ELEMENT 3B: Control of Hazardous Substances

1. Give the meaning of the following AND give an example: Carcinogen (2 marks) ii) Mutagen (2 marks)

1. Carcinogens are agents with the capability to produce malignant tumors. They normally attack the cell
reproduction mechanism. It causes changes in the cell’s DNA resulting in production of abnormal cells with
uncontrollable growth and its effects are irreversible, continuing well after exposure to the agent has taken
place. Eg: Asbestos.
2. A mutagen causes mutations or changes in the DNA of cells and the damage caused can be passed on to future
generations. The damage to the cell may kill it and there is always the danger that it can in addition lead to
cancer. Eg: Benzene

2. A health and safety practitioner and an occupational health nurse are preparing a training presentation to be
given to workers who could be exposed to carcinogens in the workplace.
a. Describe control measures specific to carcinogens that should be included in the presentation. (6 marks)

It would be beneficial to begin the presentation with an explanation of the nature of carcinogens, such as their
special properties and how they differ from normal toxins.

Information should also be included as to how they might be identified such as through labels with reference given
to warning phrases and hazard symbols (H350 and H350i for carcinogen) that might be used.

As for control measures, these would include limiting their use to a level as low as reasonably practicable and by
using a totally enclosed system. Limiting exposure by reducing the number of workers exposed, reducing duration
of work, reducing the quantity of carcinogenic substance used etc can be considered while practical. It would also be
necessary to provide appropriate storage including the use of closed/sealed containers which should, for transfer be
labelled and securely closed along with appropriate disposal of waste products. Areas where the carcinogens are
used should be designated with identifying signs to indicate their boundaries. Precautions should also be taken
against contamination, including the prohibition of eating and drinking in contaminated areas, and the provision of
adequate washing facilities. While personal protective equipment such as overalls and gloves should be worn,
workers should be made aware that the equipment is only useful as a secondary control in combination with other
controls. Periodic monitoring to ensure safe levels to be ensured.

3. Organic solvents, which are classified as harmful and sensitizing, are used as a thinning agent for paints which
will be used by workers.
a. Outline the strategy to be used in the prevention and control of exposure to the organic solvents. (8 marks)

In devising a strategy for preventing or controlling exposure to organic solvents, consideration would have to be given to
the substitution of the solvents with substances that are less hazardous and to changing the method of applying the
paint particularly if it is currently sprayed.

It might also be possible to isolate the process and to minimise the number of workers exposed to the solvents by
reducing both the quantity of paint used and the exposure time of the workers.

A local exhaust ventilation system could be fitted in the application area and procedures introduced to deal with any
spillages that might occur.

Workers could be provided with respiratory protective equipment and other personal protective equipment such as
overalls and gloves and given instruction and training in the hazards associated with the process and the control
measures to provided, particularly in the use and fitting of the protective equipment and clothing.

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Additionally, it would be necessary to provide adequate washing facilities and facilities for the storage of clothing and to
prohibit eating and drinking in the work area.

4. A slightly corrosive solution is used as a treatment in part of a manufacturing process. The solution is applied
by hand brushing. For this process, other methods of application are not practicable.
a. Outline the factors that should be considered in the selection of personal protective equipment to
adequately protect the skin and the eyes of those involved in the process. Marks:10
b. Outline the content of a training program that will assist workers to use the personal protective equipment
correctly. Marks:5
c. Identify a range of practical measures (other than training) that can be taken to encourage the use of the
personal protective equipment and maintain its effectiveness. Marks:5

(a) The factors to be considered in the selection of personal protective equipment firstly for the hands, then for the face
and eyes and finally for the rest of the body.

For the selection of protective gloves, relevant factors were

1. The chemical resistance to the corrosive solution and the chemical breakthrough time.
2. The length of time that the gloves had to be worn.
3. The level of dexterity required for the task.
4. The length of the glove to afford adequate protection.
5. The durability of the gloves.
6. The need to ensure that a suitable range of sizes is available for the various users, and any worker allergies to
the glove material or any other skin problems.

In the selection of eye protection, relevant factors were

1. The risk of splashing the face as well as eyes.
2. The provision of advice on the use of goggles or a face shield with the appropriate level of chemical resistance
and not glasses; and
3. Their compatibility with other protective equipment if this was required.

In the selection of body protection,

1. Aprons and/or overalls and appropriate footwear.
2. Consultation and user trials.
3. Comfort of the equipment.

Reference to legislation and ILO guidance and ensuring that that all personal protective equipment provided met the
appropriate standards.

(b) Workers should receive training in topics such as:

1. The health risks of the chemical in use;
2. The type of personal protection to be used and the reason for its use;
3. The methods to be used for putting on and taking off the equipment without causing contamination including
decontaminating or discarding gloves after use;
4. The methods of examining the equipment for damage or degradation, particularly gloves, and
5. The methods for reporting defects and obtaining replacements;
6. How to store the equipment correctly and
7. Finally, how to carry out self-examination of the skin and the action to be taken if problems were to occur.

(c) Practical measures to be taken to encourage the use of the personal protective equipment and maintain its
effectiveness such as:

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1. Management leading by example.

2. Workers being involved in the selection of the equipment.
3. Ensuring the availability of a range of sizes in gloves and fully adjustable face shields.
4. Ensuring workers were required to sign for their equipment and maintaining records of issue.
5. Issuing the equipment on a personal basis and providing adequate storage facilities.
6. Using propaganda, signs and posters and incentive schemes.
7. Monitoring compliance in the use of the equipment with a recognized code of discipline for non-use; and
8. Finally monitoring the effectiveness of the equipment issued and replacing it with an alternative type if
problems were encountered.

5. Workers cutting and finishing stone are exposed to stone dust. Stone dust has been assigned a legally
enforceable Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL).
a. Give the meaning of ‘Occupational Exposure Limit’ (OEL). Marks:3
b. Explain the factors to be considered when undertaking a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks
from exposure to stone dust. Marks:11
c. Outline a suitable range of control measures that could reduce the risk to these workers from exposure to
stone dust. Marks:6

(a) An occupational Exposure Limit (OEL), is the maximum concentration of a substance to which workers may be
exposed by inhalation. The concentration is measured in mg/m3 or ppm and is averaged over a reference period, either
long term over a period of eight hours intended to control effects by restricting the total intake by inhalation over one or
more work shifts, or short term, usually fifteen minutes, to control effects that may be seen after a brief exposure. For
the control of stone dust to be adequate the OEL should not exceeded and the principles of good hygiene practice
should be followed.

(b) In undertaking an assessment of the risks from exposure to stone dust, factors to be considered include:
1. The health effects of the dust such as irritation to the skin, eyes and respiratory tract (physical structure such as
crystalline or amorphous may also have a bearing on longer term health effects);
2. The number of persons exposed, the level, duration and frequency of their exposure and the susceptibility of
individuals such as to asthma;
3. The routes of entry of the dust such as through inhalation or ingestion;
4. The particle size of the dust which will determine how far into the body the dust will pass;
5. The way in which the work is carried out whether by hand or power tool;
6. The level and effectiveness of existing control measures and results from the monitoring of airborne contaminants
and their comparison with the OEL together with the results of health surveillance.

