = 
h 22  10
r2 = 22.27dm2
r = 4.72dm
Activity 03
1) If volume of cylinder is 720m3 & radius is 4m. Find its height.
2) Finds volume of cylinder if radius & height are 5cm & 10cm respectively.
3) Finds area of base of cylinder if volume of cylinder is 200m3. Height is
5.4m.
7.4.3 Volume of Sphere

The figure clearly shows that radius of
cylinder is r and height is 2r. The volume r
of the sphere is fraction of the cylinder’s
volume that was filled by two hemispheres
(means half of a sphere) 2r
Volume of Sphere = Two third volume of
cylinder
2 2
= r h
3
2
=
3
 
 r 2 2r 
4
=
3
 
 r3
372
Example 1:
Finds volume of sphere with radius 3.5cm
Solution:
Radius = r = 3.5
4 3 4 22
Volume =  r =   3.53
3 3 7
= 179.67cm3
Example 2:
2
Area of sphere = 4 r
15400 15400  7
4 r 2 = 15400  r2 = =
4 4  22
r2 = 1225cm2 r = 35cm
4 3 4 22
Volume =  r    35 3  179666 .67 cm 3
3 3 7
Activity 04
1) Finds volume of sphere whose radius is 2.8cm.
2) Finds volume of sphere having area 24.64m2 .
3) Finds radius of sphere if its volume is 2450m3.
7.4.4 Volume of Right Circular Cone

Volume of cone & cylinder having identical bases & heights are
proportional then volume of cone is one third the volume of cylinder
Volume of cylinder is three times volume of cone.
h h
v v
 volume of cone = one third volume of cylinder
373
1 2
= r h
3
1
= area of base height 
3
Example 1:
Finds volume of cone whose height is 9cm & radius of base is 7cm.
Solution:
height = 9cm Radius = 7cm
1 1  22  2
volume =  r h    7  9   462 cm
2 3
3 3 7 
Example 2:
How many litres of water can a right circular cone contain if its slanting
height is 13dm & radius of base is 50cm.
Solution:
length = l = 13dm radius = r = 50cm
lcm = 110 dm 50cm = 50 10 dm = 5dm

 radius = 5dm
As h  l 2  r 2  13 2  5 2
 169  25  144  12 dm
1 2
Volume of water = r h
3
1  22  2
=   5  12 
3 7 
= 314.29dm3
 Volume of water = 314.29 litres
374
Activity 05
1) Finds volume of circular cone if its radius is 6cm & height is 8cm.
2) Finds slanting height & radius of cone if h = 7cm & v = 66cm3
Key Points:
Volume is the amount of space occupied by a three dimensional figure. Its
units are in cube & S.I units are m3
1) Volume of cuboid = length × width × length, width & height
2) Cube is a cuboid of same length, width & height, therefore volume of cube
= l3
2 2
3) Volume of cylinder =  r h where  r is area of base & h is height of
cylinder.
2 2
4) Volume of sphere is two third volume of cylinder i.e. v =  r h, h  2r
3
 v = 4  r2
3
Volume of cone is one third volume of cylinder i.e. 13  r h .

2
5)

1) Define volume?
2) Explain the relation between volume of cylinder & cone?
3) Explain the relation between volume of cylinder & sphere?
4) If length of cube is 2m. Find its volume in cm3?
6) Fill in the blanks.
(1) Volume of cuboid is ______ if l = 2m, h = 5m & w = lm.
(2) Volume of cone is ______.
(3) ldm3 = ______ cm3.
(4) Units of volume are in ______
(5) For finding volume of sphere height is equal to ______.
375
Answers
Activity 01 1(a) 4.8 (b) 18cm (2) 5cm
Activity 02 (1) 14m (2) 0.32m (3) (i) 10cm (ii) 27cm
Activity 03 (1) 3cm (2) 16cm 3 (i) 13.2cm (ii) 12cm
Activity 04 (i) 14cm (2) 2cm (3) (i) 17cm (ii) 17.2cm
Activity 05 (i) 36cm 2(i) 28cm (ii) 10cm
Activity 06 (1) 27cm 2(i) 10.1cm (ii) 9.9cm
Activity 07 1(i) 64.114cm (ii) 5.39cm (2) 3961.36cm

(1) (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F (e) F
(2) (a) (ii) (b) (iii) (c) (i) (d) (ii) (e) (iii)
(f) (i) (g) (ii)
Calculation of Area
Activity 01 (i) 0.06cm2 (2) 21cm2 (3) 9cm2
Activity 02 (i) 37.5cm2 (2) 18cm2
Activity 03 (i) 7.14cm2 (2) 11.14cm
Activity 04 (i) (i) 40cm2 (ii) 15cm2 (2) 120cm2 (3) 20.5cm2
Activity 05 (i) (i) 18,000m2 (ii) 180cm2 (2) 8m2
Activity 06 (i) 9856cm2 (ii) 616 cm2 (2) 31371.45m2
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Self Assessment Question:
2 (i) m2 (2) Parallelogram (3) Isosceles triangle (4) rectangular region
(5) rectangle (6) two (7) Trapezium (8) cm2 (9) two
2
(10) 16cm
Surface Area of Solids
Activity 01 1 (a) 188m2 (b) 174cm2 (c) 8.68m2
Activity 02 1 (a) 384cm2 (b) 864dm2 (c) 73.5m2
Activity 03 1 (i) 2277cm2 (ii) 1236.4m2
(2) 4.2dm (3) 749.57cm2 (4) 12.86m2
Activity 04 1 (i) r= 2.8cm d = 5.6cm (iii) r = 21dm d = 42dm
(2) Rs 1232 (3) 28.29m2.
Activity 05 (1) (i) 220cm2, 374cm2 (ii) 33m2, 4686m2
(2) 38.97m2 (3) 2cm 12.57cm2

(1) (a) (i) F (ii) F (iii) T (iv) F (v)T
(2) (i) l = w = h (ii) 2 (iii) Sphere (iv) hollow sphere
(v) area of circular cone
(vi) 3 (vii) 6 (viii) 8 (ix) Opposite (x) Cone
Volume
Activity 01 1 (i) 378cm3 (ii) 300cm3 (2) 200dm2
Activity 02 (i) 125m3 (ii) 0.01cm3 (iii) 74.09dm3
Activity 03 (1) 14.32m3 (2) 785.71cm3 (3) 37.04m2
Activity 04 (1) 91.99m3 (2) 114.99m3
Activity 05 (1) 301.71cm3 (2) r = 3cm l = 7.62cm
377
(i) 10m3 (ii) l3 (iii) (iv) cube (v) 2r
References:
1) www.math.com
2) www.math.hmc.edu/calculus/tutorials
3) Library.thinkquest.org
4) Mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/6638.html
5) www.science.co.it/formula.asp
6) Engineering mathematics hand book by Jan. J. Juma
7) Metrial Geometry by George Bruce Halsted
8) Flow Measurement by Bela. G. Liptak
378
UNIT––8
PRESENTATION OF DATA
Written By: Ms. Irum Naseer

379
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction .......................................................................................................381
Objectives .........................................................................................................381
8.1 Frequency Distribution and its Need ....................................................382
8.2 Organization of Data .............................................................................400
8.3 Tally Sheet Method ...............................................................................408
8.4 Array Grouped and Un-Grouped Data ..................................................411
8.5 Types of Frequency Series ....................................................................412
8.6 Graphic Presentation of the Frequency Distribution ............................417
380
INTRODUCTION
Statistics plays as important role in every walk of life. This newly

developed science is now widely used in government industry and business. Its
applications have now gone beyond science, engineering and technology and have
entered such areas as law, political science, fine arts and literature. Being the
future teacher you should also have the knowledge of statistics. In this unit you
will be introduced to such basic concepts as variable, tabular presentation of data,
graphical presentation of data, frequency distribution array, individual, discrete
and continuous series etc.
OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 to convert raw data to useful information.
 to construct and use data arrays.
 to construct and use frequency distributions.
 to graph frequency distribution with histograms, polygons and ogives.
 to use frequency distributions to make decisions.
 to organize data in tabular form.
 differentiate between individual, discrete & continuous series.
 construct tally sheets.
381
8.1. Frequency Distribution and its Need
8.1.1 Distribution
The arrangements of data according to the values of a variable is called a
distribution.
8.1.2 Frequency
In statistics the number of occurrences is called frequency or number of
total numerical data or total vertical dashes in each class is known as frequency of
that class. The total of all these frequencies is denoted by f=n and known as
“total frequency”
Example
Construct an appropriate frequency distribution for the following data
related to an experimental yield.
93, 89, 75, 97, 75, 47, 73, 40, 100, 4, 39, 75, 13, 39, 89, 78, 32, 72, 51, 21,
92, 46, 29, 58, 16, 31, 6, 82, 76, 10, 10, 32, 2, 26, 98, 94, 93, 91, 68, 20,
19, 61, 37, 98, 72, 61, 72, 19, 81, 78
Solution
The largest value is Xm = 100 and the smallest value is Xo=2
Range = Xm-Xo
= 100-2
= 98
Suppose we want to make 10 classes, then size of the class interval
will be:
Range 98
size of class interval = =  9.8
No of Classes 10
 10
A frequency distribution is shown in below table
Yield Class marks Tally Frequency Class
(X) Boundaries
1-10 5.5  5 0.5-10.5
11-20 15.5  5 10.5-20.5
382
21-30 25.5  3 20.5-30.5
31-40 35.5  7 30.5-40.5
41-50 45.5  2 40.5-50.5
51-60 55.5  2 50.5-60.5
61-70 65.5  3 60.5-70.5
71-80 75.5  10 70.5-80.5
81-90 85.5  4 80.5-90.5
91-100 95.5  9 90.5-100.5
Total  50
8.1.3 Frequency Distribution

Important characteristics of a larger mass of data can be readily assessed
by grouping the data into different classes and then determining the number of
observation that fall in each of the classes. Such an arrangement in tabular form is
called a frequency distribution or a tabular arrangement of data into classes with
corresponding classes frequency is called a frequency distribution or frequency
table. Above example shows the frequency distribution of raw data given in
example.
 Grouped Data
Data organized and summarized in the frequency distribution are called
grouped data. Or data which has classified in various categories or groups is
known as grouped data.
 Class Frequency
The number of observations falling in a particular class is called the class
Frequency and is denoted by the letter “f”. In previous example the 4th column
shows the class frequency.
Ingredients of a Frequency Distribution

1. Class limits
2. Class boundary
3. Class interval
383
4. Class marks
5. Range
6. Tally marks
1. Class Limits
The smallest and largest values that can fall in a given class are referred to
as its class limits e.g., for the interval or when we divide.
1–10
The smaller no 1, is lower limit.
The larger no 10 is upper limit.
In previous example the 1st column shows the class limits.
2. Class Boundaries
The true class limits are known as class boundaries, where the true class
limits are made for continuous type of data.
U .C.L of 1st class  L.CL of 2nd class
C.B 
2
where
U.C.L Upper Class Limit
L.C.L Lower Class Limit
e.g., 1–10
0.5 is called L.C.B where L.C.B = Lower Class Boundary
10.5 is called U.C.B where U.C.B = Upper Class Boundary
When the data is classified by inclusive method then the boundaries of a class art
known as class limits. When the data is classified by exclusive method then the
boundaries of a class are known as class boundaries.
An utmost care is required while making class boundaries. When the
original values are in the whole numbers, the class boundaries are given up to one
place of decimal i.e., no observation will be equal to any class boundary. There
will be no ambiguity whether or not an observation should be included in the
class. If the original observation are measured up to one place of decimal, the
class boundaries will be upto two places of decimals and so on. Class boundaries
are not always half way between the stated class limits. For discrete variable, the
class boundaries are the same for stated class limits. For the overlapping class
384
limits, class boundaries never called as in this case class limits (C.L.S) are already
class boundaries. For open-end classes, class boundaries cannot be calculated.
In previous example the 5th column shows the class boundaries.
3. Class Interval
A symbol defining a class is called “class interval” or class interval is the
length of a class and is equal to the difference between the upper class boundary
and that lower class boundary of the class. It may also be found by the difference
other between two successive lower class limits and two successive upper class
limits. A uniform class interval is denoted by “h” or ‘c”.
The size or width of a class interval is the difference between the lower
and upper class boundaries. It is referred to as the class width, class size or class
length. The numerical difference between the upper and lower class boundary of a
class interval is defined to be a class width. In previous example, the 1st column
shows the class interval.
4. Class Marks
The mid point between the upper and lower class boundaries or class
limits of a class interval is called the class mark or class mid point denoted by (X)
L.CL  U .C.L 0.5  10.5 11
Mid Point =    5.5
2 2 2
In previous example the 2nd column show the class marks.
5. Range
The difference between the smallest and largest number is called the range
of the data In previous example.
Range = R = Xm - XO
= 100 – 2 = 98
6. Tally Mark
Data may enter in form of vertical dashed line in various classes. Five
dashes make one unit. In previous example the 3rd column shows the Tally Marks.
8.1.4 Discrete Frequency Distribution or Ungrouped Frequency

