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Influence of Organizational Culture on Organizational Effectiveness:

The Mediating Role of Organizational Communication

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DOI: 10.1177/0972150917692185

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Article

Influence of Organizational Culture Global Business Review

18(3) 691–702
on Organizational Effectiveness: The © 2017 IMI
SAGE Publications
Mediating Role of Organizational sagepub.in/home.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0972150917692185
Communication http://gbr.sagepub.com

Jyotiranjan Gochhayat1
Vijai N. Giri2
Damodar Suar2

Abstract
Cultures have been found to predict the organizational effectiveness (OE). This article explores how a
strong or weak organizational culture (OCL), irrespective of its taxonomy, affects OE in Indian techni-
cal education. It also examines the mediating role of organizational communication (OCM). Data were
collected from 167 heads of engineering and management schools on OCL and OE and 334 of their
subordinates on OCM through a questionnaire survey. Results indicate that organizations with a strong
and deep-rooted culture perform more effectively than organizations with a weak culture. The effect
of OCL passes to institutional effectiveness through OCM. Hence, higher educational institutions need
to focus on strengthening OCL and OCM in order to improve their effectiveness.

Keywords
Communication, higher educational institutions, organizational effectiveness, strength of culture

Introduction
Culture is expressed in fundamental beliefs, assumptions, attitudes, values, artefacts and behaviours of
organizational members. Different types of cultures have predicted organizational effectiveness (OE)
differently (Carmeli & Tishler, 2004; Denison & Mishra, 1995; Powell & Dent-Micallef, 1997). Along
with possessing distinctive attributes, values, beliefs and behaviour patterns, it is essential that the culture
be ‘strong’ in order to achieve higher OE (Smart & St. John, 1996). While different cultural dimensions

1
Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West
Bengal, India.
2
Professor, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal,
India.

Corresponding author:
Jyotiranjan Gochhayat, Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur,
Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India.
E-mail: gochhayatjg@gmail.com
692 Global Business Review 18(3)

have been found to affect OE, this article explores how a strong or a weak organizational culture (OCL)
affects OE in the Indian technical education.
The next section critically reviews the substantive literature, derives the objectives, rationale and
states the conceptual model. Subsequent sections deal with the method, results and discussion. The final
part of the discussion section contains limitations and conclusion.

Review of Literature

Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is all about the values (Broms & Gahmberg, 1983), beliefs, shared meanings
(Davis, 1984), assumptions (Schein, 1992), codes of behaviour, practices, procedures and rituals in an
organization (Ghosh & Srivastava, 2014; Martin, 1992; Nguyen & Aoyama, 2014). It is reflected in
vision and mission statements, the attitudes and behaviours of employees, and the organization’s manner
of functioning. It is the glue that holds the members of the organization together, leading to higher
performance (Goffee & Jones, 1996; Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983) and effectiveness.
The building of a culture is never instantaneous. The founder’s vision and mission reflect his/her
values and beliefs and lead to formation of the early culture of the organization. During the selection
process, recruiters prefer individuals who have values similar to those the organization preaches and
practices (Adkins, Russell & Werbel, 1994). After joining, the organizational values are inculcated in
newcomers through training, mentoring, counselling, interaction with seniors, participation in organiza-
tional events and encounters with organizational issues and problems (Suar & Khuntia, 2010). The new
hires are socialized in the organization. Thus, the culture transmits to the newcomers and grows through-
out the organization.
Culture has been categorized as clans, markets and bureaucracies (Ouchi, 1980) and as material or
objective and ideational or subjective (Buono, Bowditch & Lewis, 1985). Based on values, cultures have
also been classified as individualistic or collectivist, masculine or feminine, high or low power distance,
high or low uncertainty avoidance, long-term or short-term orientation (Hofstede, 1980), universalism or
particularism, neutral or affective and achievement- or ascription-oriented (Trompenaars, 1993). Triandis
(1998) classified the culture of people in the globe into four species, juxtaposing absence (horizontal) or
presence (vertical) of power distance against individualism and collectivism. In the absence (presence)
of power distance, people were horizontal (vertical) individualists and collectivists. Cultures are further
classified on the basis of visible organizational processes, espoused values, and underlying assumptions
(Schein, 1992). Sinha (1990) has classified Indian work culture as soft, technocratic and work-centric
nurturant culture. These classifications are based on the dominant cultural dimensions present within
the organization. Evidence suggests that OE is associated with a dominant culture type (Ogbonna &
Harris, 2000; Ouchi, 1980). Furthermore, some culture types are better predictor of OE than others
(Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983). However, these different cultures can be weak or strong (Deal & Kennedy,
1982; Peters & Waterman, 1982). A strong (weak) culture can be associated positively (negatively) with
OE (Duke II & Edet, 2012), irrespective of the relationship between the cultural dimensions and OE.
A culture can be called strong or weak based on the degree of employees’ agreement with, commitment
towards and congruence with organizational values, norms, artefacts and practices (DelCampo, 2006;
O’Reilly & Chatman, 1996; Smart & St. John, 1996; Sorensen, 2002). The more the organizational
members agree on, widely share and remain committed to a set of common values and practices, the
stronger the culture tends to be (Gordon & DiTomaso, 1992; Kotter & Heskett, 1992; O’Reilly, 1989).
Gochhayat et al. 693