(c) As for suitable control measures, for operations carried out in a workshop:
i) The use of local exhaust ventilation would be required but for outside work damping down would be the
measure that would have to be used.
ii) Controls to be used in both situations include the use of cutting tools with in-built extraction or a damping
spray;
iii) The provision and use of respiratory protective equipment (RPE) which should be comfortable to wear for
extended periods of use, and compatible with other personal protective equipment such as eye and hearing
protection, gloves and overalls; and
iv) Facilities both for washing, changing and for the laundering and storage of overalls.
v) RPE users should also be subject to face-fit testing and the RPE itself properly cleaned and stored when not
in use.
vi) Training for workers on hazards and precautions was also relevant.

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6. It is often necessary to monitor a worker’s personal exposure to hazardous substances using a variety of
methods including gravimetric analysis; microscopy; chemical analysis. For EACH of these three measurement
principles:
a. Identify a type of hazardous substance, AND suggest a typical workplace situation, where such a
measurement may be necessary; Marks:6
b. Outline the type of equipment and the methodology used to determine the worker’s personal exposure to
the hazardous substance. Marks:14

(a) The gravimetric method for measuring personal exposure to hazardous substances may be used for measuring total
inhalable or respirable dusts for instance in a woodworking workshop or in the manufacture of chemicals. Microscopy
would be used for the measurement of fibers such as following the accidental disturbance or planned removal of
asbestos. Chemical analysis is used in the measurement of gases, vapors, fumes and some dusts in workplaces such as
laboratories or those involved in the manufacture of chemicals.

(b) With gravimetric, a filter on a sampling head attached to a pump is used. There are various types of sample head
depending on the type of dust being determined (e.g. 7 hole, IOM and the cyclone).

The filter is weighed before and after sampling and the concentration, expressed in mg/m³, is determined from the
weight gain and the volume of air drawn through the pump during the sampling period.

With microscopy, a membrane filter fitted on an appropriate sampling head (e.g. cowled) is attached to a pump.

After sampling is completed, a phase contrast microscope is used to count the fibers. The number of fibers in a known
proportion of the sample is calculated and extrapolated to the whole sample with the result being expressed as fibers
per milliliter of air (f/ml). As far as chemical analysis is concerned, there are numerous active and passive collection
devices. For example, a tube or sampling head with a filter impregnated with an adsorbing material such as charcoal,
tenax or silica attached to a pump. After sampling it is desorbed and analyzed in a laboratory. Analysis techniques
include mass spectrometry, spectrometry and gas chromatography. Concentrations are expressed in parts per million or
milligrams/m³.

General points associated with each monitoring method include the necessity: to calibrate the pumps used; to draw a
known volume of air through the filter or tube; to take a number of samples to minimize errors in measurement; and to
ensure the sampling head was placed in the breathing zone.

7. A company is considering substituting a solvent it currently uses for one that is thought to be more effective.
a. Outline the factors that should be considered before a decision is taken to make the change. Marks:10

The information that would enable a comparison to be made between the risks from the proposed substance with those
of the existing one.

- Much of this information might be gained from the manufacturers’ safety data sheets for both substances.

- Specific information on the proposed substance would relate to:

a) The physical form of the substance (eg whether aerosol or liquid);

b) The possible routes of entry of the substance into the body;
c) Its flammability and volatility;
d) Its short- and long-term health effects;
e) Applicable exposure limits such as WELs; the quantity of the substance that would be used;
f) The number of persons likely to be exposed and the level and frequency of their exposure;

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g) Personal susceptibilities of those involved with particular reference to workers who might be especially
vulnerable such as young persons or workers with a liver or heart condition;
h) Additional control measures that might be required;
i) Storage arrangements for the solvent particularly in the light of its potential flammability and combustibility;
j) The procedures that might have to be introduced for the disposal of the substance and for dealing with any
emergency; and
k) Financial issues such as the cost of providing adequate protection such as respirators and gloves.

8. 3.1.7 In a chemical process, workers use a mixture that contains two organic liquids, MMA and PPO. Table 1
below shows the average personal exposure levels to the organic liquids for one worker measured over an 8-
hour day and Table 2 shows the exposure limits for the two components (MMA and PPO). Substances in a
mixture may interact in different ways to cause harm.

a. Outline what is meant by independent, additive and synergistic interactions. (4)

b. Using the information in Table 1, calculate the 8-hour Time- Weighted Average (TWA) exposure of the
worker to BOTH MMA AND PPO. (8) Your answer should include detailed working to show you
understand how the exposure is determined.
c. Using relevant information from Tables 1 and 2, explain what actions might be required by the employer to
control exposure. Assume that the components have independent toxic action. (8)

a) Independent means the action is on different organs or tissues (or different mechanism); additive means they
act on the same organs/tissues (or similar mechanism); and synergistic is where the combined effect is
considerably greater than the sum of the individual effects.
had few problems with the calculations in part (b), easily evaluating the
MMA concentration as 23.4ppm and PPO as 131.25ppm.
For part (c), candidates needed to note that neither the MMA nor the PPO time weighted average concentrations
exceeded their respective exposure limits (long-term or short-term). It was important to explain this by reference
to the data in the tables. That established, other actions may still be needed. For example, more detailed/extensive
measurements to confirm the result was true for other areas and employees. The assumption of independent
action may also be invalid, so may require investigation. Other components are also mentioned (in the second step)
and these might need to be measured. In any case, routine periodic monitoring should be undertaken going
forward.

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ELEMENT 3B: Control of Hazardous Substances

9. Construction workers regularly use cement. Several of the long-term workers and one of the new recruits have
complained about red and sore skin on their hands.
a. Explain the possible reasons for the symptoms they are experiencing. (6)
b. Outline control measures that could be used to minimise these symptoms in this situation. (4)

Ans: Control measures include:

 Eliminate the use of cement by substituting it with non-cement-based levelling compounds like polymeric
compound which is safer to use
 Minimise contact using hand tools
 Wearing protective gloves
 Hand washing facility
 Pre-work and after-work moisturizer cream to restore the natural oils and protective barrier of the skin
 Information and training for workers on the possible risk and safe ways of working
 Supervision to ensure use of PPE and controls
 Health surveillance to identify groups at risk and to identify early symptoms

10. A company uses a range of colored powders in the manufacture of paints. These powders are added directly to
a mixing vessel from sacks. The company is concerned about the level of exposure to its workers from the
powders during this part of the process.
a. Outline the practical control measures that could be used to minimize exposure to these powders during
the addition. (8)
b. Describe the ways the body may defend itself against inhaled dusts. (12)

(a) Practical controls to minimize exposure to the colored powders during addition include:
1. Introducing the color in a different form like pellets or dye solution as appropriate, so as to avoid spreading of
the powdered substance
2. Automated feeder system in case substitution is impossible using a conveyer belt which minimize human
intervention and hence exposure
3. Extraction of contaminated air using local exhaust ventilation with inlet located near the place of origin
4. Vacuum system to clear spillage
5. Appropriate PPE – gloves, googles, disposable mask changed regularly (If the substance is not toxic) and
respirator if the substance is harmful.
6. Supervision to ensure execution and effectiveness of control measures
7. Appropriate handling techniques where automation is not practical for debagging the colour powder.
8. Information and training for the workers about the risks and controls measures in place.