Distribution
If the repeated observation are written once with the number of times it occurs in
a tabular form in observations ascending order, it is known as discrete frequency
distribution. The number of observations is denoted by “x” and the number of
times it occur i.e. frequency by “f”. For Example, the marks obtained by the
student, 45, 55, 45, 50, 50, 60, 65, 65 in different frequency distribution are:
385
Marks of Students (x) No. of Students (f)
45 2
50 2
55 1
60 1
65 2
The method of discrete frequency distribution can also be used for continuous
data. This method is usually used when the difference between the largest and
smallest value is small. When the difference between the smallest and largest
value is very large (greater than 15) or number of observation are very large this
method is not used, then the grouped data is used for discrete as well as
continuous data.
Example
The following are numbers of flowers or difference branches of a tree. Classify
the data taking the class interval of size one.
2, 4, 6, 1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 7, 8, 6, 4, 7, 6, 4, 4, 2, 1, 5, 0, 1, 5, 9, 9, 10, 4, 6, 2, 5,
7, 9, 6, 1, 2, 10, 4, 8, 9, 2, 3, 1, 0, 4, 10, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, 5, 5, 4, 5, 8,
5, 4, 3, 3, 2, 1, 8, 6, 9.
Classes Tally Frequency
0  2
1  8
2  9
3  8
4  12
5  8
6  8
7  3
386
8  4
9  5
10  3
Total  70
8.1.5 Continuous Frequency Distribution or Grouped Frequency

Distribution
As the observation of continuous data are not exact rather they are
approximate measurements. An observation (measurement) does not repeat itself
as far as theory of continuous variable concerned. While in actual practice the
observation are repeated so cannot be convented as done in discrete frequency
distribution. These observations can put into various classes and each class
accommodates certain number of observation, which forms the group frequency
distribution of classification according to class intervals. It should be noted that
calculation made from the group frequency distribution cannot exact and
generates grouping error while calculating.
 Inclusive Method (Discrete Classes)

If upper limit of each class is not equal to the lower limit of next class and
the length of each class is same then, it is called discrete classes with uniform
class intervals or grouped date with discrete classes. Both upper and lower limits
are included in the class interval and a value 39 fall in class 30 – 39 e.g.
10....................19
20....................29
30....................39
40....................49
50....................59
 Exclusive Method (Continuous Classes)

If upper limit of each class is equal to the lower limit of next class and the
length of each class is same then this is called continuous classes and uniform
class intervals. In this method lower limit is included but the upper limit is
excluded from the class. A value “20” falls in the class 20 – 30 instead of 10 – 20.
387
So the end point of the class and the starting point of the next class are equal, then
the next class will absorb the observation equal to these points.
10....................20
20....................30
30....................40
40....................50
50....................60
Note that the discrete classes are only suitable for discrete data. For
continuous data upper limit exclusive method is generally fused. To make the
discrete classes continuous, we used the technique of class boundaries and the
class boundaries calculated for continuous data as they are already the class
boundaries.
8.1.6 Constructing a Group Frequency Distribution

(i) Decide the number of classes (K). There is no hard and fast rule for this. It
is up to a researcher to decide about number of classes.
(ii) Determine the range (R).
(iii) Divide the range of, by the number of classes to estimate the approximate
width of the interval e.g.
Range R
C or C
No. of classes K
(iv) List the lower class limit of the bottom intervals and then the lower class
boundary.
(v) List the lower class limit of the bottom intervals and then the lower class
boundary – Add the upper class width to the lower class boundary to
obtain the upper class boundary. Write down the upper class limit.
(vi) List all class limit and class boundary by adding the class width to the
limits and boundaries of the previous interval.
(vii) Determine the class marks of each interval by averaging the class limits or
the boundaries.
(viii) Tally the frequency for each class.
(ix) Sum the frequency column and check against the total number of
observations.
388
Example
Construct a frequency distribution from the following data representing
the lives of 40 similar car batteries recorded to the nearest tenth of a year. The
batteries were guaranteed to last three years.
2.6 2.2 4.1 3.5 4.5 3.2 3.7 3.0
3.7 3.4 1.6 3.1 3.3 3.8 3.1 4.7
3.1 2.5 4.3 3.4 3.6 2.9 3.3 3.9
3.4 3.3 3.1 3.7 4.4 3.2 4.1 1.9
3.5 4.7 3.8 3.2 2.6 3.9 3.0 4.2
Solution:
Firstly, we calculate the range as 4.7 – 1.6 = 3.1. Now suppose that we
3.1
chose to construct 7 classes, then the width of each class should be  0.443
7
or 0.5 i.e., class width c = 0.5
Secondly, we decide the bottom interval such that it incorporates the
lowest value of our data. (Generally, round values such as 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 etc.,
are chosen as bottom interval).
Thirdly, by adding class width (0.5) to bottom interval we get the upper class
boundary of 1.95 and lower class boundary as 1.45. the mid point or market for
 1 . 5  1 .9 
this class is the average of the upper and lower class limits =    1. 7
 2 
Finally, remaining intervals and classes boundaries are obtained by adding 0.5 to
each class limit and boundary until we reach a class boundary which incorporates
the highest observation of our data.
Class Interval Class Boundaries Class Mid Point f

1.5 – 1.9 1.45 – 1.95 1.7 2
2.0 – 2.4 1.95 – 2.45 2.2 1
2.5 – 2.9 2.5 – 2.95 2.7 4
3.0 – 3.9 2.95 – 3.45 3.2 15
4.0 – 4.4 3.95 – 4.45 4.2 5
389
4.5 – 4.9 4.45 – 4.95 4.7 3
3.5 – 3.9 3.45 – 3.95 3.7 10
8.1.7 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

Generally, a frequency distribution obtained by adding the frequency for
each class to frequency for preceding classes is known as cumulative frequency
distribution, and denoted by “F” or “C.F”
Example
Construct a cumulative frequency distribution for the following data
Classes 20 – 24 25 – 28 30 – 39 40 – 44 45 – 49 50 – 54 55 – 64
Frequency 1 2 26 22 20 15 14
Solution
Classes Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency (F)
20 – 24 1 1
25 – 29 2 1+2=3
30 – 39 26 3+26=29
40 – 44 22 29+22=51
45 – 49 20 51+20=71
50 – 54 15 71+15=86
55 – 64 14 86+14=100
Note: The classes are discrete i.e. inclusive Method.
 Less than “Cumulative Frequency Distribution

The total frequency of all values less than the upper class boundary of a
given class interval is called the “Less than cumulative frequency”. Up to and
390
including that class. A table that shows the cumulative frequencies, is called a
cumulative frequency distribution or cumulative distribution.
The cumulative frequency of the last class is the sum of all frequencies in
the distribution. It is referred to as “a less than” type cumulative frequency
distribution as cumulative is form the lowest value to the highest and starts with
the lower class boundary of the first group indicating that there is no frequency
below it.
Example
The cumulative frequency distribution of battery lives of example
Cumulative Frequency distribution of battery live
Class boundaries Cumulative frequency
Less than 1.45 0
Less than 1.95 2
Less than 2.45 3
Less than 2.95 7
Less than 3.45 22
Less than 3.95 32
Less than 4.45 37
Less than 4.95 40
 More than Cumulative Frequency Distribution

If the frequency are cumulated from the highest value to lowest value it is
called “more than” cumulative frequency distribution.
Example
Construct a cumulative frequency distribution for the final examination
grades for an elementary statistic course.
391
Classes 10 – 19 20 – 29 30 – 39 40 – 49 50 – 59 60 – 69 70 – 79 80 – 89 90 – 99
Frequency 3 2 3 4 5 2 14 14 4
Solution
Cumulative frequency distribution “Less than type”
Class Boundaries Cumulative Frequency
Less than 9.5 0
Less than 19.5 3
Less than 29.5 3+2=5
Less than 39.5 5+3=8
Less than 49.5 8+4=12
Less than 59.5 12+5=17
Less than 69.5 17+11=28
Less than 79.5 28+14=42
Less than 89.5 42+14=56
Less than 99.5 56+4=60
Starting from “0” as there is no grade below 10 and adds successively

previous frequencies into the next class frequencies.
‘More Than’ Type cumulative frequency distribution
Class Boundaries C.F
More than 9.5 60 60
More than 19.5 57 60-3=57
More than 29.5 55 55-2=55
More than 39.5 52 55-3=52
More than 49.5 48 52-4=48
More than 59.5 43 48-5=43
392
More than 69.5 32 43-11=22
More than 79.5 18 32-14=18
More than 89.5 4 18-4=4
More than 99.5 0 4-4=0
Starting from “60” as all the grades are greater than “9.5”. Then subtract
successively the frequency of each class from the frequency obtained in the
previous class:
8.1.8 Relative Frequency Distribution: (R.F.)

The frequency of a class divided by total frequency (f=n) is called
relative frequency of the class and a table listing relative frequencies of each class
is called as relative frequency distribution.
Frequency of a Class
R.F 
Total frequencie s of all classes ( n)
By expressing each relative frequency in the form of percentages a
percentage distribution or percentage relative frequency distribution obtained. The
sum of the relative frequencies of all classes is “One” and relative frequencies in
percentages adds to 100 – The relative frequencies are also called proportion are
used in probability theory. Where these are known as probabilities of the classes.
Example
The relative frequency distribution and percentage relative frequency
distribution for example is:
Percentage
Class Class Marks Relative
f Relative
interval (x) Frequencies
Frequencies
2
1.5 – 1.9 1.7 2  .05 0.05×100=5
40
1
2.0 – 2.4 2.2 1  .025 .025×100=2.5
40
4
2.5 – 2.9 2.7 4  0.1 0.1×100=10
40
393
15
3.0 – 3.4 3.2 15  0.375 0.375×100=25
40
10
3.5 – 3.9 3.7 10  0.25 0.375×100=12.5
40
5
4.0 – 4.4 4.2 05  0.125 0.125×100=12.5
40
3
4.5 – 4.9 4.7 3  .075 0.075×100=7.5
40
40 1 100
8.1.9 Cumulative Frequency: (R.C.F)

The cumulative frequency of a class divided by the total frequencies of all
the classes is called relative cumulative frequency and generally expressed in
percentage, so also known as percentage cumulative frequency.
Cumulative Frequency of a class (cfi )
R.C.F %age   100
Total Frequency  f 
A table of relative cumulative frequencies is called relative cumulative

frequency distribution or percentage cumulative distribution. A graph of R.C.F is
known as relative cumulative – frequency polygon when expressed in percentages
becomes percentage ogles. The percentage cumulative distribution enables one to
read off the percentage of observations falling below certain specified values:
Example
The relative cumulative frequency and percentage cumulative distribution
of example is:
Class Boundaries C.F Relative Cumulative Cumulative Percent
Frequency
0
Less than 1.45 0 0 0
40
2
Less than 1.95 2  0.5 5.0
40
3
Less than 2.45 3  .075 7.5
40
394
7
Less than 2.95 7  0.175 17.5
40
22
Less than 3.45 22  0.55 55.0
40
32
Less than 3.95 32  0.8 80.0
40
31
Less than 4.45 37  0.925 92.5
40
40
Less than 4.95 40  .1 100.0
40
8.1.10 Bivariate Frequency Distribution

The method so far considered for the frequency distribution involved only
one variable. Such frequency distributions are called univariate, means a single
variable. On several occasions observations have pair, and each pair is obtained as
a result of two variables, so in case of paired observation the classification of data
in tabular arrangement is known as a Bivariate Frequency Distribution or two-
way frequency table.
Example
Height and weight measurement of 40 students are as follows. Taking the
classes of heights such as 60 – 62, 63 – 65 etc, and the classes of weights as 100 –
104, 105 – 109 etc. make a Bivariate frequency distribution of the data.
Heights (Inches) Weights (Pounds) Heights (Inches) Weights (Pounds)
60 100 63 108
62 105 67 108
61 104 71 116
70 115 70 110
64 110 68 114
60 102 68 114
65 110 71 109
395
65 108 64 107
73 119 63 108
71 118 68 105
61 109 73 1119
60 108 69 107
63 107 64 111
63 107 64 115
64 112 67 111
67 115 67 114
68 111 64 108
69 111 62 105
64 111 67 117
66 113 62 105
Solution
Both the characteristics involved here are continuous nature but for convenience
the accuracy of measurement is restricted to nearest inches and pounds.
Heights Weights
Largest value = 73 Largest value = 119
Smallest value = 60 Smallest value = 100
Tally Sheet
Heights in Weights in Pounds
inches 100 – 104 105 – 109 110 – 114 115 - 119
60 – 62    
63 – 65    
66 – 68    
396
69 – 71    
72 – 74    
Bivariate frequency Distribution of student’s weights and heights.