Wide involvement of the organizational members in procedures, customs and practices make the culture
even stronger. A strong culture has values and practices which are followed and shared by organizational
members (DelCampo, 2006). It provides guidance about what is important and what needs to be done in
the best interest of the organization.

Organizational Culture and Organizational Effectiveness

Broad agreement on certain behaviours aids in faster detection and correction of violations of norms,
practices and procedures (Sorensen, 2002). Employees face less uncertainty about the proper course of
action and can react more appropriately and quickly in unexpected situations (Burt et al., 1994). Wide
agreement on norms, practices and procedures among organizational members enhances goal alignment
and establishes clarity about goals and practices (Sorensen, 2002). Goal alignment facilitates coordination
among employees’ efforts, goals and practices, leaving less scope for diversion of different views about
the organization’s best interests (Cremer, 1993; Hermalin, 2001). When there is a wide consensus on
values, norms, practices and goals, employees tend to act more consistently with these beliefs.
New members are socialized faster and can quickly be brought into coordination with older employees
due to a wider consensus of beliefs, greater normative pressure and non-conflicting nature of the firm’s
goals and practices (Burt et al., 1994; Harrison & Carroll, 1991). Alignment of core values and beliefs
obtains a high degree of integration and coordination (Denison, 1990). Such an alignment between
espoused beliefs and actual practices enhances organizational performance. A shared sense of purpose,
direction and strategy can foster organizational identification and strengthen organizational members’
actions towards organizational vision enhancing OE. Therefore, a stronger OCL will propel for higher OE.

Organizational Culture and Organizational Communication

Literature suggests that organizational communication (OCM) tends to play an important role in the
relationship between OCL and OE. Organizational communication—including managerial, interpersonal
and other forms of communication—carries policies, strategies, instructions and information across the
organization. In a strong OCL, there is a consensus on values and practices. Frequent discussion,
interaction among organizational members and the use of social media to reach consensus and eliminate
divergences are very likely to enhance the communication climate in the organization. Congruence
between beliefs and practices facilitates the exchange of information, and the ability to carry out
coordinated actions (Denison, 1990) across all levels. Precise information related to organizational
goals, policies, strategies, values and practices improves OCM. Similarly, clearly set and strongly held
values and practices facilitate feedback on organizational and individual activities as well as quick
responses to any deviations. Hence, it is more likely that a strong OCL will positively associate with
better OCM.

Organizational Communication and Organizational Effectiveness

Organizational communication provides direction to the organization and its members. It provides
answers to all questions, clears up confusion, provides guidance and motivates all for the attainment of
organizational goals. It builds professional relations, minimizes conflicts and fosters cooperation.
694 Global Business Review 18(3)

It helps the organization to enforce rules, regulations and norms, and maintain discipline. Furthermore,
leadership works through communication. Communication helps the leaders to reach the followers and
motivate them for the attainment of the vision, mission and goals of the organization. The vision and
mission of an organization may not yield that result if these are not communicated properly within the
organization. Stimulating and inspiring communication helps organizational members to realize values
and mission statements rather than being compelled to follow them. Media channels, such as publications,
memos, meetings and notices, play an important role in communicating a precise and clear message.
Furthermore, the availability of information about the organization, its goals and its performance will
help to the employees follow the policies and practices of the organization, resulting in better coordination
and higher effectiveness. Similarly, a feedback process in which everyone receives knowledge of results,
comments and suggestions over their performance in the organization will minimize the chances of any
deviation from standard practices and goals, thus contributing to OE (Raina, 2010). Therefore, it is more
likely that improved OCM among employees will further OE.

