ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

7.1 Types of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation

7.2 Non-ionizing radiation
1. A new health club is planning to install ultraviolet (UV) tanning equipment. The equipment uses UV
sources with a higher intensity than normal sunlight to accelerate tanning.
a. Identify effects that could result from exposure to UV radiation. (4)
b. Outline control measures that could be put in place for workers and customers for the safe operation of
this equipment at the health club. (12)
c. Identify TWO other workplaces where sources of UV radiation are found AND identify how exposure to
UV radiation occurs in EACH workplace. (4)

a. Sunbed use causes short-term damage to the skin (sunburn) and eyes (conjunctivitis) and in the longer term
gives rise to premature skin ageing due to breakdown of the elastic collagen in the skin, skin cancer,
photosensitization whereby other chemicals in the body are activated by the UV to produce skin irritation and
pigment changes, weakened immune system and cataracts. Exposure before the age of 35 years significantly
increases the risk of several types of skin cancer, and younger people seem to be at greater risk.
b. Control measures that could be in place for workers and customers for safe operation of the equipment
includes: Ensure entry to the working area only for people above 18 years and preventing entry of people of
vulnerable group (have skin phototypes I or II, have large numbers of nevi (moles), tend to freckle, have a history
of frequent childhood sunburn, have pre-malignant or malignant skin lesions, have sun-damaged skin, are
wearing cosmetics (may enhance sensitivity to UV exposure), are taking medications (medical advice should be
sought to determine if the medication affects UV-sensitivity))
i. Selection of equipment with optimum power and radiation and effective safety measures
ii. Duration of individual sessions to be restricted according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Calibration
of timer in the machine to ensure correct duration.
iii. Records should be kept of customer exposure to ensure that cumulative exposure is within
manufacturer’s guidelines and medical advice.
iv. UV tanning equipment should be operated and maintained correctly in accordance with manufacturers’
guidance. Regular maintenance and PAT testing of the machine and calibration to ensure right radiation.
v. The correct lamps should be fitted, and the equipment should be set up, calibrated and maintained in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
vi. Trained staff should be present while customers are using UV tanning equipment to provide customers
with information about the risks and assist as required
vii. Staff should be made aware of the risks to themselves from working with UV tanning equipment and
how to reduce or avoid these risks.
viii. Staff training records should be kept.
ix. If more than one piece of equipment is operated in the same room screening should be provided
between the units.
x. The equipment should be cleaned and sanitized between customers.
xi. UV eye protection (goggles) should be provided for customers and for staff when maintaining
equipment.
c.

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

2. Telecommunication broadcast towers emit radio frequency (RF) radiation. If not properly controlled,
exposure to this radiation may cause harm to RF maintenance workers and members of the public.
a.
i. Outline possible health effects after exposure to high levels of RF radiation. (5)
ii. Describe practical control measures to help prevent exposure to harmful levels of RF radiation
from broadcast towers. (10)
b. Identify other workplace sources of RF radiation. (5)

a.
i. Possible health effects after exposure to high levels of Radio frequency radiation includes both thermal and
non-thermal effects. Thermal effects are caused due to the radio waves causing heating of human tissue as
they pass through it. It most effects eyes and testes as there is not enough blood circulation to carry away
the heat generated in these organs. At high dosages, RF radiation can cause abnormal rise in body
temperature and can become fatal. Focused RF Radiation also leads to cataracts and burns on skin
(erythema). Non thermal effects include stimulation of sensory nerves and tissues leading to tingling
sensations and transient disturbances to sensory perceptions leading to confusion. Risks associated with
chronic low dosage RF radiation has not been proved effectively, yet.
ii. Control measures to prevent harmful levels of radiation include:
I. Limiting the power of transmitter with design.
II. Engineering controls to prevent radiation exposure limit value
III. Demarcating and restricting access to the area near the transmitter and marking it as exclusion
zone.
IV. Timely maintenance and testing of the transmitter to ensure proper functioning

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

V. Use of exposimeter to identify the SAR value doesn’t exceed prescribed limit
VI. Administrative controls including permit to work
VII. Training and information on the risks to the workers
VIII. Health surveillance and medical examination
b. Other workplace sources include one of the earliest applications of RF energy was short-wave diathermy (use of
high frequency electric current to produce heat). It is now more likely that RF fields will be used in conjunction
with static magnetic fields in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is lower energy, and the field is almost
fully contained within the patient enclosure. “Welding” pieces of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) using certain machines
and Millimeter wave scanners (a type of full body scanner used for security screening and Radar systems.