Heights in Weights in Pounds
inches 100 – 104 105 – 109 110 – 114 115 - 119 Total
60 – 62 3 5 - - 8
63 – 65 - 7 5 1 3
66 – 68 - 2 5 3 10
69 – 71 - 2 1 4 7
72 – 74 - - - 2 2
3 16 11 10 40
8.1.11 Self Assessment Questions

Q1. Circle the correct answer in the following;
1- The number of observations following in a particular class is known as
a- class frequency b- class mark
c- class interval d- mid points
2- Half of upper and lower class boundaries
a- class size b- class mid-point
c- class width d- class limit
3- Difference of upper and lower class boundaries
a- class size b- class interval
c- Both (a) & (b) d- none of these
4- The size of a class is also called
a- class interval b- class frequency
c- class mark d- class boundary
5- The first frequency of more than cumulative frequency distribution is
a- 100 b- 1
c- f d- f
6- Relative frequency can never be
a- class than one b- more than one
c- equal to one d- none of these
7- Data manager in frequency distribution is
397
a- Primary b- raw
c- Collector d- all (a), (b), & (c)
8- The total of relative frequencies is
a- 1 b- 0.5
c- -1 d- 100
9- For the classes 50 – 54, 55 – 59, 60 – 64, _________
a- 4 b- 5
c- 10 d- none of these
10- A relative frequency distribution presents frequency of.
a- Fraction b- percentage
c- Integer d- both (a) & (b)
8.1.12 Activity
Q1- The following data relate to heights of first year students. Make a
frequency distribution by taking class intervals of 2 inches by tally sheet
heights in inches.
62, 67, 65, 64, 70, 70, 66, 64, 63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 60, 64, 63, 62, 64, 63, 65,
66, 65, 66, 70, 71, 70, 72, 69, 68, 62, 65, 64, 62, 68, 67, 65, 69, 69, 64, 66,
63
Q2- The following figures relate to bonus paid to 20 factory workers

Bonus (in Rs)
76 70 54 70
104 58 88 96
89 57 86 62
58 73 103 90
84 90 88 59
(i) Prepare a frequency distribution taking the class width as 7, by inclusive
method.
(ii) Prepare another frequency distribution taking the class width as 10, by
exclusive method.
Q3- The number of letters in each word are

5, 3, 4, 10, 2, 4, 2, 1, 5, 9, 5, 2, 12, 3, 10, 2, 3, 8, 4, 7, 8, 14, 6, 9, 8, 2, 3, 2,
3, 2, 4, 5, 8, 6, 9, 9, 3, 8, 2, 8, 8 and 2
398
Make a discrete frequency distribution.
Q4- A group of 40 students under want a standard physical fitness test, at the
end of which each one pulse rate was noted. The results were.
136, 115, 107, 101, 99, 114, 129, 144, 120, 121, 92, 77, 100, 168, 116,
128, 108, 100, 108, 90, 95, 112, 81, 105, 137, 121, 138, 128, 125, 97, 110,
111, 110, 146, 108, 108, 129, 137, 125, 115
(i) Form a frequency distribution having class as 70 – 79, 80 – 89
(ii) Form class than cumulative frequency distribution and more than
cumulative frequency distribution using the frequency distribution formed
in (i)
399
8.2 Organization of Data (or) Classification Tabulation
Collected data are usually available in a form which is not easy to
comprehend. It is difficult to get a proper and clear cut impression of that data. In
order to bring them into an intelligible form. The data are to be condensed. This
can be obtained by classification and tabulation.
8.2.1 Classification
The process of arranging the huge amount of observations into
homogeneous groups or classes is called classification. The data should be
organized into an easy form as a layman can understand it. A classification should
be clearly defined and able to accommodate the new observation or delete them.
According to L.R Conner. “classification is the process of distributing collected
observations into different classes or groups according to their resemble and
affinities”.
Example:
The process of sorting letters in a post office, the letters are classified
according to the cities and further arranged according to streets.
8.2.2 Types of Classification

The types of classification depend upon the characteristics of the statistical
data there may be two characteristics of the statistical data descriptive and
numerical.
1 Descriptive Classification
The classification is said to be descriptive when it is according to
attributes. It is of two kinds. The examples of descriptive characteristics are
friendship, love, poverty, liberty and sex.
i- Simple Classification
ii- Manifold Classification
400
2- Numerical
rical Classification
The type of classification is based on the data where quantitative
measurement of the data is possible. The classification is based on the basis of
class-interval.
interval. Characteristics like height, weight, income, number of leaves on a
certain
ain tree are called numerical as they are capable of quantitative measurement.
Thus according to the nature of characteristics possessed by the items of
data, there are two main types of classification namely classification by attributes
and classification by magnitude.
(a) One-way
way Classification
If we classify observed data keeping in view single characteristic, this type
of classification is known as one-way classification.
Example:
The population of world may be classified by religion as Muslim,
Christians etc.
(b) Two-way Classification

If we consider two characteristics at a time in order to classify the
observed data then we are doing two way classification.
Example:
The population of world may be classified by religion and gender.
8.2.3 Bases of Classification

General, we may use any of following four bases to classify any data.
(i) Quantitative (ii) Qualitative
(iii) Temporal or Chronological (iv) Geographical
Bases of
Classification
Temporal (or)
Quantitative Qualitative Geographical
Chronological
401
(i) Quantitative Classification
Differences on the basis of magnitude become the source of distinction
among the prepared classes/groups. For examples:
1- Classes for no of cars available to selector families: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc
2- Classes for strength of workers of sampled textile units.
20 – 29, 30 – 39, 40 – 49, 50 – 59, etc
(ii) Qualitative Classification

Differences on the basis of quality become the source of distinction among
the prepared classes/groups, For examples
1- Classes for hair color of sampled students: Black, Gray, Black, Brown,
Black etc
2- Classes for educational levels of respondents: Primary, Middle, Matric,
Inter, Graduate, etc
(iii) Temporal Classification
Differences on the basis of time become the source of distinction among
the prepared classes/groups. This type of classification is also called
Chronological Classification, For examples:
1- Classes for the model of Cars of inter level Candidates for the post of
Manager:
2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, etc
2- Daily sales of stocks in Lahore Stock Exchange in last week Monday,
Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday
(iv) Geographical Classification
Differences on the basis of location become the source of distinction
among the prepared classes/groups. This type of classification is also
called Spatial Classification. For example:
1- Classes for the meat Price (Rs/Kg) in capitals of Pakistan
Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi, Quetta, and Peshawar
2- Temperature observed on 12 noon of June 22, 2010 in different cities of
Punjab Lahore, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Rawalpindi, etc
402
8.2.4 Tabulation
Tabulation is the process of managing available data into tabular form in
accordance with already decided classes.
It is one of the simplest and most important devices for summarizing data in a
meaningful fashion.
A table is a systematic arrangement of statistical data in rows and
columns. Rows are horizontal arrangement. Tabular arrangement makes the data
quickly understandable and make capable for further diagrammatic or graphic
presentation. In other words, we may call a “statistical table” is a gateway for
further statistical analysis and interpretation. Table is a most popular way of
reporting numerical facts relating to any business.
8.2.5 Main Parts of a Table and its Construction:

The specimen and main parts of table are:
Title
Prefatory Notes (Head)
Box Head Column Caption
Stub Body
Foot Note ______________

Source Note ____________
1- Title:
Title indicates value time and place of the data at the heading. A title must
be self-explanatory.
2- Prefatory Notes or Head Notes:
It explains the further descriptions about the data and appears just after
the title and gives additional specification of data.
3- Column Caption:
The heading of each column is called column caption.
4- Box Head:
403
The Section of table containing column caption is called box head.
5- Stub:
The heading of rows are called row captions or stub.
6- Body of Table:
It contains the information i.e., entire data with respect to caption and stub.
7- Foot Note:
Anything not clear from the title caption, stub or body can be explained in
the foot note.
8- Source note:
It indicate the source from where the data is collected including compiling
agency, publication, date of publication and page etc.
Example:
Present the data given in the following paragraph in the form of a table so
as to bring out clearly all the facts indicating the source and bearing a suitable
title.
“According to 1972 census of population, the total population of Punjab
was enumerated to be 37,508 thousand of which 19,942 thousand were males and
17,566 thousand were females. During the same census, the population of
Baluchistan (all areas including Gawadar) was enumerated to be 2,405 thousand
of which 1,272 thousand were males and 1,133 thousand were females. During
the 1961 census, the population of Punjab was enumerated to be 25,581 thousand
of which 13,643 thousand were males and 11,938 thousand were females. During
the same census the population of Baluchistan was enumerated to be 1,161
thousand of which 640 thousand were males and 521 thousand were females”
Table
POPULATION OF PUNJAB AND BALUCHISTAN PROVINCES BY
SEX FOR 1961 AND 1972 CENSUSES
Prefatory Note (Figures in thousands)
Punjab Baluchistan1 Box Head
Census Male Female Total Male Female Total
Stub  1961 13,643 11,938 25,581 640 521 1,161

Body
1972 19,942 17,566 37,508 1,272 1,133 2,405
404
1. All areas including Gawadar  Foot note
Source: Population census Reports 1961 & 1972
8.2.6 Types of Tabulation

Statistical tables are of following major types
i- Simple and complex table
ii- one way tables or single tables
iii- two way tables or double tables
iv- higher order tables or manifold tables
8.2.7 Desirable Qualities of a Good Table

1- It should be simple and self-explanatory.
2- It should provide a base for further statistical analysis.
3- The table should give emphasis to facts and comparisons according to
their importance, but in a complete and concise manner.
4- The table should reveal the salient features of the data at a glance.
5- The arrangement of data in table should either be alphabetical,
geographical or in order of magnitude.
In short, a table should let them speak the data.

Q.1 Circle the correct answer in the following.
i- Classification is the process of arranging data according to
a- One characteristic
b- Two or more characteristics
c- Similar characteristics
d- Different characteristics
ii- Important bases of classification are
a- Two b- Three c- Four
d- More than four
iii- Data classified by attributes are called
a- Continuous data b- Quantitative data
405
c- Qualitative data d- Grouped data
iv- The process of arranging data into rows and columns is called
a- Frequency distribution b- Classification
c- Tabulation d- Array
v- Title of a table should in
a- Lower case letters b- Capital letters
c- Italic & lower case letters d- Twenty letters
vi- Classification of data according to locations or areas is called
a Temporal classification
b Geographical classification
c Quantitative classification
d Qualitative classification
Q2. Mark T (True) or F (False) in the following.
i- An array is formed by arranging raw data in order of time of [T/F]
observation.
ii- Classification is the process of arranging the data according to [T/F]
similarities.
iii- Tabulation is the process of arranging the data into a table. [T/F]
iv- Data arranged by years or months are called geographical data. [T/F]
v- Sorting of letters in a post office is an example of classification. [T/F]
Q Match column A to column B and write the correct match in column C

Column A Column B Column C
i- Chronological or temporal Frequency polygon
ii- Array Class interval
iii-  Adjacent rectangles
iv- Histogram Tally Mark
v- Many-Sided closed figure Series in ascending or
descending order
vi- 110 – 119 Basis of classification open
and closes smoothed
frequency polygon
406
8.2.9 Activity
Q1. Write short answers of the following questions
1- What is classification?
2- Define tabulation?
3- What are the difference parts of a statistical table?
4- Draw stretch of a table indicating its necessary parts.
5- Explain the bases of classification.
6- Desirable qualities of a good table.
Q2. Present the data given in the following paragraph in the form of a table so
as to bring out clearly all the facts, indicate title, source of data and foot
note. Also compute percentages.
“According to a report of Punjab Economic Research Institute, Lahore
entitled “Evaluation of Farm Forestry Project in Punjab. 225 sample
farmers were asked about there source of mortification towards forestry,
68 farmers reported that they were motivated by forest Department staff or
its literature of which 34 belonged to Sargodha forest Division while the
rest were from Multan. Radio/Television also inspired 44 sample farmers
of which 26 belonged to Multan Division. Fellow farmers, friends, or
relative also become the source of motivation for 27 and 19 farmers of
Sargodha and Multan Division respectively. 67 farmers reported that they
had taken their own decision, out of which 30 farmers belonged to
Multan.”
Q3. Present the data given in the following paragraph in the form of a table so
as to bring out clearly all the facts, indicating the source and bearing a
suitable title.
“According to the census of Manufacturers ’ Report, 1945, the John Smith
Manufacturing Company employed 400 non-union and 1,250 union
employees in 1941. Of these, 220 were females of which 140 were non-
union. In 1942, the number of union employees increased to 1,475 of
which 1,300 were males. Of the 250 non-union employees, 200 were
males. In 1943, 1,700 employees were union members and 50 were non-
union. Of all the employees in 1943, 250 were females, of which 240 were
union members. In 1944, the total number of employees were 2,000 of
which one percent were non-union of all the employees in 1944, 300 were
females of which only 5 were non-union.”
407
8.3.1 Tally Sheet Method
If the data are not arranged in order of magnitude, the easiest way of
tabulating data is by recording a stroke (called tally mark) opposite the
appropriate class for each observation. The first four strokes are recorded
vertically () and the fifth one is recorded diagonally () so as to distinguish a
set of five. The class frequencies are then written in the frequency column.
Example
The waist measurements in inches of 40 children aged 5 to 10 years are
given below
19.3 16.9 17.9 17.3 15.8 18.2 17.1 19.5 20.4
18.7 22.3 17.5 18.4 13.9 18.8 16.8 14.9 19.5
19.4 16.3 17.8 23.4 17.4 19.0 21.8 18.8 18.5
18.2 16.1 18.3 17.5 17.4 18.6 16.9 16.5 18.2
20.5 20.5 17.5 19.1
Groups these data into a frequency distribution taking 1.0 as the class.
Interval size, e.g. 13.5 – 14.4, 14.5 – 15.4 etc and use tally mark method.
Waist Measurement (in) Tally Mark Frequency
13.5 – 14.4  1
14.5 – 15.4  1
15.5 – 16.4  3
16.5 – 17.4  8
17.5 – 18.4  9
18.5 – 19.4  10
19.5 – 20.4  3
20.5 – 21.4  2
21.5 – 22.4  2
22.5 – 23.4  1
Total 40
408
Example:
Construct a frequency distribution for the data below by using Tally Sheet
method.
41.78 29.32 31.47 35.35 32.82 39.42
61.65 28.31 44.63 22.78 44.44 48.12
81.71 33.47 50.35 29.79 51.26 50.32
26.86 18.95 48.19 43.72 43.89 47.15
60.20 44.43 41.17 37.50 22.35 29.17
Classes Tally f
18.00 – 30.99  8
31.00 – 43.49  10
44.00 – 56.99  9
57.00 – 69.99  2
70.00 – 82.99  1
Total - 30
8.3.2 Activity
Q Make a grouped frequency distribution from the following data, relating to
the weight recorded to the nearest grams of 60 apples picked out at
random from a consignment by using Tally Sheet method.
106 107 76 82 109 107 115 93 187
111 92 86 70 126 68 130 129 139
100 186 84 99 113 204 111 141 136
98 110 78 185 162 178 140 152 133
148 90 101 181 131 75 184 104 110
95 123 125
119 115 128
123 90 115
146 158 1921
80 118 82
Q2. Given below are the mean annual death rates per 1,000 at ages 20 – 65 in
each of 88 occupational groups. Construct a grouped frequency
distribution by using Tally Sheet method:
7.5 8.2 6.2 8.9 7.8 5.4 9.4 9.9 10.9 10.8 7.4
409
9.7 11.6 12.6 5.0 10.2 9.2 12.0 9.9 7.3 7.3 8.4
10.3 10.1 10.0 11.1 6.5 12.5 7.8 6.5 8.7 9.3 12.4
10.4 9.1 9.7 9.3 6.2 10.3 6.6 7.4 8.6 7.7 9.4
7.7 12.8 8.7 5.5 8.6 9.6 11.9 10.4 7.8 7.6 12.8
4.6 14.0 8.1 11.4 10.6 11.6 10.4 8.1 4.6 6.6 12.1
6.8 7.1 6.6 8.8 8.8 10.7 10.8 6.0 7.9 7.3 9.3
9.3 8.9 10.7 3.9 6.0 6.9 9.0 8.8 9.4 11.4 10.9
Q3. A survey of 50 retail establishments head assistants, excluding proprietors,
follows:
2, 3, 9, 0, 4, 4, 1, 5, 4, 8, 5, 3, 6, 6, 0, 2, 2, 7, 6, 4, 8, 4, 3, 3, 1, 0, 8, 7, 5, 1,
3, 4, 2, 4, 7, 5, 2, 6, 1, 7, 5, 4, 6, 4, 2, 5, 3, 4
Arrange the values as a frequency distribution by using Tally Sheet
method.
410
8.4 Array, Grouped and Un-grouped data
8.4.1 Array:
The data array is one of the simplest ways to present data. It arranges in
ascending or descending order.
8.4.2 Advantage of Data Arrays:

1- We can quickly notice the lowest and highest values in the data.
2- We can easily divide the data into sections.
3- We can see whether any values appear more than are in the array.
4- We can observe the distance between succeeding value in the data.
8.4.3 Disadvantage of Data Arrays:

In spite of these advantages, sometimes a data array isn’t helpful. Because
it lists every observation of data. We need to compress the information and still be
able to use it for interpretation and decision making. How can we do this?
8.4.4 Ungrouped Data:

Any data which is in the form as it is collected and has not been
undergone any statistical treatment so for is called raw data or ungroup data.
Simply, any untreated primary data is called raw data.
8.4.5 Grouped Data:

Data presented in the form of a frequency distribution are called grouped
data. Grouped data is always secondary data for their readers.
411
8.5 Types of Frequency Series
8.5.1 Frequency Series
The method of summarizing and organizing quantitative data is the
formation of frequency distribution. A frequency distribution is a tabular
arrangement of data in which various items are arranged into classes and number
of items falling in each class (called class frequency) is stated.
Let us consider weights of children born to 80 women in a certain city.
7, 6, 2, 5, 10, 1, 4, 2, 8, 2, 6, 1, 4, 8, 2, 2, 4, 2, 5, 7, 22, 4, 2, 10, 3, 4, 4, 2,
3, 2, 9, 3, 2, 5, 1, 6, 9, 2, 8, 5, 7, 8, 8, 2, 6, 7, 2, 2, 3, 2, 7, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 9,
5, 2, 11, 3, 4, 4, 1, 3, 4, 1, 6, 2, 5, 2, 3, 7, 4, 2
It is difficult to draw any meaningful conclusion from such data. An
arrangement of raw numerical data in ascending or descending order is called an
array.
8.5.2 Types, of, Frequency, Distribution

8.5.3 Series of Individual Observation
When in a series the items arranged singly according to magnitude or size, the
resulting series is called a series of individual observations.
Example:
69, 70, 69, 65, 60, 70, 72, 71, 59, 64
Activity:
50, 51, 52, 64, 69, 79, 80, 84
412
8.5.4 Discrete Series
When the items are exactly measureable and their record shows definite
breaks between one variable and the other succeeding it, the resulting record is
discrete or discontinuous series. The number of workers in a factory, the number
of pages of a book are example of discrete series.
Example:
Following figures the number of children born to 80 women in a certain
city up to age of 50 years. Make a frequency distribution
7, 6, 2, 5, 10, 1, 4, 2, 8, 6, , 1, 4, 8, 2, 2, 4, 2, 5, 7, 2, 2, 4, 2, 10, 3, 4, 4, 2,
3, 2, 9, 3, 2, 5, 1, 6, 9, 2, 8, 5, 7, 8, 8, 2, 6, 7, 2, 2, 3, 2, 7, 2, 3, 3, 3, 7, 3, 3,
4, 3, 9, 5, 2, 11, 3, 4, 4, 1, 3, 4, 1, 6, 2, 5, 2, 3, 7, 4, 2
Sol:
In, data, is, discrete
No. of Children (x) Tally No. of Women
1  5
2  22
3  13
4  11
5  6
6  5
7  7
8  5
9  3
10  2
11  1
Activity
The number of apartments in 27 apartment complexes in cary, North
caroline are given below:
413
91, 79, 66, 98, 127, 139, 154, 147, 192, 88, 97, 92, 87, 142, 127, 184, 145,
162, 95, 89, 86, 98, 145, 129, 149, 158, 241
8.5.5 Continous Series:

The series in which the statistical units are arranged in groups or classes
because weight, magnitude and volume constitute continuous.
Example:
Age Groups Frequency
1–4 12
5–9 18
10 – 14 51
15 – 19 73
20 – 24 17
25 – 29 6
8.5.6 Formation fo a Frequency Distribution

The following steps are involved in the formation of frequency distribution.
i) Range
ii) Numbers of classes
iii) Class magnitude or class interval
iv) Specification of class
v) Distribution of given values in classes
vi) Summation of the frequency column
i) Range
The first step in the formation of a frequency distributin is to find the
range of range is defined as the differnece between maximum and minimum
values. Suppose that the maximum number is 95 and minimum value is 59. Then
range is;
Range =Xm – XO
= 95 – 59
= 36
414
ii) Number of Classes
The number of classes into which the items are to be distribution depends
upon the total number of items. The larger the number of items, the larger the
number of classes. When the data are sufficiently large, the number of classes
should lie between 10 and 25.
H.A Stuges has given the following formula to determine the approximate
number of classes.
m = 1 + 3.3logN
where m denotes the number of classes and N is the total number of
values.
iii) Size of a Class Interval

The next step is to have a uniform class interval. Uniform class interval
may easily calculated by dividing the range, by number of classes desired.
iv) Specification of a Class

The next step is to decide where to start. A common practice is to let the
lowest class begin with the number which is the multiple of interval size.
After deciding upon the lowest class, we determine rest of the classes by
increasing size of interval size. We stop when we reach the highest value in the
distribution.
v) Distribution of Given Values

The next step is to tally the observations. We take the scores one at a time
and accord each to the right of its appropriate class interval by making a tally
mark.
vi) Summation of the Frequency Column

The next step is to combine the tallies in the column to the right. This
column is headed with ‘f’ which stands for frequencies. This column is summed
and we write the total at bottom.
Example
Constrict an appropriate frequency dist. For the following data related to
experimental yeild.
93, 89, 75, 97, 75, 47, 73, 40, 100, 4, 39, 75, 13, 39, 89, 78, 32, 72, 51, 21,
92, 46, 29, 58, 16, 31, 6, 82, 76, 10, 10, 32, 2, 26, 98, 94, 93, 91, 68, 20,
19, 61, 37, 98, 72, 61, 72, 19, 81, 78
415
Sol:
largest value Xm=100
Smallest value XO = 2
Range =Xm-XO
= 100-2
= 98
Range 98
Size of class interval =   9 .8
No. of classes 10
Yeild Tally Frequency

1 – 10  5
11 – 20  5
21 – 30  3
31 – 40  7
41 – 50  2
51 – 60  2
61 – 70  3
71 – 80  10
81 – 90  4
91 – 100  9
Total 50
Activity:
The following are the no of flowers on different branches of a tree classify
the data taking class interval of size one.
2, 4, 6, 1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 7, 8, 6, 4, 7, , 6, 4, 4, 2, 1, 5, 0, 1, 5, 9, 9, 10, 4, 6, 2, 5,
7, 9, 6, 1, 2, 10, 4, 8, 9, 2, 3, 1, 0, 4, 10, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 6, 6, 5, 5, 4, 5, 8,
5, 4, 3, 3, 2, 1, 8, 6, 9
416
8.6 Graphic Presentation fo the Frequency Distribution
The important graphs of frequency distribution are;
i) Histogram
ii) Frequency polygon
iii) Frequency curve
iv) Commulative frequency polygon or ogive
8.6.1 Histogram
A histogram consists of a set of adjacent rectangles having bases along x-
axis with centres at midpoints and areas proportional to class frequencies of all
classes have equal size of class interval, the heights of the rectangles are
proportional to the class frequencies and all have the same width. If length of the
rectangles must be adjusted. If the class interval is twice as long as the others, we
divide the height of its rectangle by two; if the class interval is three times as long
as the other, we divide the heights of its rectangle by three and so on.
Example
In a saving group, there are 400 members of saving certificates held by
them. Construct a histogram of the distribution of saving certificates.
No of Certificates No. of Members
1 – 50 10
51 – 100 15
101 – 151 30
1511 – 200 40
201 – 300 120
301 – 400 100
401 – 500 85
417
Soln.
Length of Adjacent
No. of No. of
Class Boundaries Class Height of
Certificates Members
Interval Rectangle
1 – 50 10 0.5 – 50.5 50 10/1=10
51 – 100 15 50.5 – 100.5 50 15/1=15
101 – 151 30 100.5 – 150.5 50 30/1=30
1511 – 200 40 150.5 – 200.5 50 40/1=40
201 – 300 120 200.5 – 300.5 100 120/2=60
301 – 400 100 300.5 – 400.5 100 100/2=50
401 – 500 85 400.5 – 500.5 100 85/2=42.5
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 100.5 150.5 200.5 300.5 400.5 500.5
8.6.2 Frequency Polygon

In order to complete the polygon, one extra class is usually added at each
end of the distribution and since these classes have zero frequencies both ends. If
the figure will come down to the horizontal axis. Where there are open or unequal
classes. Frequency polygon pose the same difficulties as histograms. They cannot
be used for distribution with open closes and an appropriate adjustment must be
418
made to account for unequal classes. Frequency polygon can also be obtained by
connecting the midpoints of the top of the rectangles in the histogram. A
frequency polygon is the graphical form of a histogram. Class intervals are
marked out along the horizontal axis and values along the vertical axis. The points
representing the frequency for each group are then plotted as if the frequency for
each group are then plotted as if the frequency occurred at the midpoints of class
interval. Then these points are connected by straight line.
Example
Construct a frequency polygon from the data given below by using
i) Histogram ii) Mid Points
Class Interval Frequency Mid points
0 - 10 5 5
10 - 20 9 15
20 - 30 12 25
30 - 40 20 35
40 - 50 16 45
50 – 60 7 55
20
18
16
12
11
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
419
8.6.3 Frequency Curve
If the frequency polygon is smoothed, the resulting curve is called a
frequency curve. To draw the frequency curve it is necessary to draw the polygon.
The polygon is then smoothed out, for this reason it is sometimes called a
smoothed frequency polygon. Table is advisable to draw a frequency curve when
the size of the class interval is small, number of classes is large and distribution
has continue variable.
Example
Draw a frequency curve of the following distribution
Marks No. of students
0–2 3
2–4 7
4–6 10
6–8 13
8 – 10 20
10 – 12 32
12 – 14 40
14 – 16 25
16 – 18 14
18 – 20 6
20 – 22 4
40
NO. OF STUDENTS
30
20
10
420
8.6.4 Cumulative Frequency Polygon or Ogive
An ogive or cumulative frequency curve is drawn on the basis of
cumulative frequency. To construct cumulative frequency it is necessary first to
form the cumulative frequency table. Then the upper limits of the classes are
taken as the ‘X’ coordinates and the cumulative frequencies as the ‘Y’ coordinates
and the points are plotted. The successive points are joined by straight line with
lowest lower class boundaries and the last point with highest upper class
boundaries to have a polygon.
There are two methods of drawing a cumulative frequency curve.

i) The less than method
ii) The more than method
In the “less than method” a frequency distribution is prepared which gives
the number of items that are less than a certain size this gives a series which is
cumulative upward.
In the “more than method”, a frequency distribution is prepared that gives
the number of items that exceed a certain size this gives a series which is
cumulative downward.
Example
Construct both the Ogive curves i.e. “more than” and “less than” with the
help of following data.
Soln:
Ogive curve with less than method. Then frequency will be adjusted as
given below
Marks No. of Students
Less than 10 5
Less than 20 17
Less than 30 31
Less than 40 41
Less than 50 46
421
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50
(ii) Ogive curve with more than method. The frequency adjustment will be as
given below
More than 0 46
More than 10 41
More than 20 29
More than 30 15
More than 40 5
More than 50 0
422
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50