Mediation of Organizational Communication

From the above discussion, it is clear that a strong OCL paves the way for better OCM, and in turn, OCM
influences OE. It is plausible that the effect of a strong culture can pass through OCM to predict OE.
To examine such mediating/intervening effects of OCM between OCL and OE, Baron and Kenny
(1986) suggested four steps. First, the independent variable of OCL would predict the dependent variable
of OE. Second, the independent variable would predict the mediating variables of OCM. Third, the
mediator would predict the dependent variable. In the fourth step, when the independent variable and
the mediator would jointly explain the OE, the effect of the independent variable explaining OE will
decrease (partial mediation) or nullify (full mediation) compared to the first step. The last step rationalizes
that the mediating variable explains fully or partly the relation between independent and dependent
variables. The extent of mediation would be estimated by multiplying the two indirect standardized path
coefficients between OCL-OCM and OCM-OE and dividing that by the total effect of OCL on OE found
in the first step. Such an analysis will specify whether OCM is a vehicle through which the effects of
OCL are carried over to OE.

Objectives and Rationale

Based on the above discussion, there are two objectives of the study. The first objective is to test the
direct effect of OCL on OE, and the second one, as contrasting to the first one, is to examine the indirect
effect of OCL on OE via OCM.
In contemporary situations, Indian higher educational institutions have a culturally diverse population
of students, teachers and non-teaching staff, with different work values, attitudes and practices. The
varied facets of sociocultural aspects are deeply rooted in Indians and form their work-related cognition,
affects (Biswas, 2009; Rao & Abraham, 2003), perceptions, attitudes and behaviours (Sengupta & Sinha,
2005). Employees and students, after joining a higher educational institute, may deviate from their
sociocultural values and build consensus on some common values and practices for the organization.
However, the difference in these shared values and actual practices makes the OCL weak and are likely
to predict OE poorly. Contrarily, the congruency in shared values and practices will make the OCL
strong and will predict OE highly. Accordingly, this study intends to examine the direct strength of OCL
Gochhayat et al. 695

on OE as well as the indirect strength of OCL via OCM on OE in higher educational institutions in India.
The conceptual models describing the two objectives are shown in Figure 1.

Method

Sample
Data were collected from the heads of selected technical and management institutions (directors,
principals and deans) in India and two of their subordinates (department heads and professors) through
a questionnaire survey in person and online using a Google form. Of the 1,220 higher technical institutes
in Odisha, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, the researcher approached the heads of 190 randomly
selected institutions in Bhubaneswar, Odisha; Kolkata, West Bengal; Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh; and
in Delhi, and 540 subordinates therein who were professors or associate/assistant professors. They were
briefed on the purpose of the study, given the questionnaire and asked to return the completed
questionnaire in a 2-week period. The heads of 49 colleges and 130 professors or associate/assistant
professors returned completed questionnaires after repeated requests.
Because of inadequate responses, emails were sent to the heads and subordinates of different
engineering and management institutes selected randomly from 4,160 institutes in the states of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh in India. With a cover
letter, 633 heads and 1,899 professors and associate/assistant professors of the same institutes were
approached to complete the questionnaire in an online form. Finally, 131 heads’ responses and 339
subordinates’ responses were received.
Out of 180 (131 + 49) responses from the heads of the institutes and 469 (339 + 130) responses from
the subordinates, 167 responses from the heads—whose respective 334 subordinate responses were
available and complete—were considered. The total sample consisted of 167 leaders and 334 subordinates