11. A small motor vehicle repair workshop uses paints known to contain isocyanates.
a. Outline the health effects from exposure to isocyanates. (3)
b. Outline the factors to consider when assessing the risks arising from using these paints. (7)
c. Outline the practical measures to control exposure to the isocyanates when spray painting the vehicles in
the workshop. (10)

(C) The use of a less harmful substitute would be the first consideration but if this was not possible, the quantities used
should be kept to minimum and the application of the paint enclosed in a spray booth, separated from the rest of the
workshop, to protect workers not involved in the spraying process. The booth should be provided with a local exhaust
ventilation system discharging to a safe place outside the workshop and procedures introduced for the regular cleaning,
maintenance and testing of the system. Depending on exposure levels, respiratory protective equipment (RPE) such as,
for example, half face filter masks fitted with the appropriate filters or cartridges changed on a regular basis to avoid

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ELEMENT 3B: Control of Hazardous Substances

saturation would have to be worn. The RPE should have suitable performance (APF value) and be supplemented with
other personal protective equipment such as overalls, gloves and eye protection. It might be advisable to introduce
health surveillance of the workers involved which could include biological monitoring to detect absorption through the
skin, lung function tests, and skin tests for the presence of dermatitis. Monitoring of the workplace environment and the
provision of washing facilities also need to be considered. Finally, the workers would need to be fully briefed on the
hazards associated with the operation and the precautions that must be taken.

12. 3.1.11 A small motor vehicle repair workshop uses paints known to contain isocyanates.
a. Outline the health effects from exposure to isocyanates. (3)
b. Outline factors to consider when assessing the risks arising from using these paints. (7)
c. Outline practical measures to control exposure to the isocyanates when spray painting the vehicles in the
workshop. (10)

(c) Practical measures to control exposure includes:

1. Substitution for less volatile forms of isocyanate, for example: MDI based paints rather than TDI.
2. Local exhaust ventilation system specifically designed for use with isocyanates, regularly cleaned and
maintained.
3. Air monitoring.
4. Suitable respiratory protective equipment (RPE) depending on exposure levels (for example: half-face
respirators with appropriate filters/cartridges or air-fed full-face masks). Regularly monitored and well
maintained.
5. Suitable PPE and clothing including overalls, gloves, and eye protection.
6. Information and training for the workers on the risk and control measures
7. Supervision to ensure effectiveness
8. Health surveillance to identify symptoms

13. Workers in carpentry workshops and sawmills may be exposed to hardwood dust.
a. Outline the risks to health from hardwood dust. (5)
b. Identify types of respiratory protective equipment (RPE) that could be used by the workers. (3)
c. Other than providing RPE, outline control measures that should be considered in order to protect those
who are exposed to hardwood dust. (12)

(a) Acute health effects

1. Dermatitis and other skin disorders.

2. Rhinitis (inflammation of nasal mucous membranes / runny nose).

Chronic health effects

1. Sensitizing asthma.
2. Sensitizing dermatitis.
3. Nasal cancer.

(b) types of RPE expected included disposable respirators, reusable respirators, powered masks and hoods, fan assisted
respirators and compressed-air respirators

(c) other than RPE, control measures include:

1. Enclosure of the process

2. Minimizing number of workers exposed and duration

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ELEMENT 3B: Control of Hazardous Substances

3. Use of LEV to remove contaminated air

4. Proper maintenance of workplace, regular cleaning with precautions
5. Vacuuming machinery to avoid spread of hardwood dust
6. Hygiene measures designated area for washing, handling of soiled clothing.
7. Designated area for eating and resting
8. Clear legible warning signs to designate area with exposure and other utility areas
9. Regular monitoring of airborne concentration levels
10. Supervision to ensure effectiveness
11. Provision of information and training on risks, control measures, use of PPEs etc.
12. Health surveillance to ensure early detection of discomfort and to identify vulnerabilities

14. A worker in a furniture manufacturing workshop spends most of their time machine-sanding hardwood with a
hand-held power sander.
a. Outline control measures to help protect the worker and their colleagues from the risks of exposure to
hardwood dust. (10)

Control measures appropriate for protecting workers and colleagues from risks of hardwood dust include:

1. Substitution with softwood reducing which produces lesser dust

2. Partial enclosure
3. Extraction methods including local exhaust ventilation
4. Use of tools with dust extraction facilities
5. Wet Suppression technique while working and cleaning. Use of tools with sprayer, effective use of vacuum
cleaning
6. Reducing exposure time
7. Effective use of PPE with face -fitting test. Use of hooded RPE when appropriate.
8. Information and training
9. Designated areas for eating, washing, storing soiled work-cloth etc.
10. Health surveillance measures to rule out exposure

15. 3.1.14 (a) Explain how exposure to silica dust can cause silicosis. (4)
a. (b) The construction of a city’s underground rail line involves extensive tunnelling and concrete spraying
activities.
b. Outline controls that reduce the risk of employees developing silicosis, while carrying out tunnelling and
concrete spraying activities. (6)

(a) Breathing in the very fine dust of crystalline silica can lead to the development of silicosis (scarring of the lung tissue
and breathing difficulties).

Silicosis may be acute:

a) Rapidly progressive breathlessness.

b) Death within a few months of onset.

Dust that reaches the lower part of the airways and the alveoli (where there are no cilia) is attacked by special cells
called macrophages. These are extremely important for the defence of the lungs. They keep the air sacs clean.
Macrophages virtually swallow the particles in a process known as phagocytosis (see notes on the innate immune
system later). Then the macrophages, in a way which is not well understood, reach the part of the airways that is

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ELEMENT 3B: Control of Hazardous Substances

covered by cilia. The wavelike motions of the cilia move the macrophages which contain dust to the throat, where they
are spat out or swallowed.

If the amount of dust is large, the macrophage system may fail. Dust particles and dust containing macrophages collect
in the lung tissues, causing injury to the lungs.

The amount of dust and the kinds of particles involved influence how serious the lung injury will be, for example: after
the macrophages swallow silica particles, they die and give off toxic substances. These substances cause fibrous or scar
tissue to form. This tissue is the body’s normal way of repairing itself. The general name for this condition for fibrous
tissue formation and scarring is fibrosis, for example: crystalline silica, causes a condition called silicosis.

