Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

2013

4 1

Mitosis & maturation of Mitotic division completed before

gametes start at puberty birth (foetal) and maturation of
adolescence and continue gametes from adolescence to 50
through to rest of years old (menopause)
adulthood
Interupted process (produced in
Continuous process upon
28 day cycles from puberty)
reaching sexual maturity
(from puberty) Prolonged- many years to
Short (64-72 days) decades for development of a
duration for development single secondary oocyte
of a single sperm.

FSH:

 Promotes activity of Sertoli cells (androgen-binding proteins)

 Sertoli cells nourish developing sperm.
 Sertoli cells more receptive to testosterone (which promotes
spermatogenesis)
 Sertoli cells produce more inhibin

LH:

 Binds to Leydig cells/ interstitial cells

 Stimulates production of testosterone (and other androgens)-
spermatogenesis
 Negative feedback due to high levels of testosterone
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Plan drawing NOT

detailed; drawing
with no errors;
correct magnification
stated and title given;
neat and tidy
drawing; correct
stage prior to release
drawn; drawing
representative/
correct proportions
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

The ovary wall becomes the fruit/The ovary wall X becomes the pericarp (fruit
wall)

The ovule walls (integument) becomes the testa; the ovule becomes the seed; the
egg when fertilized forms the zygote which becomes the embryo; the polar nulei
when fused with the male nuclei becomes the endosperm; Nucellus (Y)
disintegrates (nourishes embryo)/ provides nutritive support
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Ai) Key stages in fertilization f a human secondary oocyte by a spermatozoon:

 Acrosome reaction- outer surface of sperm membrane and acrosome membrane rupture to
release hydrolytic enzymes.
 Released enzymes digest a path through layer of follicle cells/ granulosa cells (corona radiate)
that surrounds the oocyte.
 Sperm use tails (to swim) and reach outer surface of zona pellucida.
 Another acrosomal enzyme digests a path through the zona pellucida (jelly coat).
 Sperm moves to the surface of secondary oocyte (leaves tail)
 Head of sperm fuses with microvilli surrounding secondary oocyte
 Sperm penetrates into cytoplasm
 Once sperm penetrates oocyte- fertilization membrane forms (cortical reaction)
 Secondary oocyte stimulated to complete meiosis
 Male nucleus fuses with female nucleus (to form zygote)

Aii) Significance on the process of fertilization:

 Stimulates secondary oocyte to complete meiosis

 Restores the normal diploid number of chromosomes (46)/ for formation n of zygote.
 Results in variation of human species/ as maternal and paternal chromosomes intermingle.
 Determines the sex of the embryo.

Bi) Functions of the placenta:

 Production of hormones (progesterone/oestrogen/HCG) maintains pregnancy/ childbirth

 Exchange of gases (selective barrier)- allows oxygen, carbon dioxide.
 Selective barrier- prevents harmful substances entering developing embryo (physical or
chemical)/ prevents mixing of maternal and foetal blood.
 Provision of nutrients for developing embryo- glucose, amino acids, lipids, water, vitamins.
 Removal of excretory products from embryo- diffuse into maternal circulation e.g. urea.
 Protection from infection- maternal antibodies
 Modulates impact of maternal high blood pressure (act as a buffer).
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Bii) Nutrition

Proper nutrition e.g. foliate and folic acid – prevents spina bifida, calcium, protein and iron are
important for foetal growth – prevents birth defects and low birth weight.
N.B. Spina bifida is a birth defect where there is incomplete closing of the backbone and membranes around the spinal cord.
Spina bifida is best prevented by taking 400 micrograms (mcg) of folic acid every day. Studies have shown that if
all women who could become pregnant were to take a multivitamin with the B-vitamin folic acid, the risk of neural
tube defects could be reduced by up to 70%.

Smoking

(Including second hand smoke)- can contribute to low birth weight, preterm delivery, stillbirth and
chronic health problems for the baby, including cerebral palsy, mental retardation or learning
disabilities, intra uterine growth retardation.