Figure 1. Conceptual Models with Objectives

Source: Prepared by the authors.
696 Global Business Review 18(3)

from those colleges. The indexes of inter-rater agreement (rwg) and inter-rater reliability (ICC(1)) were
calculated for OCM items. The median rwg values ranged from 0.85 to 0.89, indicating good agreement
between raters. The values for ICC(1) ranged from 0.87 to 0.91, suggesting good inter-rater reliability.
Accordingly, the responses of two subordinates of a leader from each institute were averaged to form a
single response to be analyzed along with the responses from the head of the institution because the
organization was the unit of the sample.
Of the respondents, 154 (92.21 per cent) heads of the institutions and 261 (78.14 per cent) subordinates
were men. The leaders’ average age was 52.53 years, and the subordinates’ average age was 40.59 years.
For the leaders, the average years of professional experience in teaching and years of education in formal
educational institutions were 27.46 years and 19.41 years, respectively. For subordinates, the average
years of professional experience in teaching and years of education were 17.89 and 18.79 years,
respectively.

Measures
The survey instrument was developed in two parts. The first part was for the head of the institution, and
it contained inventories to assess OCL and OE. The second part of the survey was for the subordinates
who worked under the head, and it assessed OCM.
OE
Mott’s effectiveness questionnaire (1972) was adapted. It was modified before use to suit the educational
sector. A sample item includes, ‘Do the people in your institution seem to get maximum output from the
resources (money, people, equipment, etc.) available? That is, how efficiently do they do their work?’
Two more items were added to the quality of teaching and research. The inventory had 10 items. The
responses ranged from ‘very low (1)’ to ‘very high (5)’. When responses to 10 items were analyzed using
confirmatory factor analysis, all items loaded significantly on one factor (standardized loading range =
0.33 (p < 0.001) to 0.67). One poorly performing item in the inventory that had standardized loading
below 0.40 was dropped. When the analysis was rerun with the responses to the remaining nine items,
all items loaded significantly on one factor (standardized loading range = 0.43 (p < 0.001) to 0.72), and
the average variance extracted was 0.33. The one-factor model had acceptable fit indices (χ2/df = 2.49,
CFI = 0.92, GFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.09). The items had low convergent validity but high construct
reliability (0.82).
Organizational Culture
This was measured in terms of the involvement of organizational members in organizational practices
and processes, consistency in behaviour and clarity in values. Accordingly, items on involvement,
consistency and mission were adopted from Dension’s OCL survey instrument (Dension & Neale, 1999).
To suit the Indian context, the items were given to three experts. Twenty-seven out of 45 items agreed
upon by the experts were retained on three dimensions. A sample item includes, ‘There is a clear and
consistent set of values that governs the way we run our organization.’ The responses ranged from
‘strongly disagree (1)’ to ‘strongly agree (5)’. When the 27 items were analyzed using confirmatory
factor analysis, all items except three loaded significantly on respective factors (standardized loading
range = 0.20 [p < 0.03] to 0.78 [0.001]). Seven poorly performing items in the inventory that had
standardized loadings below 0.40—including the earlier three insignificantly loaded items—were
dropped. When the analysis was rerun with the responses to the remaining 20 items on three dimensions,
Gochhayat et al. 697

all items loaded significantly on respective factors (standardized loading range = 0.43 [p < 0.001] to
0.75). The average variances extracted for involvement, consistency and mission were 0.45, 0.29 and
0.39, respectively. The square root of the average variance extracted of each dimension was larger than
their correlations with other dimensions suggesting its discriminant validity, but the dimensions had low
convergent validity as the average variances extracted for each dimension was below 0.5. The construct
reliability of three dimensions ranged from 0.74 to 0.85. The three-factor model had acceptable fit
indices (χ2/df = 2.91, CFI = 0.78, GFI = 0.78, RMSEA = 0.11). The average scores of the items on each
dimension were used as indicators of the latent variable of OCL.
Organizational Communication
The communication satisfaction questionnaire (Downs & Hazen, 1977) was used to measure the
organization’s communication process. It contained 32 items on 8 dimensions: (i) organizational
integration, (ii) organizational perspective, (iii) personal feedback, (iv) media quality, (v) horizontal and
informal communication, (vi) communication climate, (vii) relationship with subordinates and (viii)
relationship with superiors. A sample item includes, ‘Extent to which conflicts are handled appropriately
through proper communication channels’. The responses ranged from ‘highly dissatisfied (1)’ to ‘highly
satisfied (5)’. When the scores of 32 items were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis, all items
except one loaded significantly on respective factors (standardized loading range = 0.22 (p < 0.002)
to 0.81 (p < 0.001)). Six poorly performing items in the inventory that had standardized loadings
below 0.40 were dropped. When the analysis was rerun with the responses to the remaining 26 items on
eight dimensions, all items loaded significantly on respective factors (standardized loading range = 0.43
[p < 0.001] to 0.75). The average variances extracted for eight dimensions were between 0.28 and 0.44.
The square root of the average variance extracted of each factor was larger than their correlations with
other factors. The dimensions had high discriminant validity but had low convergent validity. The
construct reliability of the eight dimensions ranged from 0.53 to 0.70. The eight-factor model had
acceptable fit indices (χ2/df = 1.63, CFI = 0.77, GFI = 0.83, RMSEA = 0.06). The average scores of the
items on each dimension were used as indicators for the latent variable OCM.