Q1 Some possible answers to each statement are given below Tick () the
correct answer
1- Graph of the frequency distribution is:
(a) Histogram (b) Ogive
(c) Histogram (d) Pie chart
2- The first frequency of more than cumulative
(a) 100 (b) 1
(c) F (d) F
3- Cumulative frequency distribution graphically presented by
(a) Ogive (b) Histogram
(c) Bar chart (d) None of these
4- Straight lines are used to draw
(a) Frequency curve (b) Frequency polygon
(c) Pie-chart (d) None of these
5- An Ogive is a
(a) Frequency Polygon
(b) Cumulative frequency polygon
(c) Frequency Curve
(d) Histogram
423
Q2- Mark T (True) or F (False) in the following.
1- Frequency polygon is a straight line graph [T/F]
2- The graph of a relative frequency distribution is called an Ogive [T/F]
3- A graph of the cumulative frequency distributions called a histogram [T/F]
4- A histogram is a series of rectangles, each proportional in width to [T/F]
the number of items in each class
5- It is always possible to construct a frequency polygon from a [T/F]
histogram
8.6.6 Activity
Q1. Draw frequency polygon & frequency curve for the following data.
Marks F
10 – 19 5
20 – 29 25
30 – 39 40
40 – 49 20
50 – 59 10
Q2. Draw the histogram and polygon of the following data

Class F
2–4 4
4–6 10
6–8 15
8 – 10 12
10 – 12 6
12 – 14 2
424
Q3. Draw (i) Histogram, (ii) Frequency polygon
(iii) Frequency curve
(iv) Less than ogive and
(v) More than ogive for the following
Distribution
Group Frequency
0.7312 – 0.7313 10
0.7314 – 0.7315 15
0.7316 – 0.7317 20
0.7318 – 0.7319 12
0.7320 – 0.7321 8
Q4. Scores on a reading speed test were grouped into the following frequency
distribution
Classes F
24 – 27 3
27 – 30 17
30 – 33 30
33 – 36 20
36 – 39 13
Draw more than cumulative frequency polygon
425
ANSWERS
Self Assessment 8.1.1
Q.1 1- a 2- b
3- c 4- a
5- d 6- b
7- d 8- a
9- b 10- b
Self Assessment 8.2.1

Q i- c
ii- c
iii- c
iv- b
v- b
vi- b
Q i- F
ii- T
iii- T
iv- F
v- T
Q i- Basis of classification
ii- Series in ascending or descending
iii- Tally Sheet
iv- Adjacent rectangles
v- Frequency polygon
vi- Class interval
Self Assessment Question 8.6

Q 1- a
2- d
3- d
4- b
5- b
Q 1- F
2- F
3- F
4- F
5- T
426
UNIT––9
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Written By: Ms. Irum Naseer

427
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ......................................................................................................429
Objectives .........................................................................................................429
9.1 Mean of Grouped and Ungrouped date .................................................430
9.2 Median of Grouped and Ungrouped data..............................................440
9.3 Mode of Grouped and Ungrouped data ................................................446
9.4 Quartiles of Grouped and Ungrouped data ..........................................450
9.5 Deciles of Grouped and Ungrouped data ..............................................454
9.6 Percentiles of Grouped and Ungrouped data ........................................457
9.7 Measures of Dispersion (Range, Standard Deviation, Variance) .........460
428
INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have learnt different methods about the management of
data. In this unit, we will learn how the managed data may be used for
interpretation of data. In the first section the method of calculation of mean,
median and mode of grouped and ungrouped data is given. In the second section
calculation of quartiles, deciles and percentiles is discussed. The thrid section
consists of calculation of measures of dispersion.
OBJECTIVES
After goind through this unit, perspective teachers will be able to:
1. compute mean, median and mode of grouped and unrouped data.
2. calculate quartile, deciles and percentiles of grouped and ungrouped data.
3. dectermine the measure of dispersion.
4. interpret and use the results.
429
9.1 Mean of Grouped and Ungrouped Data
Definition:
It is a value obtained by dividing the sum of all values by their numbers. If a
series is denoted by X1, X2 , .......Xn then arithmetic mean of series denoted by

x.
X 1  X 2  .......  X n
So, X 
n
=
X
n

X  Arithmeticm Mean
X  Sum of all value of available,
n = number of values.
There are three methods to calculate arithmetic mean:
i) Direct or Long Methods.
ii) Indirect or Short-cut Method.
iii) Step-Deviation or Coding Method.
Direct Method:
A.M is the quotient of sum of all values divided by the number of values.
A.M = X 
X
n
Example:
Calculate arithmetic mean of the following data
20, 50, 72, 28, 53, 54, 59, 64, 72, 74, 75, 78, 79,
430
Solution:
X
20
50
72 A.M = X 
X
n
778
28 =
13
53 = 59.85
54
59
64
72
74
75
79
78
Total: 778
Short-cut Method:
Direct method can be used only when the size of figures is small. If it is
not so there would be considerable difficulty in the calculation of the arithmetic
mean. To overcome this drawback, short-cut method, is used.
In this method, any value of the variable may be assumed mean or
provisional mean. Deviation of value of each item from provisional mean should
be found and put down with proper algebraic signs.
The Short-cut method for computing the arithmetic mean is given by:
X  P.M 
D
n
P.M = Provisional mean
D = Deviations of value from P.M
N = Total number of value
431
Example:
Find the A.M of 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 132, 134, 136, 131, 130, 132,
135, 136, 137, 138 by Short-cut Method:
Solution:
X D=X-A
125 -5
127 -3
128 -2
129 -1
130 0
132 2
134 4
136 6
131 1
130 0
132 2
135 5
136 6
137 7
138 8
Total 30
P.M = 130,  D  30, n=15
X = P.M+
D
n
30
= 130+
15
X = 132
432
Grouped data:
The Arithmetic mean for grouped data is given below.
1) Direct Method:-
The first step is to take midpoint of each class. The mid point of each class
is multiplied by their Corresponding frequencies to obtain the total product which
is then divided by the number of items.
f 1 x1 f 2 x2   f n xn
X =
f 1 f 2    f n
=  fx
f
f = Sum of frequencies
X = The mid point of individual class
Example:
The miles travelled by 20 students in coming to commerce college
Faisalabad. Calculate the arithmetic mean.
Miles travelled No. of Students
0-2 2
2-4 5
4-6 4
6-8 8
8-10 1
Solution:
Miles travelled f Mid point (x) fx
0-2 2 1 2
2-4 5 3 15
4-6 4 5 20
6-8 8 7 56
8-10 1 9 9
Total 20 102
433
X =  fx
f
102
=
20
X = 5.1
Indirect or Short-cut Method:

The procedure for A.M for continuous frequency dist, is given below:-
Find out the mid-point of each class. Select the Provisional mean. Find the
deviation of each class mid point from the assumed mean in original units of data.
The column will be symbolically as D. Multiply D with respective frequency.
= P.M+ 
fD
X
 f
P.M = Provisional mean
 fD = Total Product
 f = Number of items
Distribution = dist.
Example:
The following table gives the length of life of 400 radio tubes.
Length of life No of Radio Tubes
300-399 12
400-499 32
500-599 64
600-699 76
700-799 88
800-899 60
900-999 32
1000-1099 26
1100-1199 10
Calculate A.M by Short cut Method
434
Solution:
Length of life F X D FD
300-399 12 349.5 -400 -4800
400-499 32 449.5 -300 -9600
500-599 64 549.5 -200 -12800
600-699 76 649.5 -100 -7600
700-799 88 749.5 0 0
800-899 60 849.5 100 6000
900-999 32 949.5 200 6400
1000-1099 26 1049.5 300 7800
1100-1199 10 1149.5 400 4000
Total 400 -10600
P.M = 749.5
 fD = –10600
 f = 400
= P.M+ 
fD
X
 f
= 749.5+
 10600 
400
=749.5–26.5
= 723
Step Deviation or Coding Method:

If class interval all equal, size ‘h’ the deviation D=X-P.M can be
expressed as
U = X-P.M
U can be positive , negative or zero.
X = P.M + 
fU
h
f
Thus, U is also the number of classes deviated from the provisional mean
class. This is called step deviation method or coding method.
435
Example:
Find A.M of following data by using step deviation methods.
Marks Frequency
10-20 1
20-30 2
30-40 3
40-50 5
50-60 7
60-70 12
70-80 16
80-90 10
90-100 4
Solution:
Marks F X D=X-55 U Fu
10-20 1 15 -40 -4 -4
20-30 2 25 -30 -3 -6
30-40 3 35 -20 -2 -6
40-50 5 45 -10 -1 -5
50-60 7 55 0 0 0
60-70 12 65 10 1 12
70-80 16 75 20 2 32
80-90 10 85 30 3 30
90-100 4 95 40 4 16
Total 60 69
P.M = 55 ,  fu = 69 ,  f = 60, h = 10
X = P.M + 
fu 69
h  55  10  X  66.5
f 60
Properties of the Arithmetic Mean:-
1. The Sum of the deviations of a set of values from their means is
always equal to zero. i.e.
 X  X =0
I
 or  f X  X =0  
2. The sum of the squares of deviations of a set of values from their
means is minimum i-e,
 X X   2
or 
 f X X  2
is always
minimum.
436
3. If a constant value is added or subtracted from each value of a set
of data, the mean will also be added or subtracted by the same
constant.
4. If X 1 , X 2 ,   X k be the means of k-distributions with respective

frequencies n , n _____n , then
1 2 k X of the whole. Distribution is
given by
n1 X 1  n2 X 2    nk  ni X i
X  i  1,2,3    k
n1  n2        nk  ni
This is also called combined mean.
Advantages and disadvantage of mean advantages:
I) It is easy to calculate and easy to understand.
II) It is determinate. It is not indefinite.
III) It can be used for further analysis and to treatment.
IV) It provides a good standard of comparisn.
V) It is the best known of the average.
VI) It is least affected by fluctuates of sampling.
Disadvantages:
i) It can not be completed accurately in case of open ended distributions.
ii) It may not lie in the middle of series, if the series is skewed.
iii) It is greatly affected by extreme values in the data.
Activity 9.1:
Q.1 Find the mean of the sots.
i) 84, 92, 73, 67, 88, 74, 94, 16, 74
ii) 15, 13, 16, 14, 15, 12, 18, 16, 15, 14, 18, 13, 14, 15,
iii) 53, 46, 50, 49, 52, 53, 44, 55
Q.2 The weight of 150 students are given below in the form of grouped data.
Calculate the A.M by indirect method and by the method of step deviation
Weights (1bs) Frequency
95-100 7
100-105 17
105-110 37
110-115 35
115-120 28
120-125 15
125-130 11
437
Q.3 The marks obtained by ten students for first year in subject of statistics
are,
75, 62, 58, 50, 72, 65, 60, 70, 55, 53
Calculate the mean score by
i- Direct Method
ii- Indirect Method
iii- Step-division Method
Q4. The mean marks of 100 students were found to be 40. Later on it was
discovered that a score of 53 was misread as 83. Find the correct mean
corresponding to the correct score.

Q. Tick the correct answer.
1) If a constant is subtracted from every observation then mean is changed
by:
a- Adding the constant
b- No change
c- Subtracting the constant
d- Adding square of constant
2) The sum of deviations is Zero when deviations are taken from the
a- Mean
b- Median
c- Mode
d- G.M
3) Sum of deviation from mean is a negative

a- Negative
b- Zero
c- Positive
d- None
4) The mean of first n natural number is

n 1
a-
2
n
b-
2
n 1
c-
2
438
d- None
5) A.M is always _____________then G.M or H.M
a- None
b- Equal
c- Less
d- Greater
6) The mean is _____________affected by entrance values

a- Not
b- Highly
c- Less
d- xxx
7) _____________ is a value obtained by dividing the sum of all the values
by their total number of values
a- A.M
b- G.M
c- H.M
d- W.M
8) If Y=X  A, then Y =_____________
a- X
b- X +A
c- X A
439
9.2 Median for Grouped and Ungrouped data:-
Median is the value of middle item of a series, when it is arranged in
ascending or descending order. Median divides the series in two equal halves, in
such a way that in one half, the values are less than median and in the other half,
the values more than median.
Ungrouped Data:
First arrange the values in an array. Locate the middle values, i-e, the
number of values, above the median, is the same as the number of values, below
the median.
Odd Numbers:
If the number of values i-e n is an odd number, the median is calculated by
th
 n 1 
Medan: The value of   item.
 2 
Example:
Find median of the following items.
5, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 21
Solution:
Arrange in ascending order.
5, 7, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 21
th
 n1
Median= The value of   item.
 2 
th
 91 
The value of 
=  item.
 2 
th
= The value of 5 item.
= 9
440
Even Number:
If n is even, then median is:
th th
Median =
1
[The value of n
item+ The value of n 2 item]
2 2 2
th th
=
1
[The value of 12 item + The value of 12 2
2 2 2
item]
1 th th
= [The value of 6 item + The value of 7 item
2
1
= [51+52]
2
= 51.2
Grouped data:
i) Continuous series:-
When frequency distribution, is available in a continuous series, the median is the
th
value of n item. To find the median from frequency dist,