Smoking can cause problems during pregnancy, such as placenta previa and placenta abruption.

Alcohol and drugs

Using alcohol during pregnancy can cause behavioural and physical problems to the baby (foetal alcohol
syndrome)

Use of illegal/illicit drugs during pregnancy can result in the baby having low birth weight, birth defects
or symptoms of withdrawal at birth.

Maternal self-care

Proper hygiene, exercise, proper medical care etc.

Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

2014

- Detailed drawing
NOT PLAN!
- Cellular details
correct
Accurate relative
proportions.
- Any three structures
labelled correctly (2
marks) germinal
epithelium, primary
spermatocyte,
secondary
spermatocyte,
spermatid, lumen of
tubule, Sertoli cell.
- Neat and tidy.
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

1. Germinal epithelial cells develop into spermatogonia

2. Spermatogonia develop into primary spermatocytes
3. Primary spermatocytes develop into secondary spermatocytes
4. Spermatocytes (undergo meiosis) and develop into spermatids)
5. Spermatids transform to spermatozoa in the area adjacent to the lumen
(tails project into fluid-filled lumen)
6. (Motility is gradually acquired as the sperm moves toward the
epididymis)
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

No germination at 0% sucrose concentration; germination percentage

increases as the sucrose concentration increases up to about 6%; (slight)
decrease in germination percentage beyond 6% sucrose concentration;
beyond 8% sucrose concentration, germination percent remains constant

(Quote off the x and y axis)

Sucrose, secreted by stigma, is essential for pollen germination

Absence of pollen germination at 0% may allow pollen dispersal by

pollinating agents

Sucrose (may) help to nourish growth of pollen tube/ facilitate pollen

grain sticking to the stigma .
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Ai) Explanation:

 No gamete formation
 No fertilization of gametes
 No meiosis
 Offspring genetically identical to parents
 Only one parent involved.

Definition: Ability of plants to reproduce (asexually/ without sexual reproduction) by producing new plants from
existing vegetative structures (specialized stems, leaves and roots, buds)

Method of plant propogation (not through pollination or via seeds or spores) where new plant individuals develop
from parts such as specialized stems, leaves and roots)

Aii) Vegetative propagation:

 Can be used to grow crops like bananas, seedless grapes and oranges, and sugarcane that do not produce
viable seeds (seedless varieties of fruits are also a result of vegetative propogation)
 Since offspring produced are generally identical, more beneficial/ aesthetically desirable/ unique
characteristics can be preserved- best crop/variety (greater control over genetic make-up)
 More economical- produced on a large scales/ only one parent/ no need for special mechanisms of
fertilization.
 Faster than seed propagation e.g. tissue culture
 May allow elimination of the non- fruiting, juvenile phase of the plant’s life when plants will not flower or
produce fruit or take long to do so (speed up time of maturation)
 Permits physical/ physiological joining of separate plants for economic advantage- good qualities of two
varieties can be combined in one plant e.g. tissue culture, grafting.
 Propagate plants that are difficult to germinate/ crops may be introduced into areas where seed
germination has failed.
 Easy to do e.g. from cuttings for garden plants/some crops/ on a large scale/ can be done from one
parent.

Bi) Oral contraceptives

- Changes body’s hormonal balance (secondary oocyte not released from ovary)
- No egg available to be fertilized by sperm
- Thinning of uterine linint- deceases probability of feriilsed egg being implanted
- Causes cervical mucus to thicken and form a mucous plug- makes it difficult for sperm to get
through to uterus to fertilise egg

ii)

 Client is most likely on or near day 14 of the menstrua cycle hence ovarian follicle has begun to develop
 Starting use of combined oral contraceptives (COC) immediately now may not stop ovulation
 Best to start COC on the first day of menstrual cyclce (or at least within first 5 days)
 COC needs to be taken evey day for 21 days of the cycle with a seven day break
 For complete effectiveness, COC must be taken consistently at the same time every day
 Inconsistent use of COC may cause failure rate (alter hormonal balance)
 Advisable to use some other method of protection e.g. husband using a condom/ abstaining from
intercourse until COC can be started.
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016
2015