Results and Discussion

The descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations of the dimensions of the studied variables are reported
in Table 1. All dimensions of OCL related positively with seven dimensions of OCM except organizational
perspective. Organizational perspective, being a dimension of OCM, directly correlated only with
consistency and did not relate to the involvement and mission of OCL. Barring an exception, the
dimensions of a construct were interrelated. All dimensions of OCL and OCM related with OE.
Because correlations did not reveal the antecedent–consequent relationships, a hybrid path analysis
was carried out using AMOS 20. Organizational effectiveness was the endogenous observed variable,
and the other two were latent constructs.
OCL positively predicted OE and OCM, and OCM in turn positively predicted OE. These results for
the first three steps of mediator analysis are reported in Table 2. In the full model (Figure 1), when OCM
and OCL were explanatory variables, the strength of OCL predicting OE decreased compared to the first
step. Therefore, it is concluded that OCM partially mediated the relations of OCL with OE. The mediating
effect of OCM was found to be 53.40 per cent. The findings derived from the structural regression model
had acceptable fit indices (χ2/df = 1.57, GFI = 0.93, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06).
Table 1.  Descriptive Statistics and Correlations among Dimensions of Studied Variables

Construct Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
OCL   1. Involvement 1 0.61*** 0.58*** 0.37*** 0.07 0.21* 0.23** 0.15* 0.17* 0.18* 0.23** 0.28***
  2. Consistency 1 0.50*** 0.35*** 0.23** 0.39*** 0.32*** 0.18*** 0.31** 0.21** 0.31*** 0.49***
  3. Mission 1 0.39*** 0.11 0.30*** 0.26*** 0.20* 0.19* 0.31*** 0.35*** 0.36***
OCM   4. Organizational integration 1 0.26** 0.38*** 0.26** 0.19* 0.30*** 0.28*** 0.31*** 0.36***
  5. Organizational perspective 1 0.39*** 0.27** 0.18* 0.38*** 0.27*** 0.22** 0.31***
  6. Personal feedback 1 0.26** 0.32*** 0.29*** 0.39*** 0.39*** 0.36***
  7. Media quality 1 0.34*** 0.25*** 0.16* 0.19* 0.37***
  8. Horizontal communication 1 0.27*** 0.10 0.20** 0.33***
  9. Communication climate 1 0.34*** 0.32*** 0.34***
10. Relationship with 1 0.38*** 0.26***
subordinate
11. Relationship with superior 1 0.25***
OE 12. Organizational effectiveness 1
M 4.06 3.62 3.99 4.02 3.94 3.88 3.83 3.86 3.90 3.87 3.98 3.59
SD 0.57 0.60 0.52 0.66 0.67 0.68 0.67 0.59 0.63 0.60 0.60 0.51
Source: Prepared by the authors.
Notes: *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p < = 0.001.
Gochhayat et al. 699

Table 2.  OCL Predicting OE and the Mediating Role of OCM

Step Path B SEB b CR Probability Inference

1 OCL→OE 0.63 0.11 0.52 5.97 0.001 Positive relationship
2 OCL→OCM 0.56 0.11 0.63 5.07 0.001 Positive relationship
3 OCM→OE 0.83 0.15 0.59 5.45 0.001 Positive relationship
4 OCL→OE 0.31 0.13 0.25 2.31 0.021 Mediation effect supported
OCL→OCM 0.58 0.11 0.64 5.10 0.001
OCM→OE 0.58 0.16 0.43 3.58 0.001
Source: Prepared by the authors.
Notes: B is un-standardized beta; SEB is the standard error of beta; b is standardized beta; CR is critical ratio; OCL is
organizational cultures; OE is organizational effectiveness and OCM is organizational communication.