(b)

 Elimination by substituting non silicate materials, for example: using non-silica grits for blasting.
 Eliminating or reducing dust levels by designing out the need for dust generating activities, for example: cutting
or drilling concrete.
 Controlling exposure to silica dust by dust suppression techniques (wet working) and local exhaust ventilated
tools to remove the dust at source.
 Respiratory protective equipment requires careful selection. For the dustiest processes, positive pressure or
airline breathing apparatus will probably be necessary.
 Good hygiene controls – washing facilities and laundry arrangements.

3.2 Working with Asbestos and Lead

16. Workers manufacturing lead-acid batteries may be exposed to a range of hazardous substances.
a. Outline the control measures that should be in place to reduce the risks of exposure to the main hazardous
substances in use in this process. (8marks)

Elimination or substitution of the hazardous substances was not an option so control measures include:

a. prohibiting vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, those of reproductive capacity and young workers from
working with lead
b. designing work systems and processes, for example automation, to minimise exposure
c. the use of engineering controls such as exhaust ventilation and ensuring the controls were maintained and their
performance monitored at regular intervals
d. prohibiting eating and drinking in contaminated areas and providing facilities free from lead for this purpose and
also for washing and changing
e. the provision and use of respiratory protective equipment to counter exposure to acid mist and lead fume
f. the provision of acid resistant gloves, goggles and face shields as a protection against acid splashes
g. carrying out regular atmospheric monitoring for the presence of lead and acid mist
h. introducing procedures for medical surveillance including testing for the presence of lead in blood
i. providing workers with information, instruction and training on the risks associated with the process and the
control measures that should be taken.

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ELEMENT 3B: Control of Hazardous Substances

17. 3.2.2 A contractor is hired to fit a noticeboard in a small meeting room in an office block. This task involves
drilling through some asbestos insulating board.
a. Not Included
b. Outline the issues the contractor should consider when assessing the risk of exposure to asbestos arising
from this task. (5 marks)
c. Outline control measures the contractor should take when carrying out this task.

(b) The risk assessment should consider a wide range of issues including:

(i) the type of asbestos - Three main types have been used in Great Britain:
1. Crocidolite (blue)
2. Amosite (brown)
3. Chrysotile (white).
Crocidolite and amosite are ‘amphibole’ asbestos (amphiboles are a group of minerals with similar crystal
structures containing a silicate chain and combinations of sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and aluminium),
whereas chrysotile asbestos (a hydrated magnesium silicate) is ‘serpentine’ asbestos. Exposure to amphibole
asbestos poses a greater health hazard than exposure to chrysotile, but all types can cause asbestos-related
diseases.
(ii) whether it was likely to become airborne (and in what concentration)
(iii) the steps needed to prevent or control exposure.

Other standard hazardous substance risk factors were also expected.

(c) Control measures outlined in more detail) would include:

1. limiting numbers of people exposed (various met hods to achieve this)

2. limiting contamination spread
3. limiting fibre emission at source (work methods) and capturing fibres that did escape
4. use of specific PPE
5. decontamination
6. training.

18. (a) Outline the routes of entry and the possible effects on the body when someone is exposed to high levels of
lead. (6)
(b) Outline the risk control measures that a lead-acid battery manufacturer should have in place to adequately
control the risks of exposure of their employees to lead. (14)

(a) Inorganic – inhalation.

− Nausea, vomiting, headaches.

− Anaemia, muscle weakness, kidneys.

Organic – inhalation and skin.

− Muscles, mania, coma.

(b)In order to adequately control the risks of exposure of employees to lead, first of all a risk assessment must be done.
Elimination/ substitution of the lead should be considered, though it is very likely that it is not reasonably practicable in
this scenario. Lead-acid battery manufacture may involve exposure to lead through: manipulation of lead oxides;

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mixing/pasting; casting/melting of lead; trimming/abrading of pasted plates. Controls will include (in no particular
order):

1. Enclosing the process where possible.

2. Changing work methods so that they minimise the generation of lead dust/fumes.
3. Arrangements for safe handling, storage and transport of lead and lead waste (e.g. sealed containers).
4. Reducing numbers of people exposed and their level/duration of exposure to a minimum.
5. Minimise inventory of lead held at the workplace.
6. Use of general dilution ventilation and LEV to control airborne concentrations.
7. Regular cleaning of workplace (so lead dust doesn’t accumulate).
8. Hygiene measures (washing hands before eating – use of nail brushes, facilities for laundering and changing
clothes (contamination)).
9. Prohibiting eating/drinking/smoking in contaminated areas.
10. Provision of PPE (RPE, gloves, etc.) where necessary.
11. Enforcing use of control measures.
12. Monitoring airborne concentrations (where exposure is likely to be significant).
13. Medical surveillance with blood/urine lead levels and action taken if limits exceeded.
14. Maintenance.
15. Training/information.
16. Emergency procedures.
17. Young people and pregnant workers should not be permitted to work with lead in lead-acid battery manufacture
processes.

19. 3.2.4 Building maintenance workers use hot and cold methods to strip old paint containing lead from doors and
windows. This produces dust, fume and vapour containing lead.
a. Identify the specific health effects to the workers relating to working with lead. (4)
b. Outline the requirements for health surveillance for workers who work with lead. (4)
c. Workers have a general duty to comply with the health and safety measures put in place by their
employers. Outline what the workers should do to protect their health. (12)

(a) Lead can be absorbed into the body through the respiratory tract or from the stomach. Some
organic lead compounds can be absorbed through the skin. About one third of inhaled lead
fume and one tenth of ingested lead are absorbed.
Lead and its compounds are cumulative poisons which means that lead levels build up in tissues,
organs and bones eventually reaching toxic levels.
Once lead has entered the human body it combines with erythrocytes (red blood cells)
causing anaemia. Lead also settles in bones taking the place of calcium. It can also damage the functionality of the liver
and kidneys, damage the nervous system and cause brain damage.
Lead may pass through the placenta from mother to the unborn baby causing serious damage to the foetus and
hampering growth and is also found in milk if the mother has been exposed.
(b) Regular biological monitoring of the level of lead in blood or urine must be undertaken to
detect any absorption of lead as mandated by Control of Lead at Work 2002 Regulation. Exposure is significant if it is
greater than half of OEL, in which case control measures to be strengthened in the workplace to reduce exposure.
Blood-lead levels are usually checked every three months, especially for a woman capable of
having children and young persons under 18. It may be more often if work involves a process
where lead could be rapidly absorbed e.g. work on lead-burning processes where exposure to
lead fume could be high unless properly controlled.

(c) Responsibilities of employees in order to protect their health include:

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20. Using their training to understand procedure to be followed in case of exposure.