2
we form a Cumulative frequency .
median is obtained by formula:
h n 
median= +   c
f 2 
= Lower class boundary of median class.
n= Number of items.
f= Frequency of median class,
h= Size of class interval,
C= Cumulative freq. of the class proceeding the median class.
Example:
Find the median of the data:-
Class interval 100-200 200-300 300-400 400-500 500-600
Frequency 15 18 30 20 17
441
Solution:
Class interval f C.F
100-200 15 15
200-300 18 33
300-400 30 63
400-500 20 83
500-600 17 100=n
Total 100
n 100
= = 50
2 2
 = 300
C = 33
h = 100
h n 
Median =    c
f 2 
100
= 300+ 50  33 
30
= 356.67
Discrete Series:
th
 n1
In discrete series, the size of   item is taken is median.
 2 
The items are arranged in ascending or descending order and their
respective frequencies. Then the C.F are calculated and the value of middle item
is located.
Example:
Find median of the following distribution.
No. of children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
No. of families 2 5 8 12 14 15 13 9 7 3
442
Solution:
No. of children f C.F
0 2 2
1 5 7
2 8 15
3 12 27
4 14 41
5 15 56
6 13 69
7 9 78
8 7 85
9 3 88
Total 88
th
 n 1 
Median = The value of   item
 2 
th
 88 1  item
The value of 
= 
 2 
= 44.5th item
Med = 5
Advantages and Disadvantage of Median:

Advantage:
i- It is easy and quick to calculate
ii- It is easily located in individual and discrete series.
iii- It is not affected by the value of extreme items.
iv- It can be found even for distributions with open classes at either end.
v- It is suitable for skewed distributions.
Disadvantages:
i- It is not as familiar average as the arithmetic mean.
ii- It cant not be used for further mathematical processing.
iii- Median can not be calculated unless the values are arranged according to
size.
iv- It is not based all the observations.
443
Activity 9.2:
Q.1 Find median of the numbers.
i- 3, 5, 2, 6, 5, 9, 5, 2, 8, 6
ii- 51.6, 48.7, 50.3, 48.3
iii- 7, 6, 5, 4, 6, 3, 2, 3, 2, 4, 5
Q.2 The number of workers employed in cottage industry of an industrial city,
of Pakistan, is given in the following table:
No. of workers 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No. of factories 5 7 12 15 20 11 10
Q.3 Life of 100 electric light bulbs were noted by the manufacturer and
reported in the following table. Find median of the data:-
Life in hours: 100-149 150-249 250-399 400-599
No. of bulbs 10 30 40 20
Q.4 Find median from the following data:
Marks No. of students
Less then 30 (not inclusive) 3
Self Assessment Exercise 9.2:-

Tick or chose the correct answer
1) _____________ is a positional average
a- A.M
b- Median
c- Mode
d- Range
2) The median of F.R, E, Q, U, E, N, L, Y is _____________
a- E.
b- Q
c- None
d- U
3) The median of 9, 7, 2, 6, 5 is _____________
a- 6
b- 2
c- 5
444
d- 9
4) The most central value of an arrayed data is called_____________
a- Mean
b- Median
c- Mode
d- Variance
5) _____________is not effected by extreme values
a- Mean
b- Mode
c- Range
d- Median
6) _____________is preferred then A.M for skewed dist
a- Median
b- G.M
c- Mode
d- A.M
7)   2
The median of numbers 12 , 2 2 , 3 2      2 n  1 is given by _______
2
a- n 1
b- 2 n 1 2
c- n  12
d- None
8) For two values, the mean and median are always
a- Equal
b- Unequal
c- Defined
d- Undefined
9) Median is always equal to;
a- D5
b- D7
c- P5
d- a and c
10) The first step in calculating the median is;
a- Average of two middle values
b- Arrange the data
c- Determine the relative weight
d- None
445
9.3 Mode
It is another measure of central tendency but not based on mathematical
footing like arithmetic mean. This idea is based on repetition of values, in given
set of data and can be defined as follows.
“Most repeating value of the given data is called mode”
If each value occurs the same number of times, then there is no mode. If
two more values occur the same number of times but more frequently then any of
the other values, then there more than one mode. In this respect, the mode differs
from the mean and the median because there is only one mean and only one
median.
If there is only one mode, the distribution is said to be uni-modal
distribution a distribution having two modes is called a bi-modal distribution and
a distribution having more than two modes is called a multi-modal distribution.
Example: Following are the daily wages received by 8 laborers: Rs 20, 25,
35, 35, 40, 50, 55, 60
Find out the mode
Solution: Here 35 is repeating two times.
So 35 is mode.
Example: 6 term tests, in education a student bas made grades of 81, 92, 85,
77, 89, 79. Find the mode .
Solution: Since each grades occur only once, i-e,
77, 79, 81, 85, 89, 92, no mode exist.
Example: Find the mode. Salaries of 5 men in an industrial concern Rs: 950,
2100, 1500, 1500, 2100
Solution: Write the salaries in ascending order
950, 1500, 1500, 2100, 2100
Mode: 1500, 2100
446
Grouped Data:
i) Continuous Series:
When the data are grouped into a frequency distribution, the mode lie in
the class that carries the highest frequency. This class is called modal class. The
formula for computing the mode is:-
Mode = l+
f m
f 
1
 h
f m
 f   f
1 m
 f 2

l = Lower class boundary of modal class.
f 1
= frequency of modal class,
f m
= frequency of class after the modal class
h = size of class interval of modal class
Example:
Calculate mode of the data given below:
Weight 410-419 420-429 430-439 440-449 450-459 460-469 470-479
No. of 14 20 42 54 45 18 7
mangoes
Solution:
Weight f Class boundaries
410-419 14 409.5-419.5
420-429 20 419.5-429.5
430-439 42 429.5-439.5
440-449 54 439.5-449.5
450-459 45 449.5-459.5
460-469 18 459.5-469.5
470-479 7 469.5-479.5
Total 200
f m
= 54, f 1
=42, f 2
= 45, h=10
l = 439.5
Mode = l+
f f m

1
 h
f m
 f   f 1 m
 f 2

447
20 15
= 439.5+  10
20 15  20 16
= 445.26
Discrete Series:
In a discrete frequency dist. , the mode is that value which has maximum
frequency.
Example:
Find mode form the following dist.
No. of children 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of couples 10 15 45 18 15 10
Solution:
The data is discrete. The maximum frequency is 45 hence mode=03.
Advantage and Disadvantages of Mode
Advantages:
i- It is easy and quick to calculate.
ii- It is easy to understand
iii- It can be determined from open-end distribution.
iv- Extreme values do not affect its values.
v- It can be found at once by inspection, from the ungrouped data.
vi- It is useful for meteorological forecasts.
Disadvantages:
i- It is ill-defined.
ii- It is not based on all the observations of a set of data.
iii- It cannot be used for further mathematical processing.
iv- There maybe more than one values of the mode in the set of data.
v- There will be no mode, if there is no common Value in the data.
Activity 9.3:
Q.1 In the following game scores. Find out the modal score for each player.
Player A 27 0 14 16 2 27 5 27 6 27 (27)
Player B 5 15 38 5 72 91 106 4 3 0 5 (5)
Player C 27 14 36 7 21 9 19 36 (36)
448
Q.2 The following tables gives sizes of child shows sold at a shoe shop of a
city. Find model size for child shoes.
Size of child shoes 21 3 31 4 41 5
2 2 2
No. of pairs sold 25 30 40 35 20 10
Q.3 Time taken by different machines operators to produce the same product is
given in following tables. Find mode of the distribution
Time ( Minutes) 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35
Operators 10 20 40 25 05

Tick the correct one answer:
1) The most frequent value of the data If itexist is called
a- Mean b- Median c- Mode
d- Variance
2) _________can have more the one value as average of the data.
a- Median b- Mode c- Mean
d- S.D
3) _________ is most suitable average for qualitative data
a- Mean b- Median c- Mode
d- Range
4) A distribution is called _________ distribution if t has two modes
a- Uni model b- Bi-Model c- Tri-Model
d- None
5) If the value in a variable, occur same number of times, then it is not
possible
a- Mean b- Weighted Mean c- Mode
d- Median
6) A data has values 12, 14, 12, 10, 11, 14, 09, 15 then mode is
a- 9 b- 12 c- 14
d- B & c not a
7) Mode of the series 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4 is
a- 3
b- 2&3
c- 4
d- None of these.
449
9.4 Quartiles:
The three points dividing an arranged series ( ascending order) of vales in
four equal parts are known as quartiles and denoted by Q , Q and Q . Where
1 2 3
“ Q ” is equal to median above or below which 50% of the data lie.

2
While Q 1
& Q 3
are known as lower and upper quartiles respectively,
whereQ is a point which has 25% of observations less then it and 75% above.
1
The Q is a point with 75.1% below it and 25% above.

3
25% below or 75% above
Q1 Q2 Q3
25% 50% 75%
75% below or 25% above
Quartiles of Ungrouped Data:

th
 n1 item
Q = The value of 
1

 4 
th
 n1 item
Q = The value of 2 
2

 4 
th
 n1 item
Q = The value of 3 
3

 4 
Example:
Find Q1 and Q3 for the following data
71, 81, 90, 78, 76, 66, 65, 52, 42, 47, 37, 33, 90, 7, 9, 16, 13, 21, 51,
450
Solution:
Arrange the data
7, 9, 13, 16, 21, 33, 37, 42, 47, 51, 52, 65, 66, 71, 76, 78, 81, 90, 90
n = 19
th
 n1 item
The value of 
Q1 = 
 4 
th
 191  item
The value of 
= 
 4 
th
= The value of 5 item
= 21
th
 n1 item
The value of 3 
Q3 = 
 4 
th
 191 item
The value of 3 
= 
 4 
= The Value of 3 5  th
item
= The value of 15th item
Q3 = 76
For grouped data:
The values of quartiles for continous series is ;
h n 
Q1 =    c
f 4 
h  2n 
Q2 =     c
f4 
h  3n 
Q3 =     c
f4 
Example:
Required Q1 and Q3 from the following data
Marks Obtained 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30
No. of Students 10 15 20 25 18 14
451
Solution:
Marks Obtained f C.F
0-5 10 10
5-10 15 25
10-15 20 45
15-20 25 70
20-25 18 88
25-30 14 102=n
n 102
=  25 .5
4 4
h n 
Q1 =    c
f 4 
5
= 10  25 .5  25 
20
5  0 .5
= 10 
20
Q1 = 10.125
3n 3  102

4 4
= 76.5
h  3n 
Q3 =    c
f4 
5
= 20  76 .5  70 
18
Q3 = 21.75
Activity 9.4:
Q.1 The following data relate to size of shoes sold at a store during a given
week. Find the quartiles of the shoes.
Size of Shoes 5 5 6 61 7 7 8 8 9
2
1 1 1
2 2 2
No. of Pairs 3 6 14 32 56 41 22 12 4
Q.2 Calculate the upper and lower quartiles.

Class 50 and
15 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49
interval above
452
under
Frequency 150 225 300 350 400 375 315 200 125
Q.3 Compute quartiles of the following distribution of heights

Height 57.5 60.0 62.5 65.0 67.5 70.0 72.5
Inches 6 26 190 281 412 127 38

Tick the correct one Answer:
1) Median is always equal to _____
a- D7
b- Q2
c- Q3
d- P15
2) Q is equal to ______
3
a- D17
b- Q75
c- Q67
d- 80
3) Third quartile (Q3) is ______ to eightieth percentile (Q80)
a- Not Equal
b- Equal
c- Greater
d- None
4) Q1shows the ____ part of the data
a- 20%
b- 45%
c- 25%
d- 80%
5) Quantities that divide the arrayed data into four equal parts are called
a- Quartiles
b- Deciles
c- Percentiles
d- None
453
9.5 Deciles of Grouped and Ungrouped Data:
The nine values which divides the distribution. In to ten equal parts are
called deciles, and are denoted by D1, D2,---- D9
Deciles for Ungrouped Data:

th
 n1 item
The value of 
D1= 
 10 
th
 n1 item
The value of 2 
D2 = 
 10 
.
.
th
 n1
The value of 9 
D9, =  item
 10 
Example:
Find the 7th Deciles of following marks obtained by 20 students on a test
in statistics.
53, 74, 82, 42, 39, 20, 81, 68, 58, 28, 67, 54, 93, 70, 30, 55, 36, 37, 29, 61.
Solution:
The marks of n=20
Arrange in ascending order
20, 28, 29, 30, 37, 39, 42, 53, 54, 55, 58, 61, 67, 68, 70, 74, 81, 82, 93.
D7 = value of
7 n 1 itemth
10
=
7 20 1 th
10
= 147th item
The value of 14th item is 67 and 15th item is 68.
D7 is 0.7th of the way between 67 and 668
i.e 67+0.7(1) = 67.7
so, D7 = 67.7
454
Deciles for Grouped Data:
h n 
D1 =    c
f  10 
h  2n 
D2 =     c
f  10 
.
.
.
h  9n 
D9 = L   c
f  10 
Example: The height of 100 college students is given below:
Height 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
No. of Students 4 6 10 20 30 13 12 3 2
Calculate D7
Solution:
Height No. of Students Class Boundaries C.F
63 4 62.5-63.5 4
64 6 63.5-64.5 10
65 10 64.5-65.5 20
66 20 65.5-66.5 40
67 30 66.5-67.5 71
68 13 67.5-68.5 83
69 12 68.5-69.5 95
70 3 69.5-70.5 98
71 2 70.5-71.5 100
Total 100
7n 7  100
= =70
10 10
h  7n 
D7 =    c
f  10 
1
= 66.5+ 70  40
30
D7 = 67.5
455
Activity 9.5:
Q.1 Find the second, third and seventh deciles from the following marks
obtained by 20 students on a test in statistics.
53, 74, 82, 42, 39, 20, 81, 68, 58, 28, 67, 54, 93, 70, 30, 55, 36, 37, 29, 60
Q.2 Find the first, fourth, seventh, and ninth deciles for the weight distribution
of 120 students.
Weight 110- 120- 130- 140- 150- 160- 170- 180- 190- 200- 210-
119 129 139 149 159 169 179 189 199 209 219
Frequency 1 4 17 28 25 18 13 6 5 2 1
Q.3 Find the D2, D5, D6,from the data showing sales of shoes of different sizes
at a shoe store during the week preceding Eid.
Size of 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 81 9 9 10
shoes 1 1 1 2 1
2 2 2 2
Number of 8 15 25 32 42 56 63 52 41 28 18
shoes
456
9.6 Percentiles of Grouped and Ungrouped Data:
Ninety nine values dividing the data into one hundred equal parts are
called percentiles.
Percentiles of Ungrouped Data:
th
 n 1
P1 = The value of   item.
 100 
th
 n 1
P2 = The value of 2   item.
 100 
th
 n 1
P99 the value of 99   item.
 100 
item.
Example:
Find Pass for the following data:
71, 81, 90, 100, 99, 78, 76, 66, 65, 52, 42, 37, 33, 90, 7, 9, 16, 13, 21, 51
Solution:
n = 21
Arrange the data into ascending order
7, 9, 13, 16, 21, 33, 37, 42, 47, 51, 52, 65, 66, 71, 76, 78, 81, 90, 90, 99, 100
th
 n 1
P55 = The value of 55   item.
 100 
th
 21  1 
 