Microscopic/canno
t be seen with
naked eye (about
0.05mm in length)

Spherical/round/oval

Differentiated into
region (head, neck,
middle piece tail-
flagellum)

Motile/ with tail (assists in

swimming)

Contains lipid reserves for

early development of the
embryo

Active, substances are

absorbed and released)
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Function: Facilitates union with sperm/ receives sperm

Structure: Large size- easy for sperm to locate/ make contact
Outer layer allows only one sperm to penetrate
Cell surface proteins present- allow for attachment of sperm/ identification of correct sperm
Numerous smooth ER- to form fertilization membrane
Function- supports development of zygote (either physical or biochemical)
Structure: Energy reserves/ large size- provides support for developing zygote (embryo)
Energy stores (lipids in cytoplasm- provide nutrients for developing zygote.
Numerous mitochondria- provide energy supply
Rough ER to make proteins after fertilization
Function- carries genetic material (chromosomes) contributed by female)
Structure: Large (pro)nucleus; Nucleus with haploid number of chromosomes; Has mitochondrial DNA

Endosperm

Triploid (endosperm) nucleus; Develops into endosperm

tissue which nourishes the developing embryo.
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Ovary (wall )

Protection against mechanical damage/ desiccation

Increased seed dispersal- eaten by far-ranging animals who then excrete/ scater
the seeds.
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

 Dioecious plants — male and female flowers on separate plants (self-pollination and hence
self-fertilization cannot occur)
 Non-synchronous maturation:
-Dichogamy — stamens and carpels do not open at same time - protandry (male before female);
protogyny (female before male)
 Heterostyly — different types of flowers within the species — position of male and female
flower parts can vary among plants encouraging cross pollination
 Self-incompatibility — germination and/or growth of pollen grain reduced or inhibited if it
lands on a stigma of the same plant
 Male sterility – failure of plant to produce viable pollen grains
 Special floral structures — that favour dispersal of pollen by insects or wind

Genetic consequences
Self-fertilization (inbreeding)
 Fertilization involving self-pollinated flowers
 Reduces genetic variation in population
 Can lead to inbreeding depression (less vigorous individuals/increasing
homozygosity/increase in deleterious genes)
 Decreases likelihood that at least some individuals will have resistance to stresses
 May be more reliable where populations are low or under adverse environmental
conditions

Cross-fertilization (outbreeding)
 Fertilization occurs between different plants of the same species
 Increases the amount of genetic variation in the population
 More vigorous offspring( increase in heterozygosity)
 Increases likelihood that at least some individuals will have resistance to stresses (better
adapted to change)
 May be less reliable where populations are low or under adverse environmental conditions
 Increase likelihood of speciation
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Process of fertilization in the human reproductive system

 Acrosome stimulated, by contact of (capacitated) sperm, to release
enzymes
 Enzymes digest pathway through follicle cells and zona pellucida to
surface membrane of oocyte.
 Receptors of sperm cells bind to zona pellucida.
 Sperm membrane fuses with membrane of oocyte.
 Sperm nucleus enters oocyte.
 Cortical reaction — oocyte releases lysosomes (cortical granules) which
pass into zona pellucida
 Zona pellucida becomes fertilization membrane- preventing other sperm
cells from binding
 Oocyte completes meiosis — second polar body produced and expelled
 Nucleus of sperm fuses with oocyte nucleus to form zygote.
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

2016

Plan done
Representative
Should show
anther after
dehiscence
Title given e.g.
Cross-section of a
mature anther
Magnification
given (in relation
to
photomicrograph