21. Understanding control measures in place and following them.
22. Identifying and following procedures in case of emergency in order to restrict exposure
23. Using PPEs as instructed without fail, proper maintenance of PPE and reporting damage as soon as identified
24. Verifying efficiency of engineering controls before use and reporting in case of discrepancy or doubt
25. Care to be given while storing and transferring Lead containing substances by strictly following procedure,
ensuring correct labelling etc.
26. Maintaining personal hygiene using allocated facilities
27. Avoiding eating, drinking and rest in exposed areas to avoid ingestion
28. Correct handling of contaminated work-cloths and accessories, proper management of lead exposed tools
ensuring proper maintenance and cleaning
29. Cooperating with biological monitoring procedures to identify extend of exposure
30. Reporting ill-health to authorities timely

31. Toxicity
a. Explain the meaning of the term ‘toxicity’. (2)
b. Describe the physical characteristics of asbestos and give TWO occupational examples where it is likely to
be encountered. (4)
c. Outline the diseases caused by exposure to asbestos AND their signs and symptoms. (7)
d. Outline the equipment and method that should be used to determine the level of asbestos fibres in the air in
the workplace. (7)

(a) Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to cause damage to an organism. Toxicity may be systemic or local,
can be acute or chronic and can be divided into different classes such as, for example, carcinogenic.

(b) Asbestos is a fibrous substance and occurs in different forms such as white chrysotile), blue (crocidolite) and brown
(grunerite). It is thermally very stable and is widely used as insulation material because of its fire resistance. It has good
absorption qualities, is of average tensile strength and is chemically inert. Asbestos may be encountered in the removal
of pipe lagging or in drilling into wall or roof panels.

(c) one disease caused by exposure to asbestos is mesothelioma, a cancer that develops in the mesothelium, a lining
covering major organs. It most commonly develops around the lung lining though the abdominal lining (peritoneum)
may also be affected. Other diseases are cancer of the bronchus (lung cancer) and asbestosis, pneumoconiosis where
scar tissue is irreversibly formed.

Signs and symptoms are generally common to all the diseases and include chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath and
emphysema. An additional symptom of lung cancer is spitting up blood while those of asbestosis are a progressive
reduction in lung capacity and a pre-disposition to lung cancer. As far as latency is concerned, symptoms may not be
apparent for some time.

(d) the equipment that should be used to determine the level of asbestos fibres in the air of a workplace comprises a
controlled flow sampling pump fitted with a filter head with cowl and a membrane filter to capture fibres. The method
used follows a published standard and involves the calibration of the pump and drawing a known volume of air
(calculated from time and the pump flow rate) through a membrane filter.

The filter is removed after sampling and mounted on a microscope slide and the number of fibres counted. The
concentration is calculated as fibres per ml from the fibres counted and the calculated volume of air used in obtaining
the sample.

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32. 3.2.6 A survey of an industrial building has revealed extensive use of asbestos material.
a. (a) Identify where asbestos might have been used in the building. (2)
b. (b) Outline control measures that could help protect workers in the industrial building from exposure to
asbestos. (8)

(a) Places where asbestos might have been used in the building are:

1. Loose packing between floors and in partition walls.

2. Sprayed (‘limpet’) fire insulation on structural beams and girders.
3. Lagging on pipe-work, boilers, calorifiers, heat exchangers etc.
4. Asbestos insulation board (AIB) in ceiling tiles, partition walls, soffits, service duct covers, fire breaks, heater
cupboards, door panels, lift shaft linings, fire surrounds.
5. Asbestos cement (AC) in roof sheeting, wall cladding, walls and ceilings, bath panels, boiler and incinerator flues,
fire surrounds, gutters, rainwater pipes and water tanks.

(b) Control measures that could help protect workers in the building from exposure to asbestos includes:

1. Restricting access to areas of building with high asbestos content with signs and barricade
2. Taking necessary action to remove or replace parts that can be removed with safe alternatives
3. Devising safe working procedures that can carry out the task without disturbing the asbestos
4. Training for the workers to work without disturbing
5. Hiring licensed asbestos removalists in case of need to work on the structures and components identified with
asbestos content.
6. Periodic air monitoring to analyse level of airborne Asbestos fibre
7. Ensure removal of asbestos waste with storage and labelling following GHS specification, in a safe and
appropriate manner
8. Appropriate use of PPE in works involving possibility of exposure

3.3 Ventilation
33. Outline the main design features of the following parts of a Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) system:
a. Inlet / hood (2 marks)
b. Ducting (3 marks)
c. Fan (2 marks)
d. Outlet / exhaust (3 marks)

(a) Design features of the inlet or hood include:

its shape and size, the material of its construction, its capture and face velocity and its positioning in relation to the
contaminant source.

(b) Design features of the ducting include:

a need to address its intern al finish and the nature of its bends, the material of its construction, its transport velocity
and the access provided for testing and maintenance.

(c) Design features of the fan include:

the type of fan required whether centrifugal or axial and propeller giving reasons for the choice, the speed and power
required and the possibility of the level of noise it might produce.

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(d) Design features of the outlet or exhaust include:

its positioning, the avoidance of cowls, its ability to achieve environmental standards at the point of discharge and again
the level of noise that might be produced.

34. 3.3.5 Outline the main design features of the following parts of a Local Exhaust Ventilation (LEV) system:
a. (a) inlet/hood; Marks:2
b. (b) ducting; Marks:3
c. (c) fan; Marks:2
d. (d) outlet / exhaust. Marks:3

(a) It should have considered features of the inlet or hood such as its shape and size, the material of its construction, its
capture and face velocity and its positioning in relation to the contaminant source.

(b) As for ducting, there would be a need to address its internal finish and the nature of its bends, the material of its
construction, its transport velocity and the access provided for testing and maintenance.

(c) The type of fan required whether centrifugal or axial and propeller giving reasons for the choice, the speed and
power required and the possibility of the level of noise it might produce.

(d) As for the outlet or exhaust, design features include its positioning, the avoidance of cowls, its ability to achieve
environmental standards at the point of discharge and again the level of noise that might be produced.

35. Ventilation
a. Outline why it is important to measure transport (duct) velocity when assessing the efficiency of a local
exhaust ventilation (LEV) system. (2 marks)
b. Outline the methods that can be used to measure transport velocity in an LEV system. (5 marks)
c. Identify other measurements that can be used to determine if the LEV system is working as designed. (3
marks)

(a) Duct velocity must be sufficient to keep the contaminant airborne since, if this was not the case, the contaminant
might settle in the ductwork and affect the overall efficiency of the system. This is considered together with the size,
weight and properties of the contaminant to deduce the efficiency of LEV

(b) An outline of the principles and use of both a thermal anemometer and a pitot static tube was expected. The
operating principles of each instrument were required, in terms of the anemometer responding to the cooling power of
airflow and the pitot static tube measuring, via a pressure gauge, velocity pressure which can then be converted to
velocity. Regarding actual use, the importance of finding a suitable sampling point should have been mentioned. Any
such sampling point should be in an area of ducting that is free from turbulence such as a long stretch of ducting.