3. Glass blowers use furnaces to produce molten glass that they then blow into shapes to make glasses and
vases. During their work they are exposed to different types of non-ionising optical radiation.
a. Identify the possible ill-health effects to the glass blowers from exposure to the non-ionising optical
radiation. (3)
b. Describe the specific requirements of the personal protective equipment that would be required to protect
the glass blowers from the non-ionising optical radiation. (3)
c. Other than ill-health effects and control measures, outline what should be considered in a radiation risk
assessment. (4)

a. Adverse health effects of non-ionising optical radiation includes damage to eye and skin in the form of skin burns
or Erythema and eye damage as photokeratitis and photo conjunctivitis along with photochemical damage to
retina (blue light eye). Delayed effects include cataract and susceptibility to skin cancer.
b. Personal protective Equipment required to protect glass blowers from non-ionising radiation includes safety
glasses or shaded googles with appropriate optical density, face shield to protect delicate facial skin getting a
major portion of radiation, heavy insulated gloves (leather gloves or gauntlets) for protection of hands from
strong IR radiation, protective coverall for estimated temperature, closed shoes, long pants.
c. A radiation risk assessment should include consideration of the level to which the worker is going to be exposed,
comparison with any applicable exposure limits or values for both whole body and localized heat stress, the
duration of exposure and how to protect particularly vulnerable groups.

4. Forestry workers are required to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect them from hazards
associated with the machinery they use. This PPE includes eye and head protection, gloves and protective
clothing. The workers are outdoors and being exposed to high levels of ultra-violet (UV), non-ionising
radiation from the sun. This situation can lead to heat-related illness and health effects from exposure to
the sun.
a. Explain the importance of maintaining heat balance in the body. (4)
b. Identify possible effects of heat-related illness. (4)
c. Outline control measures to help reduce the risks from exposure to heat and non-ionising radiation hazards
for the forestry workers. (12)

a. Maintenance of heat balance in the body is vital in the proper functioning of the body which when disturbed
causes various The responses of the cardiovascular system (increased heart rate), the thermoregulatory system
(sweating), the respiratory system (panting), and the renal and endocrine systems constitute thermal strain.
Such thermal stresses can cause in distraction and discomfort for workers in low levels and heat stroke, heat
exhaustion, heat syncope etc. when aggravated.
b. Heat related illnesses range from:

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

a. Heat Strokes- a state of thermoregulatory failure which should be treated as a medical emergency
characterized by hot, dry skin, rapidly rising body temperature, collapse, loss of consciousness,
convulsions
b. Heat Exhaustion- usually less severe than heat stroke, although it can escalate to heat stroke. It most
often occurs in persons whose total blood volume has been reduced due to dehydration, but can also be
associated with inadequate salt intake even when fluid intake is adequate. Symptoms include clammy,
moist skin, weakness or extreme fatigue, nausea, headache, no excessive increase in body temperature,
low blood pressure with weak pulse
c. Heat Syncope - Exposure of fluid-deficient persons to hot environmental conditions can cause a major
shift in the body’s remaining blood supply to the skin vessels in an attempt to dissipate the heat load.
The resulting reduction in blood supply to the brain leads to a faint.
d. Heat cramps - Heat cramps, are characterised by painful muscular spasms.
e. Prickly heat (heat rash)
c. The control measures to deal with heat exposure and non-ionising radiation hazards for forestry workers
include:
a. Proper planning of the job to minimize the number of workers required to be on field at a given time
b. Proper selection of machinery to reduce number of workers required to operate it
c. Considering various levels of automation as practical
d. Careful selection of PPE keeping means of heat dissipation in mind as well as worker comfort
e. Planning of the job to include frequent rest breaks in places of shade
f. Provision of slightly cold drinking water and saline solution to be kept handy
g. Information and training for the workers including opportunity for acclimatization
h. Provision of effective communication and monitoring while lone working
i. Health surveillance to ensure physical fitness of the workers for the job and to identify vulnerable
groups
j. Planning in of adequate and frequent short rest breaks in cool shady places

7.3 Ionizing radiation

5.
a. Identify FIVE workplace sources of ionising radiation. (5)

i.The use of non-destructive testing (NDT) equipment

ii.The medical/dental use of x-rays
iii.Re-processing nuclear fuels and the presence of radio-active isotopes in nuclear power stations
iv. The presence of ionising radiation albeit in small quantities for instance in smoke detectors and
luminous articles
v. The use of ionising radiation for process measurement and control and in laboratories for
research projects.

b. Outline control measures that should be in place when persons may be exposed to ionising radiation at work.
(15)

Control measures that should be in place where persons may be exposed to ionising radiation at work includes:

i. Limiting the time of exposure with the exclusion of particularly vulnerable groups such as young persons and
pregnant women

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ii. The use of sealed sources or those of lower intensity whenever possible
iii. Increasing the distance between the radiation source and those at risk to reduce the level of exposure
iv. Using shielding such as lead, concrete or plastic between the radiation source and those likely to be exposed
with the amount of shielding required dependent on the energy of the source
v. By containment and enclosure such as with the use of glove boxes
vi. Prohibiting eating and drinking in areas in unsealed radioactive areas together with the need for a high standard
of personal hygiene to prevent spread and the covering of all breaks in the skin with protective material
vii. The provision, use and laundering of personal protective equipment such as gloves, lab coats and over shoes
viii. The availability of competent advice from a Radiation Protection Adviser or Supervisor and the provision of
training and information to workers on the health risks involved and the control measures to be applied
ix. The preparation of plans to cope with any emergency
x. Personal monitoring by means of film badges
xi. Regular monitoring of the work area for example by means of a Geiger counter and ensuring the safe disposal
of all contaminated materials.