This study examined the effect of OCL on OE with the mediating effect of OCM in higher technical
institutions. Results suggest that the stronger the OCL, the higher the OE. Strong culture paves the way
for better communication in the organization, and better communication enhances OE, implying that
OCL impacts OE through OCM.
Organizational culture leads to increased employee participation and consensus on strategic matters,
which provide aligned perspectives between organizational and individual objectives (Peters &
Waterman, 1982). Wider agreement on values, practices, mission and goals are crucial for a culture to
lead to effectiveness. When the culture is widely shared and practiced, it provides a collaborative and
free-standing environment making individual and organizational abilities useful. In a culture with both
intensity and consensus, organizational members come to know and share a common set of beliefs and
expectations that are consistently valued and followed across the institution. This consistency in values
and their reinforcement contributes to OE. Hence, a few core values, accepted, shared and practiced can
form a strong culture (O’Reilly, 1989), contributing to OE.
Free flow of information on organizational values, beliefs, practices and goals enhances an
environment of free communication in the organization. Interactions, discussions and arguments to reach
consensus on issues tend to minimize differences and promote communication in the organization. The
involvement of members in organizational customs and practices contributes to better professional
relationship among all, irrespective of departments and levels, contributing to a healthier communication
in the organization.
Better communication establishes a clear set of rules and regulations for all stakeholders of the
organization. It leads to clear expectations that convey what is expected from them, what they can expect
from the organization and how their performance will impact the organization. Free and open feedback
enables them to realize their potential, to remove their shortcomings, and it provides them with guidelines
to follow and often motivates for better performance. Open channels of communication often lead to
new ideas, unconventional thinking and innovation. Employees understand what is needed for their
organization’s success, find opportunities and make improvements. When ideas and feedback are
appreciated, everyone tries to contribute more ideas and productive feedback. Effective OCM stimulates
teamwork and cooperation among organizational members. It provides the students, teachers and support
staff with the knowledge, structure and positive work environment they need to deal with a wide range
of issues, resulting in higher OE.
Furthermore, a better communication process carries the effect of involvement, consistency and
mission of the culture to make the organization more effective. Organizational effectiveness is triggered
by culture and passes through OCM to make the educational institutes more effective. An organization
700 Global Business Review 18(3)

develops its culture, shares its understanding (Chatman, 1988) and inculcates a set of beliefs, values and
norms amongst its members through a communication system, in which signals mean the same thing to
everyone (Schein, 1985). Clarity in communication, the free flow of information, professional relation-
ships among members across levels and a climate promoting effective communication in tandem ensure
that a strong culture prevails that contributes to OE.
In Tata Group, the culture of trust, volunteering and commitment to ethics have been developed
among its employees through listening to top-management communicating policies, norms and practices.
Instead of enforcing, Tata encourages its employees through communication to follow its norms and
practices to achieve ethical business practices. Infosys, another culturally diverse organization, tried to
preserve the attributes of a small company and worked in small groups, even after growing to be a
multinational company. Managers played the role of mentors and used their experience and communication
skills to guide their team members to adhere to the cultural norms and practices leading to its effectiveness
in a competitive market. This supports the role of communication as a mediator between the strength of
culture and OE.

Conclusion
In understanding the interplay among OCL, OCM and OE in higher educational institutions in India, this
study provides the first empirical evidence that a stronger OCL indirectly predicts OE through OCM.
Higher technical institutions may improve OCM through computer networking, meetings and group
discussions to get the optimum effects of culture on OE.

Limitations
This study is not free from limitations. First, the self-reported responses to a questionnaire may not be
free from social desirable responding. However, the common method bias was arrested procedurally by
collecting responses on OCL and OE from directors/principals/deans and OCM from associate/assistant
professors in two different sittings. Second, although culture develops over a period of time, the strength
of culture has only been assessed at one point of time. Assessing OCL, OE and OCM at multiple times
would have longitudinally validated the findings.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the anonymous referees of the journal for their useful suggestions to improve the quality of the
article. Usual disclaimers apply.

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