(1) Epidermis — outer protective tissue

(2) Vascular bundle — transport tissue/made up of xylem and phloem.
(3) Large cells with fibrous cell walls — (concerned with dehiscence of
anthers)/protection
(4) Tapetum — provides nourishment for developing pollen grains
(5) Pollen grain — released by anther dehiscing (rupture of stomium)
(6) Any other tissue correctly labelled e.g. connective tissue or pollen mother cells
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

Villus Foetal
Sinus/lacuna/intervillus space/
placental lakes
Maternal

Endometrium Maternal

1. Protection/Acts as a barrier (separation of circulatory systems) for pathogens, blood cells, some
proteins, maternal blood pressure increases etc.
2. Secretion of hormones (oestrogen, progesterone) important for physiological changes during
pregnancy – production
3. Metabolite and energy storage (some fats, glycogen)
4. Exchange of substances facilitated by large surface area of villi
- Nutrients and antibodies
- Gases (O2, CO2)
- Waste products, for example, urea
5. Reservoir of blood in case of low blood pressure (hypotension) in the foetus
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

1. Supports developing foetus. Low levels of amniotic fluid — reduced support and shock-
absorbing properties; possible physical damage to foetus
2. Mitigates effects of gravity. Low levels — reduced isolation from gravity (foetus floats in
amniotic fluid); foetal muscles unable to cope with gravitational forces in early stages;
possible deformities
3. Amniotic fluid acts as temperature buffer (due to high heat capacity of water). Low
levels — greater temperature fluctuations.
4. Amniotic fluid serves as receptacle for urea excreted by foetus (passed to mother’s
blood for excretion) – low amniotic fluid levels can expose foetus to higher concentrations
of waste products
5. Amniotic fluid is swallowed by foetus allowing for muscles to develop for swallowing
and moving materials through alimentary canal – low levels can cause underdevelopment
of the muscles.
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

A. Example 1: Bread mould

1. Spores produce in Sporangia

2. spores are produced within a cell and are released when the cell breaks open
3. Hyphae (sporangiophores) grow up in air
4. Tip of each sporangiophore swells – form sporangium
5. Haploid nuclei move from hyphae to sporangium and divide mitotically
6. Sporangium separates from main body of hyphae (mycelium)
7. Cytoplasm forms around a group of several nuclei to form spore
8. A wall forms around spore
9. Sporangium splits open and releases spores

B. Example 2: Penicillin

1. Spores are called Conidia

2. spores occur externally on the cells that produce them
3. Each hypha made up of a chain of haploid cells
4. New cells are produced at the end of the hyphae
5. Some hyphae may grow up in the air
6. Branches (conidiophores) form at tips of (aerial) hyphae
7. Produce strings of blue-green spores (conidia) by mitosis
8. Spores are protected by waterproof covering
9. Spread by air currents

(5 marks)
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

1. When ‘food is abundant’/Abundance of substrate

2. Can multiply rapidly/produce large number of offspring in a short time
3. Genetically identical offspring in homogenous environment (no need for genetic
diversity)
4. Individuals already well adapted to environment where they are growing successfully
5. Sexual reproduction takes longer to produce offspring / need to find a mate / more
energy needed to produce gametes
6. Continues the species if a single parent is present
Biology U1 Module 3 Q&A 2013-2016

1. Proliferative/follicular phase

- repair and growth of endometrium /thickening of glandular endometrium and blood vessels
develop/ endometrium becomes vascularized and glandular

- oestrogen (secreted by follicles) signals endometrium to thicken

2. Secretory/Luteal phase

-Thickness of endometrium is maintained /uterine glands secrete mucus and nutrients

(glycogen, lipids)/ arteries become coiled, glands hacksaw shape and sinuses formed
Progesterone (secreted by corpus luteum) stimulates continued development/maintenance

3. Menstrual phase/Bleeding phase

- uterine lining breaks down (if no fertilization of ovum)

- decrease in progesterone levels leads to breakdown of endometrium

(7 marks)