Reference to a swinging vane anemometer and probe was also acceptable. However, reference to rotating vane
anemometers was inappropriate in response to this part of the question.

(c) Other parameters which might be used to determine the efficiency of LEV systems include: velocity, pressure
differential across the filter system, and fan direction and speed. Measurement of the level of contaminants in the
workplace air may also give an indication of the efficiency of a system, as will the emission levels from the indication of
the efficiency of a system, as will the emission levels from the exhaust, the static pressure and power consumption.

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36. A local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system is used to reduce exposure of workers to dust in a workplace. The
employer needs to assess the ongoing effectiveness of the LEV system.
a. Identify THREE simple qualitative methods that can be used to assess the effectiveness of the LEV system
AND, for EACH method, explain how the effectiveness can be visually assessed. (6 marks)
b. Identify TWO quantitative methods that can be used to measure transport velocity in an LEV system AND
explain how EACH method measures the transport velocity. (4 marks)

(a) Qualitative methods include:

1. Tyndall lamps, which make fine particles easily visible

2. smoke tubes, which show the air flow
3. simple observation of components that can show build-up of dust deposits.

(b) Quantitative methods to be explained include:

1. the use of thermal anemometers

2. pitot static tubes
3. swinging vane anemometers.

37. 3.3.4 Dilution ventilation is sometimes used to control certain types of hazardous substances generated in a
workplace.
a. Outline circumstances when dilution ventilation may be appropriate as a control measure. (3 marks)
b. Explain how an effective dilution ventilation system is designed and operates to reduce exposure to a
hazardous substance. (4 marks)
c. The following specification applies in an open Plan workshop: Calculate the actual number of air changes
per hour AND comment on the suitability of the specified dilution ventilation system. (3 marks)

Workshop dimensions (metres) 10m x 10m x 3m

Volume of air throughput each hour 3000m3
Required air changes per hour 10 to 15

(a) Circumstances to be out lined include:

1. when the hazardous substances has a low toxicity (or high OEL)
2. when the generation rate of contaminants is low
3. the contaminant is a vapour, fume or gas (not dust).

(b) The explanation should include:

1. how the air input can be passive (natural air movement) or active (via fans)
2. how clean input air mixes with contaminants to dilute the concentration of the contaminants
3. positioning of air inputs and outputs depending on the relative density of contaminants and to avoid dead spots
4. how the air throughput needs to be sufficient to reduce concentrations to safe levels.

(c) The volume of the workshop is 300 m 3 (10 m x 10 m x 3 m). Number of changes per hour is 10 (3000 m 3 ÷ 300 m 3).
Although this is within the required range it is at the bottom end so a recommendation would be to increase the
throughput so this is closer to 15 changes per hour.

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38. An employer wants to use a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system to control workers’ exposure to a
hazardous gas generated during a manufacturing process.
a. Outline control options that the employer should consider before deciding an LEV system is the
appropriate means of control. (4)
b. Outline what the employer should consider when specifying an LEV system to control this hazardous gas.
(4)
c. Other than the employer, identify TWO other persons with responsibilities in relation to an LEV system.
(2)

(a) Employers should consider LEV as a part of a hierarchy of controls. Initial considerations include:
a. Elimination of emission of the hazardous gas by alteration in the process or design of the machinery.
b. Elimination of emitted hazardous gas at the source eg: Scrubber
c. Modification of the process to emit less of the hazardous substance or alternative substances with lesser
harm
d. Enclosure of the space to limit exposure

(b) Considerations on choosing LEV includes:

1. Particle size of contaminant clouds: the size of particles determines whether they are ‘inhalable’ or ‘respirable’.
2. Visibility of particle clouds: there may be particles that cannot be seen:
1. Respirable dust clouds are practically invisible to the naked eye.
2. Inhalable dust clouds are partially visible.
3. Mist and fume clouds are more visible than the equivalent concentration of dust.
3. Movement of particles in air: particles in contaminant clouds move with the air in which they are suspended, for
example:
1. Larger particles (> 100 μm) travel some distance if ejected at high speed but settle out quickly.
2. Larger particles, even of low-density material such as plastic dust, fall out of the air easily.
3. Medium sized particles (100 μm) settle out of the air near the process (depending on the
strength of local air movement).
4. Smaller particles float and remain suspended in the air for longer, and move with air currents.
This means that fine dust will be carried a long way from the source, making dust control
difficult.
4. Abrasive or corrosive particles: some particles are more abrasive than others (silica, for example), and some
are more chemically active (acids, for example), and may attack the LEV system components. This may severely
restrict the selection of materials used to construct the LEV system.
5. Sticky dust, mist and condensate: if a particulate is sticky or likely to condense, the LEV design needs to take
account of this. A heavy condensate can progressively block ducts. In these circumstances, the design of the
system needs to incorporate drain points for condensates, and access points to ease inspection and cleaning.
6. Flammable or combustible substances: many organic and metal dusts (zinc, for example) are combustible, so
LEV systems need to reduce the chances of ignition and cope with a possible dust explosion.
7. Source of the gas: Area of the source of the gas, positioning and mobile status.
8. Currents around the work area
(c)

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3.4 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

39. A slightly corrosive solution is used as a treatment in part of a manufacturing process. The solution is applied
by hand brushing. Other methods of application have been found to be impractical.
a. Outline the factors that should be considered in the selection of personal protective equipment (PPE) to
protect skin and eyes. (10 marks)
b. Identify the content of a training program that will assist workers to use the PPE correctly. (5)
c. Excluding training outline a range of practical measures that can be taken to encourage the use of the PPE
and maintain its effectiveness. (5 marks)

(a) For the selection of protective gloves, relevant factors were:

1. the chemical resistance to the corrosive solution and the chemical breakthrough time
2. the length of time that the gloves had to be worn
3. the level of dexterity required for the task
4. the length of the glove to afford adequate protection
5. the durability of the gloves
6. the need to ensure that a suitable range of sizes is available for the various users
7. any worker allergies to the glove material or any other skin problems.

In the selection of eye protection, relevant factors the risk of splashing the face as well as eyes the provision of advice on
the use of goggles or a face shield with the appropriate level of chemical resistance and not glasses their compatibility
with other protective equipment if this was required.

In the selection of body protection, candidates should have referred to aprons and/or overalls and appropriate
footwear.

Other factors relevant to all PPE selection include:

1. consultation and user trials

2. comfort of the equipment
3. reference to legislation and ILO guidance and ensuring that that all personal protective equipment provided
meets the appropriate standards.

(b) Workers should receive training in topics such as:

1. the health risks of the chemical in use

2. the type of personal protection to be used and the reason for its use
3. the methods to be used for putting on and taking off the equipment without causing contamination, including
decontaminating or discarding gloves after use

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4. the methods of examining the equipment for damage or degradation, particularly gloves, and for reporting
defects and obtaining replacements
5. how to store the equipment correctly
6. how to carry out self-examination of the skin, and the action to be taken if problems were to occur.