= The value of  100  item.
= The value of 12.1th item.
= The value of 12th item + 0.1 [13th item –12th item]
= 65+0.1[66 –65]
= 65.1
457
Percentile for Grouped Data:
h nc
P1  l   
f  100 
h  2n  c 
P2  l   
f  100 
.
.
.
h  9n  c 
P99  l   
f  100 
Example:
Give the data:
Grade 99-99 80-89 70-79 60-69 50-59 40-49 30-39
F 9 32 43 21 11 3 1
Fin P65 of the given data.
Solution:
Grade F Class Boundaries C.F
30-39 1 29.5–39.5 1
40-49 3 39.5-49.5 4
59-59 11 49.5-59.5 15
60-69 21 59.5-69.5 36 ← F
70-79 43 69.5-79.5 79 ←
80-89 32 79.5-89.5 111
90-99 9 89.5-99.5 120
Total 120
65 n 65120 

100 100
 78
h  65n  F 
P65 l  
f  100 
10
 69.5  78  36 
32
P65  82 .62
458
Activity 9.6:
Q.1. Find P25, P50 and P75 from the gives data above.
Above 95 195
90 417
58 697
80 952
75 1213
70 1521
65 1791
60 1991
55 2152
50 2299
45 2432
40 2500
Q.2. Calculate P25, P50, P61, P75 from the given data.
Marks 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50
No. of 25 45 50 70 90 99 91 75 51 38
Students
Q.3 The following is a frequency distribution of the number of children born in

65 Families calculate P10, P25, P50, P60, P75, P80
No. of Children 0 1 2 3 48 5
No. Families 4 7 14 22 12 6
459
9.7 Measure of Dispersion:
Dispersion is defined as;
“The extent to which the magnitudes of items differ, that is degree of
diversity.” It follows that the measures of dispersion is designed to
indicate the extent to which the individual items differ on an average from
the mean or from any other average.”
A measure of dispersion can be expressed in an absolute value or in a
relative value.
1. Absoulte Measure of Dispersion:

It measures the amount of dispersion in a set of observations in the same
units as the units of original observations.
The common absolute measures are:
i. Range
ii. Quartile Deviation
iii. Mean Deviation
iv. Standard Deviation
2. Relative Measure of Dispersion:
It measures the amount of dispersion in a set of observations free of the
units, in which the original data is measured and is expressed in the form of ratio,
measure of dispersion.
Relative Dispersion = Absoulte Dispersion
Average
Range:
The difference between largest and smallest observation in a set of data is
called Range.
R = Xm–X0
Xm = Largest observation
X0 = Smallest observation
Example:
Find Range of the following data:
13,23,11,25,18,20,40
Xm = 40
XO = 11
Range: XM – XO
= 40-10
= 29
460
Group Data:
For grouped data, the range is difference between the upper class
boundary of the highest class and the lower class boundary of the lowest class.
Example:
Find Range of the following data:
Groups 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89
F 127 133 142 178 140 130
Solution:
Groups Class Boundary

60-64 59.5-64.5
65-69 64.5-69.5
70-74 69.5-74.5
75-79 74.5-79.5
80-84 79.5-84.5
85-89 84.5-89.5
Xm = 89.5 , X0 = 59.5
Range = Xm–X0
= 89.5-59.5
= 30
Co-efficient of Range:.
The range is an absolute measure of dispersion, its relative
measure is known as co-efficient of Range.
Xm  X0
Co-efficient of Range =
Xm  X0
Example:
The IQ’s of 5 members of a family are 108,112,127,118 and 113.
find the Co-efficient of Range.
Solution:
Xm = 127 , X0 = 108
X  X0
Co-efficient of dispersion = m
Xm  X0
127  108 19
 
127  108 235
461
19
=
235
Advantages and Disadvantages of Range
Advantage:
1. It is easy to understand and explain.
2. It is easy to calculate.
3. It is used in statistical quality control.
4. It is useful as a rough measure of variation.
Disadvantage:
1. It is a poor measure of variability as it accounts only two extreme value of
data.
2. It is not possible of compute range in the case of open-end distribution.
3. It is not a satisfactory measure in the case of frequency distribution.
Activity 9.7:
Q.1 Find Range and Co-efficient of range of the following:
i. 12,6,7,3,15,10,18,5,24
ii. 32,40,48,56,64
iii. 105,118,99,126,150,143,100
Q.2 Find Range for the following frequency distributions:

Classes 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94
Frequency 2 5 12 18 7
Q.3 Find out the range and the co-efficient of range of the following:
Daily Wages 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
No. of Workers 10 15 17 80 25 20 10 4
462
Tick the correct answer from the following Statement:
i. In grouped data, range is the difference between:
(a) Two extreme class frequency
(b) Two extreme class boundries
(c) Two extreme class limits.
ii. Which is a poor measure of dispersion in sen-end classes.
(a) Range
(b) Quartile Deviation
(c) Standard Deviation
(d) Mean Deviation
iii. If the value of a variable are -2,-3,-5,-7, the value of Range is:
(a) -5 (b) 5 (c) 0 (d) none (B)
iv. If Y=X+ C, then Range (Y)=
(a) Range of X = Xm – XO
(b) Ym–YO
(c) (Xm–XO) + C
v. If Y = bx + C, then Range (Y)=
(a) |b| (Xm – XO)
(b) b (Xm – XO) + C
(c) Ym-YO
463
Standard Deviation:
“The positive square root of the Mean of squared deviations of all
observation from their Mean” is known as standard deviation. It may be
defined as “Root mean squared deviation”. The Standard deviation of a set
of ‘n’ value, X 1 , X 2      X n , denoted by S ( Sample Standard
deviation.
For Ungrouped Data:

2
1 n   
S  X
n i 1  i
 X 
 
2
X   
 X
=  
n
2
If Deviation = X  
 X
 
2
Then squared deviation = X  

 X
 
2
  
 X  X 
Mean squared deviation =  
n
2
X   
 X
And root mean squared deviation =   =S
n
For population standard deviation, the Greek letter (Sigma) is used.
  X u 
2
 
N
464
Example:
Find the standard deviation “S” of each set of numbers.
9, 3, 8, 8, 9, 8, 9, 18
Solution:

9  3  8  8  9  8  9  18
X  = 9.5
8
2

 
 X  X 
S =  
n
= 99.5 39.5 89.5 89.5 99.5 89.5 99.5 189.5
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
8
190
S =
8
S = 23.75
S = 4.87
The standard Deviation for Grouped Data:

In case of a frequency distribution with X 1, X 2      X k as class
marks and f ,f1 2
 f k
as the corresponding class frequency, the standard
deviation is given by:
2
1 k   
S =  
X
n i 1  i X 
 
2
  
 fX X 
=  
n
Where n = f 1
 f 2
 f k
=  f where I = 1, 2, 3, ….k
465
Example:
Find the S.D of height of 100 female students at QAU.
Height 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74
f 5 18 42 27 8
Solution:
2

Height f Class Marks fx X  X  X  X 
2

f  X X 
 
60-62 5 61 305 -6.45 41.6025 208.0125
63-65 18 64 1152 -3.45 11.9025 214.245
66-68 42 67 2814 -0.45 0.2025 08.505
69-71 27 70 1890 2.55 6.5025 175.5675
72-74 8 73 584 5.55 30.8025 246.4200
100 6745 852.75
X =  fx
f
6745
= = 67.45
100
2
  
 f X X 
S =  
n
852 .75
=
100
= 8.5275
= 2.92 inch
Short cut method:
The short cut method for computing the standard deviation for grouped
data is same as ungrouped data. The formula is given by:
2
 D    fD 
2
f
S.D =
 f   f 
466
Example:
Calculate the standard deviation of the data by using short cut method.
12.5- 17.5- 22.5- 27.5- 32.5- 37.5- 42.5- 47.5- 52.5-
Monthly Wages
17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5
No. of Earners 2 22 19 14 3 4 6 1 1
Solution:
2
Monthly Wages No. of Earners X D fD fD
12.5-17.5 2 15 -20 -40 800
17.5-22.5 22 20 -15 -330 4950
22.5-27.5 19 25 -10 -190 1900
27.5-32.5 14 30 -5 -70 350
32.5-37.5 3 35 0 0 0
37.5-42.5 4 40 5 20 100
42.5-47.5 6 45 10 61 600
47.5-52.5 1 50 15 15 225
52.5-57.5 1 55 20 20 400
72 -515 9325
2
 D    fD 
2
f
S.D =
 f   f 
2
9325  515 
=  
72
 72 
= 8.85
Step deviation (Coding) Method:

When the values are grouped into a frequency deviation whose classes
D
have size h, we use u= and the formula becomes;
h
2
 f u   fu  
2
S.D = h
 f   f 
467
Example:
Find standard deviation of the following data:-
Expenditure 30-60 60-90 90-120 120-150 150-180 180-210 210-240
Place A 28 292 389 212 59 18 2
Solution:
Expenditure f X fu 2
u i
f u
30-60 28 45 -2 -56 112
60-90 292 75 -1 -292 292
90-120 389 105 0 0 0
120-150 212 135 1 212 212
150-180 59 165 2 118 236
180-210 18 195 3 54 162
210-240 2 225 4 32 32
Total 1000 44 1046
X = 106.32
2
 f u    fu 
2
S = h
 f   f 
2
1046  44 
=    30
1000
 1000 
= 1.046 0.001930
S = 30.6
468
Ungrouped Data:
1) Direct Method:
The standard deviation of a set of values , is the positive square root of the
arithmetic mean of the standard deviation from the mean of the distribution.
IfX X 1 X
, 2      n are the values of a set of data, then the standard
deviation is given as;
2
  
 X  X 
S.D =  
n
Direct Method-II:
In direct method II, the square of the vales of items are totaled and divided
by the number of items.
2
X X
2
 
S.D =
n
 
 n 
Example:
Find the standard deviation from the data by direct-method II.
Solution:
X X
2
11 121
12 144
13 169
14 196
15 225
16 256
17 289
18 324
19 361
20 400
21 441
176 2926
469
2
X X 2

S.D =
n
 
 n 
2
2926  176 
=  
11  11 
= 3.16
Short-cut Method:
The short-cut method of computing standard deviation for ungrouped data is;
2
D
2

 D
S.D =
n

 n 
D = X-PM
Example:
Calculate standard deviation for the following data;
X) 15,17,20,23,30,35,37,40,43,50
Solution:
X D D
2
15 -15 225
17 -13 169
20 -10 100
23 -7 49
30 0 0
35 5 25
37 7 49
40 10 100
43 13 139
50 20 400
310 10 1286
D
2

 D
S.D =
n

 n 
470
2
1286  10 
=  
10
 10 
= 128.6 1
S.D = 11.25
Advantages and D isadvantages of Standard Deviation:

i) it is based on all the values.
ii) It is much used in statistical inference. It plays a key role in the normal
distributions.
iii) It is easily amenable to algebrical process.
iv) It is less affected by fluctuaions of sampling.
v) It is useful comparing number of different sets of data.
Disadvantages:
i) it is difficult to calculate.
ii) It is affected by extreme values.
iii) It gives more weight to extreme values and less of those which are near
the mean.
Activity 9.8:
Q.1 Find standard deviation and variance from the following data
i- 6,8,10,12,13,15,17
ii- 218,223,213,204,198,205,263
iii- 12,14,16,18,20,24,26,28,30
iv- 41,43,44,45,47,49,58,55,56,60
v- 12,6,7,3,15,10,18,5
471
Q.2 Calculate standard deviation from the following distribution:
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
F 2 60 101 152 205 155 79 40 01
Q. 3 Find the standard deviation from the following:

4.50- 6.00- 7.5- 9.00- 10.50- 12.00- 13.50-
C-I
5.99 7.49 8.99 10.49 11.99 13.49 14.99
Frequency 43 99 152 178 160 40 25
472
1) Standard deviation is the __________of variance.
a- Square b- Square-root c- Mean
d- Undefined
2) The S.D of 5,5,5,5, is__________
a- 5 b- 5 c- Zero
d- 2.5
3) S.D is always calculated from __________

a- Mean b- Median c- G.M
d- Range
4) S.D and variance are independent of change of__________

a- Origin b- Scale c- None
d- Both a & b
X
5) If Y=  b , then S.D (Y)=
a
1 1
a- S.D (X) b- S .D ( X )  b , c- S .D ( D )  b ,
a a
d. None
6. S.D (x-y) = __________ IF X & Y are independent.
a- S.D(X)-S.D(Y) b- S.D(X)+S.D(Y)
c- VAR( X )  VAR(Y ) d. None
473
Variance:
The mean of the squared deviation of all the observation from their mean,
is known as variance
For Sample:
 x i  x 
2
2
S 
n
2
The  (Variance) read as “Sigma Square” and is denoted by var(x). The
variance is in square of units about the population variance. So variance is always
positive.
For Population:
 xi   
2
2
 
n
Example:
A population of N=10 has the observations 7,8,10,13,14,19,20,25,26 and
28. Find its variance.
Solution:
xi
x  u
i x i  u 
2
x i 
2
7 -10 100 49
8 -9 81 64
10 -7 49 100
13 -4 16 169
14 -3 9 196
19 +2 4 361
20 3 9 400
25 8 64 625
26 9 81 676
28 11 121 784
170 534 3424

x i
=
170
= 17
N 10
474
 xi   
2
2
 
n
534
=
10
= 53.4
Example:
Calculate variance of the following data:
x i
f i
74.5 9
9435 10
144.5 17
134.5 10
154.5 5
174.5 4
194.5 5
Solution:
x i
f i
f ix i f xi
2
74.5 9 670.5 49952.25

9435 10 945 89302.50
144.5 17 1946.5 222874.25
134.5 10 1345 180902.5
154.5 5 772.5 11935.25
174.5 4 698 121801
194.5 5 972.5 189151.25
Total 7350 973335
475
2
x    fx 
2
2 f
S 
 f   f 
2
973335  7350 
=  
60
 60 
2
S = 1216
Properties of Standard Deviation and Variance:

i) The standard deviation or variance of a constant is Zero.
If X=a , then S.D(a) = 0
Var(a) = 0
ii) The S.D and variance are independent of origin.
S.D (X  a) = S.D (X) and Var(X+a) = Var(x)
Where a is constant.
iii) When all the values are multiplied or divided by a constant. The S.D of
these values is multiplied or divided by the constant and variance is
multiplied or divided by the square of the constant.
2
S.D (ax) = a S.D(x) and var(ax) = a vax(x)
x 1  x 1
S.D = S.D (x) and var   = 2
Var (x)
a a a a
2 2
iv) If two sets of data consisting of N1 and N2 have variance S1 and S2 ,
the combined variance is

2 2

 n1s1 n2 s2  n  n x  x 
2 1 2
S
n1  n2 n1n2 2 1 2
and combined standard deviation is
476
2 2
S
n1s1  n2 s 2  n  n     
1 2
n n
1 2 n1 n2  x x 
2
1 2
vi) The variance of the sum or difference of two independent variables is the
Sum of their respective variances.
Var (x+y) = Var (x) + Var (y)
Var (x-y) = Var (x) – Var (y)
vii) For normal distribution;
i) 68.27% of values lies between X - s to X + s
ii) 95.45% of values lies between X - 2s to X + 2s
iii) 99.73% of values lies between X - 3s to X + 3s
477
Coefficient of Variation:
The most commonly used, measure of dispersion, expressed in a relative
value is the co-efficient of variation. Co-efficient of variation is calculated for
comparison of the series of data and it ws first of all used by Kart Pearson. It is
the quotient of the standard deviation, divided by the arithmetic mean expressed
in percentage, represented by C.V it is defined as,
S
Co-efficient of variation = C.V =  100.
x
A distribution having the smaller coefficient of variation then the other
distribution is the consistent distribution.
Activity 9.9:
Q.1 Find variance of the following data
X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F 1 3 17 22 8 6 2 2
Q.2 Calculate the variance and co-efficient of variation of the following

frequency distribution:
Height (inches) 60-62 62-64 64-66 66-68 68-70 70-72
Frequency 5 10 25 15 8 3
Q.3 The following are the scores made by two batsman A & B in a series of
innings.
A 12 15 6 73 7 19 199 36 84 29
B 47 12 73 48 4 51 37 48 13 0
Who is better as a run getter? Who is more consistent players?
478
1) If X = 20 and  2 = 25, then co-efficient of variation is
a- 25% b- 125% c- 80%
d- 500%.
2) The percentage of values lies between X + 25 in normal distribution is
68.26% 99.73% 95.44%
None
3) If Y= –9x + 3 and x = 3 then variance of y is
a- -27 b- 27 c- 729
d- -729
4) If each observation of a variable is divided by a constant, then the variance
of resultant.
a- Decreases b- Increases c- Unchanged
d- None
5) Var (2x+3) is
a- 5 times var (X)
b- 4 var (x)
c- 4 var (x)+3
d- 2 var (x)
6) If S.D is expressed as percentage ratio of mean then we have defined
a- coeff. of Q.D
b- coeff. of M.D
c- coeff. of variation
d- coeff of range
479
Summary:
The formula and the methods of computing the mean, median, mode
quadratics, deciles, percentiles, range and standard deviation for m ungrouped
and grouped data are summarized below:-
Application Formula.
Arithmetic Mean:
Ungrouped Data:
Direct Method
X 
X
n
Short-cut Method
X  P.M  
X
n
Grouped Data;
Direct Method  fX
X 
f
Short-cut Method
X  P.M  
fU
Or Indirect method
f
Step deviation method or  fU  h
conding Method X  P.M 
f
Median:
Ungrouped Data;
th
 n 1 

If n is “odd” X 
 2  
th th
1 n n2
If n is “even” X  [ item  item ]
2
2 2
480
Grouped Data;
O
h n 
X
l  f  2  c 
Mode:
Ungrouped Data; By Inspection
Grouped Data;
Discrete Series Mid Point of Model class
Continuous Series f M f1
Mode = l+
 M

f f  f 
1 M
f 2
h
Quartiles:
Ungrouped Data;
th
 n 1  item
Q 
1 
 4 
th
 n 1  item
Q  2
2 
 4 
th
 n 1  item
Q  3
3 
 4 
Grouped Data;
h n
Q    f  4  C 
1
h  2n 
Q 2
    C
f 4 
h  3n 
Q 31
   C
f  4 
481
Deciles:
Ungrouped Data;
th
 n 1  item
D  1 
 10 
th
 n 1  item
D  22 
 10 
-
-
th
 n 1 
D  99  item
 10 
Grouped Data;
h n 
D    f 10  C 
1
h  2n 
D    f  10  C 
2
h  9n 
D 9
  C
f  10 
Percentiles:
Ungrouped Data;
th
 n 1  item
P 
 1 
 100 
th
 n 1  item
P  2
2 
 100 
––
––
th
 n 1 
P  99 
99  item
 100 
482
Grouped Data;
h n 
P    f 100  C 
1
h  2n 
P    f 100  C 
2
––
––
h  99n 
P 99
   C
f  100 
Range: R= X M
 X0
Standard Deviation:
Ungrouped Data;
Direct Method-I
S=

 X X 
2
n
Direct Method-II 2
 X   X 
2
S=
n
 
 n 
Short-cut Method 2
D   D 
2
S=
n
 
 n 
Grouped Data:
Direct Method-I
S=
 f X X  
2
f
Direct Method-II 2
f X
2
  fX 
S=  
f  f
 
483
Short-cut Method 2
2
S=
 fD    fD 
 f   f 
Step-Deviation Method 2
2
 fu   fu 

S=
f   f  h
 
s
Coefficient of Variation = C.V =  100
X
484
ANSWERS
Activity 9.1:
Q.1 (1) X =73.22 (2) X =14.87 (3) X =50.25
Q.2 112.47
Q.3 64
Q.4 39.4
Self Assessments Exercise 9.1:

1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a
5. d 6. b 7. a 8. b
Activity 9.2:
Q.1 (1) 5 (2) 49.6 (3) 4
Q.2 X =b (worker per factory)
Q.3 X =287 hours.
Q.4 X =47.88

1. b 2. d 3. a 4. b
5. d 6. a 7. c 8. A
9. d 10. b
Activity Exercise 9.3:

Q.1 (1) 27 (2) 5 (3) 36
Q.2 Model size of child shoes is 3 1
2
Q.3 About 23 per unit.

1. c 2. b 3. c 4. b
5. c 6. d 7. a

Q.1 (1) 1 (2) 7 (3) 1
6 7
2 2
Q.2 39.98
Q.2 23.42
Q.3 1. 65.43 inc
2. 67.72 inch
3. 69.3 in
485
1. b 2. b 3. a 4. c 5. a

Q.1 D2=31.2, D3 = 37.6, D7 = 67.7
Q.2 D1=133.62, D3=148.79, D7=16.45, D9=183.83 pound
1
Q.3 D2=6 , D5=8, D6=8 1
2 2
Q.1 P25=62.9, P50=74.672, P75=86.284
Q.2 P25=17.75, P50=26.869, P6=30.425, P75=35.366
Activity 9.7:
Q.1 1. (21), 0.778 2. (32), 0.33 3. (51), (0.205)
Q.2 24
Q.3 (7), (0.3684)

1. b 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. a
Activity 9.8:
Q.1 1. (3.58) 2. (20.14) 3. 6.04
4. 6.5238 5. 4.87
Q.2 S.D=1.57

1. b 2. c 3. a 4. a 5. a
6. c
Activity 9.9:
Q.1 1.95
Q.2 Var=5.76 CV 3.6%
Q.3 (.v (a) = 11.766% , cv(b)=7.45%, thus B is more consistent)

1. a 2. c 3. c 4. a 5. b
6. c
486

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Associate Degree in Education (AD

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

Year of Printing .................... 2015

Chairman: Prof. Dr. Tanveer Uz Zaman

Writers: 1. Yasmin Akhtar

Reviewers: 1. Farkhunda Rasheed Ch.

Course Coordinator: Farkhunda Rasheed Choudhary

Layout Design &

Unit 1: Arithmetic and Percentages......................................... 01

Unit 2: Sets and Real Numbers ................................................ 47

Unit 3: Matrices and Determinants ………….. ................................ 81

Unit 4: Polynomials ..................................................................143

Unit 5: Geometry ......................................................................217

Unit 6: Trigonometry ...............................................................265

Unit 7: Mensuration .................................................................323

Unit 8: Management of Data ................................................... 379

Unit 9: Interpretation of Data ........................................................427

Mathematical competence is necessary for personal fulfillment, active citizenship,

This course is being offered to the prospective teachers in the program of

Prof. Shahid Siddiqui

Finally, I am indebted to all staff of Department of Science Education for helping in

Prof. Dr. Tanveer-Uz-Zaman

Knowledge of mathematics is the need of every person for leading a successful

The “General Mathematics and Statistics” course is based on the mathematics

Unit 1 includes the Arithmetic and Percentages. It focuses on Percentages ,

Unit 3 contains Introduction to matrices, Types of matrices, Inverse of a matrix,

Unit 4 is about Polynomials. It contains Algebraic Expressions and polynomials,

Unit 5 is about Geometry. It contains basic elements of Geometry such as

Unit 6 is about Trigonometry. It consists of Fundamentals of trigonometry,

The Unit 7 is related to Mensuration. It contains Calculation of Perimeter,

Unit 8 is about Management of Data. It consists of Frequency distribution and its

Farkhunda Rasheed Choudhary

 Teach basic concepts of mathematics related to daily life.

 Use the essential tools of basic mathematics.

 Augment their knowledge regarding the application of mathematics in

the field of education.

 Learn basics of statistics related to student’s evaluation and assessment.

 Apply statistical knowledge in their practices.

Written by: Muhammad Abbas Ali But

1.1 Percentages .............................................................................................04

 How to calculate Percents?

Solution: 5 workers complete the work in days = 20 days

Key Points: (Percentages & Unitary Method)

 Percentage can be expressed as a decimal or a fraction.

 The unitary method is a technique in elementary algebra for solving a

C. Find the ratio and simplify

Product of means = Product of extremes

Activities 4 Find the value of x

So the price of 15 chairs = x = Rs. 6000

So the distance travelled in 20 liters = 250 km.

Speed 60 120 180 30

So the number of days = 3

So the no. of days = 6

Days Hours Men

Machines Days Units

Key Points: (Ratio and Proportion Compound Proportion)

 The equality of two ratios is called proportion.

i.e, Product of extreme values = Product of mean values.

(i) The unit of ratio is:

1.5 (b) Loss

1.5 (c) Mark Up:

1.5. (d) Discount:

Discount = Marked Price – Sale Price

There are two kinds of charities in Islam.

Gen. Maths & Stat

Gen. Maths & Stat