(c) Practical measures include:

1. management leading by example

2. workers being involved in the selection of the equipment
3. ensuring the availability of a range of sizes in gloves and fully adjustable face shields
4. ensuring workers were required to sign for their equipment and maintaining records of issue
5. issuing the equipment on a personal basis and providing adequate storage facilities
6. using propaganda, signs and posters and incentive schemes
7. monitoring compliance in the use of the equipment with a recognised code of discipline for non-use
8. monitoring the effectiveness of the equipment issued and replacing it with an alternative type if problems were
encountered.

40. 3.4.2 An airborne contaminant has an Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) of 10 ppm, 8-hour time weighted
average (TWA). Engineering controls have been introduced but the airborne concentration of the contaminant
in a workshop has been measured at 180 ppm, 8-hour TWA. The occupational hygienist has selected a piece of
respiratory protective equipment (RPE) with an assigned protection factor (APF) of 20, which is to be worn
temporarily by all employees in the contaminated area.
a. Using the data above outline how the hygienist could have calculated the APF AND whether the hygienist
has made an appropriate selection. (4 marks)
b. Outline other factors that should be taken into account when selecting appropriate RPE. (6 marks)
c. When RPE is used it may not provide the level of protection stated by the manufacturer. Outline the
possible reasons for this. (10 marks)

(a) The minimum protection required (MPR) from specific RPE is calculated as concentration of contaminant outside RPE
facepiece/ max. allowable concentration inside RPE facepiece (WEL)

 The concentration of contaminant in the air is 180 ppm

 The WEL of 10 ppm gives us the maximum concentration in the face piece that the employee should be exposed
to.

So, the minimum protection required (MPR) can be calculated as 180/10 = 18, which means the minimum APF of the
RPE for this situation is 18

The chosen piece of equipment is therefore appropriate for use. Note: A higher factor of safety could of course have
been obtained by selecting respiratory protective equipment with an even higher APF.

(b) Other factors include:

1. the nature of the dust or vapour involved

2. comfort factors such as the length of time that employees would need to wear the equipment and the type of
work to be carried out, taking into account its physical nature, the degree of movement required and the
restrictions of the working space
3. whether fit testing is needed, how easily the equipment can be put on and the training required
4. the manufacture of the equipment to an appropriate standard and its cost and durability
5. the ease of maintenance for example for c leaning and changing filters

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6. its compatibility with other forms of personal protective equipment

7. the need to consult fully with the workforce on the selection of the equipment and obtain their acceptance of
the proposed selection
8. cost.

(c) The initial selection of the equipment may have been incorrect following an inadequate assessment of the level and
type of contamination to be countered together with the work rate of the workers concerned and the length of time
that the equipment would have to be worn.

Other reasons include:

1. a poor air flow or a reduction in battery power

2. the fitting of incorrect cartridges or a failure to replace them before saturation which may be exacerbated by
other contaminants which would decrease the expected saturation time
3. equipment incorrectly fitted or incompatible with other personal protective equipment being worn
4. inadequate training in its use and particularly in the care that should be taken in its removal
5. poor maintenance and inadequate storage resulting in the face piece being left exposed
6. damage occurring during use
7. inadequate monitoring and supervision to ensure the equipment was always used when required
8. equipment not having been manufactured to the appropriate standards.

41. 3.4.3 Workers in a chemical plant are provided with gloves to protect against the possible effects of the
chemicals. In recent months, there has been an increase in the number of hand and lower arm skin complaints
amongst these workers.
a. Outline possible reasons for this increase in skin complaints. (10 marks)

Possible reasons for the increase in skin complaints include:

1. an incorrect initial selection of the protective gloves, both as far as their material was concerned and their size
and fitting
2. the fact that the gloves had degraded over time and had not been replaced, or had been damaged either
accidentally or intentionally with workers cutting off the finger ends to increase their dexterity
3. the possibility of workers having an allergy to materials, such as latex, or the presence of excess perspiration
following long periods of use
4. the failure to give the workers training in the methods to be adopted in putting on and removal of the gloves,
and in the importance of self-examination, personal hygiene and the use of after care products
5. a failure to clean gloves after use and to store them away from contaminants
6. the absence of a system for reporting defects and replacing the protection
7. inadequate levels of supervision to ensure workers used the gloves at all times
8. the possibility that a new chemical, together with a change in process and work methods, has been introduced.

b. 3.4.4 When respiratory protective equipment is in use, it may not provide the level of protection stated by
the manufacturer. Outline the possible reasons for this. (10 marks)

Reasons include:

1. inadequate initial assessment which did not take into account, the work rate, duration of wear required and the
anticipated level of contamination

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2. a poor air flow or a loss of battery power

3. the fitting of incorrect cartridges or a failure to replace them before saturation
4. poorly fitting equipment or incompatible with other personal protective equipment being worn
5. the presence of other contaminants resulting in a decrease in saturation time
6. inadequate training in its use and particularly in the care that should be taken in its removal
7. poor maintenance and inadequate storage resulting in the face piece being left exposed
8. damage occurring during use and inadequate monitoring and supervision to ensure the equipment was always
used when required
9. the fact that the equipment might not have been manufactured to the appropriate standards
10. incompatibility with other PPE leading to poor or incomplete performance
11. inadequate reliability on protection factor
12. in the event of the RPE being “powdered”, too long hose can interfere with the performance.

42. Workers in a chemical manufacturing plant need personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect their eyes
and faces when handling open containers of highly corrosive liquids.
a. Describe what should be considered when selecting the PPE for this task. (6 marks)
b. Outline arrangements that the chemical manufacturer should put in place when the selected PPE is in use.
(4 marks)

(a) Considerations to be described include:

1. compatibility issues
2. requirements to meet standards
3. ensuring adequate resistance to the chemicals in use.

(b) Arrangements to be outlined include:

1. storage
2. checking for defects
3. supervision
4. training in the use of PPE.

43. An airborne contaminant has an Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) of 10ppm, 8-hour time-weighted average
(TWA). Engineering controls have been introduced but the airborne concentration of the contaminant in a
workshop has been measured at 180ppm, 8-hour TWA. The occupational hygienist has selected a piece of
respiratory protective equipment (RPE) with an assigned protection factor (APF) of 20, which is to be worn
temporarily by all workers in the contaminated area.
a. Using the data above outline how the hygienist could have calculated the APF AND whether the hygienist
made an appropriate selection. Marks:4
b. OUTLINE other factors that should be taken into account when selecting appropriate RPE. Marks:6
c. When RPE is used it may not provide the level of protection stated by the manufacturer. Outline the
possible reasons for this. Marks:10 ANS of Q1

(a) The assigned protection factor (APF) of an item of respiratory protective equipment is the concentration of
contaminant in the air divided by the concentration in the face piece. In the scenario described, the maximum
concentration in the face piece to which a worker should be exposed would be the occupational exposure limit (OEL) –
10ppm. Therefore the minimum APF required would be 180/10 =18. An alternative way to arrive at the same answer
was to recognise that an APF of 20 would result in a concentration of contaminant in the face piece of 180/20 = 9 ppm

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which is within the OEL of 10 ppm. The hygienist has therefore made an appropriate selection though respiratory
protective equipment with a higher APF might be chosen to provide an increased factor of safety.

(b) Lots of factors must be taken into account when selecting RPE. For example:

1. The nature of contaminant; is it a dust, vapour, etc., is there an occupational exposure limit, is the contaminant
a carcinogen, mutagen or asthmagen and is it toxic on inhalation?
2. What is the expected duration of use of the RPE? Short duration use might allow the selection of a lower quality
item whereas long–term or continual use will require a much higher specification item to be used.
3. What is the type and nature of the work being carried out when wearing the RPE? Is it heavy or light work, what
degree of movement is needed, are there space constraints that might prevent the use of larger bulky items?
4. Are there compatibility issues with other PPE needed? If so, how can these issues be overcome without
compromising the effectiveness of all PPE items?
5. What about ease of maintenance? Some items of RPE require a high level of maintenance and therefore should
only be selected where this maintenance is available and adequately resourced.
6. What standards exist for the RPE and does it meet those standards? i.e. certified to the relevant international
standard.
7. What is the nature of the workforce? Are they capable of using the chosen items to an acceptable standard and
have they been consulted and involved in the selection (user acceptability)?

44. Workers carrying out a short duration task involving a corrosive vapor of ammonia have been provided with
RPE to protect them from inhalation of the corrosive vapor. The employer used the following information to
determine the selection of the RPE.
- Concentration of ammonia vapor in the workplace: 280ppm
- Occupational exposure limit for ammonia: 35ppm (15 min STEL)
- Assigned protection value for selected RPE: APF= 20
a. Explain the circumstances when it may be necessary to use respiratory protective equipment (RPE) as a
control measure to reduce exposure to a hazardous substance. (6)
b. Explain how the employer can use this information to determine if the choice of RPE is appropriate. (4)
c. Outline other factors that the employer should consider when selecting RPE for use in this particular task.
(10)

(a) Situations necessitating the use of RPE are mainly those where other control measures high up in the hierarchy of
controls are ineffective in bringing the exposure below OEL or is only able to lower the exposure partially.

 Places where elimination of the toxic substance is not possible

 Situations were substitution of contaminant is not practical
 Where there are chances of other control measures failing
 Where the toxicity of contaminant is very high
 Work in a non-inhabitable environment that cannot be carried out otherwise like diving.
 As interim measure while other controls are being put in place
 Short term or infrequent exposure where other controls are not effective
 Emergency escape for safe exit from an area where hazardous substances may be released suddenly in
the event of control systems failures, for example: a chlorine tank.
 Emergency work or temporary failure of controls where other means of controls are not reasonably
practicable.
 Where emergency rescue by trained personnel is necessary.

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(b) The Assigned Protection Factor (APF) is the level of respiratory protection that can realistically be expected to be
achieved in the workplace by 95% of adequately trained and supervised wearers, using a properly functioning and
correctly fitted respiratory protective device.

APF = Concentration of contaminant in air/ concentration of contaminant on the face after RPE

Concentration of contaminant on face = concentration of contaminant in air/APF = 280/20 = 14.

As 14 ppm is less than the OEL (35 ppm), the selection of RPE is suitable

(c)

1. Chemical & toxicological factors

a. forms of substance, i.e. solids, liquids, gases
b. nature of the hazardous substance, for example: toxic, biological agent, dust in sufficient quantities, etc.
c. routes of entry into the body, i.e. inhalation, ingestion, absorption, direct entry
d. effects on the body, i.e. acute/chronic/synergistic etc.
e. Oxygen deficiency
f. Oxygen enrichment
g. Confined spaces
2. Task related factors
a. Work rate
i. Light
ii. Medium
iii. Heavy
b. Wear time
c. Abnormal temperature or humidity
d. Power tool used
e. Clarity of vision required
f. Clarity of communication
g. Mobility
h. Congested work area
i. Potentially explosive atmosphere
3. Worker related factors
a. Facial hair
b. Facial markings
c. Spectacles or contact lenses worn
d. Eye, head, hearing or facial protection required
e. Relevant medical conditions

45. 3.4.8 Workers in a chemical plant are provided with gloves to protect against the possible effects of the
chemicals. In recent months, there has been an increase in the number of hand and lower arm skin complaints
among the workers.
a. Outline possible reasons for this increase in skin complaints. (10)

The possible reasons for the increase in skin complaints include:

1. Error in selection of PPE; without comparing the Breakthrough time and permeation rate for the chemical
exposed to.

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2. Improper maintenance of the gloves after use

3. Lack of timely replacement of glove leading to ineffective skin protection
4. Use of gloves while dealing with chemicals nots accounted for leading to variation in breakthrough time and
permeation
5. Improper seal due to body hair
6. Lack of proper fit due to availability of limited sizes
7. Increased instances of not using PPE due to discomfort.
8. Lack of supervision

46. 3.4.9 Workers in a chemical manufacturing plant need personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect their
eyes and faces when handling open containers of highly corrosive liquids.
a. (a) Describe what should be considered when selecting the PPE for this task. (6)
b. (b) Outline arrangements that the chemical manufacturer should put in place when the selected PPE is in
use. (4)

(a) compatibility issues, requirement to meet standards and ensuring adequate resistance to the specific chemicals being
used.

 The nature of the hazard. The chemical risk, the form of the chemical (spray, gas, dust, etc.) and other hazards in
the activity which may cause a risk to the eyes and/or face.
 The risk factors. For example: the risk of acid splashing the face as well as eyes.
 Intended use. Eye wear suitable for chemical and microbiological hazards are labelled ‘other use’ (as opposed to
welding, lasers). BS EN 166:2002 Personal Eye Protection. Specifications defines the performance standards,
including basic use, impact resistance, liquids, coarse dust, gases and fine dusts.
 Type of lens. Clear, tinted, filter or mesh, for example, the material, and the shape – safety glasses, goggles or
visors.
 Ocular performance. Classifies performance against a range of criteria including abrasion resistance and
resistance to fogging and misting.
 Comfort and fit. One size non-adjustable spectacle are common and cheap but provide comfort and fit to all
wearers. Spectacles should have adjustable side arms and tilting frames to provide good comfort and fit.
 Compatibility with other PPE. Side arms of spectacles and headbands of goggles maybe incompatible with full
face masks and ear protectors etc.

(b) storage, checking for defects supervision and training in the use of the PPE.

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