6. A contractor has been hired to examine the quality of a weld repair to a metal pipe on a chemical plant. It
has been decided that on-site radiography, using either gamma or X-ray sources, is the only practical
option in this case.
a. Outline suitable measures to control the radiological risks from the examination work. (10)

Control measures for limiting the radiological risk in weld repair testing using ionizing radiation includes:

i. Comprehensive Risk Assessment covering the risks arising from this job and those arising as a compounded risk
from the interaction with other works going around to arrive at a plan for execution
ii. Competent Operator who is well versed and experienced in Industrial Radiography
iii. Demarcation and isolation of the area with sufficient margin done with proper planning along with adequate
monitoring to prevent entry of unauthorized personnel
iv. Cautious handling according to set procedure of the sealed radioactive source with proper shielding as practical
v. Shielding
vi. Personal dosimetry
vii. Competent Radiation Protection Advisor
viii. Competent Radiation Protection Supervisor for enforcement of local rules
ix. Procedure for response in the event of accidental release to be in place
x. Personal Protective Equipment

7. Nurses working in a radiotherapy treatment facility use a liquid to treat patients that contains an ionising
radioactive material. The liquid is prepared by the nurses before they administer it to the patients. After
the treatment, they clean the area and equipment before disposing of any remaining liquid.
a. Outline how nurses could be exposed to the radioactive material while carrying out this work AND, in
EACH case, identify the corresponding route of entry. (4)
b. Outline practical control measures to help reduce the nurses’ exposure to the radioactive material while
they are carrying out this work. (16)

a. The ways in which nurses could be exposed to the radioactive material while carrying out this work are:
i. While preparing the solution – possibility of inhalation or through contamination of wounds along with
external radiation.
ii. While caring for the patients being treated with radiotherapy, possibility of contact with body fluids of
the patient which can be radioactive from the treatment – skin contamination and ingestion

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iii. While cleaning the exposed area and disposing the remaining liquid – possibility of radioactive
substances getting mixed with areas of common use causing exposure through ingestion,
contamination of wounds and external radiation
iv. While eating, drinking, or grooming in the areas exposed to radioactive substances or without clean
hands – possibility of ingestion and contamination of wounds
b. A well-planned system must be in place in a workplace involving the use of radioactive substances to ensure its safe
handling. Few of the control measures include
i. Making available the service of a Radiation Protection Advisor to ensure that necessary controls are in
place along with a Radiation Protection Supervisor for enforcement
ii. Selection of a place dedicated for the handling of Radioactive substance with entry restriction for
anybody who is not authorized for the treatment. Pregnant women must be kept out of the area.
iii. Effective and lean inventory management keeping the minimum necessary quantity of the radioactive
liquid in the facility
iv. Dedicated places for eating, drinking etc. as well as washing facility close to the preparation area as
well as treatment room.
v. Using shielded containers for storing and transporting the radioactive liquid.
vi. Use of ventilated cabinets for handling radioactive liquid
vii. Wearing lead aprons, and disposable gloves and shoe caps while tending to the patient.
viii. Use of PPE to avoid ingestion or contamination of the wounds like gloves, eye protection, face mask,
while handling the radioactive liquid and waterproof covering of wounds
ix. Maintaining highest level of personal hygiene while handling hazardous radioactive substances
x. Wearing a personnel dosimeter or a film badge to identify level of radiation, record to be kept
identifying cumulative level which must be utilized for appointment for radioactive tasks
xi. Radiation monitoring in the place of handling and nearby area to identify contamination and manage it
xii. Information and extensive training for the nurses on the hazards of radioactive substances and control
measures to be followed.
xiii. Procedure to be in place and practiced, including use of spill kits to handle accidental spills and
contamination
xiv. Periodic health surveillance for all personnel using the radioactive liquid to ensure minimum effects

8. Describe the possible health effects from exposure to ionising radiation. (5)
The possible health effects from exposure to ionising radiation will depend on the type of radiation and the
frequency and duration of exposure and will include nausea, vomiting, dermatitis, burns either superficially to the
skin or more penetrating burns causing cell damage, cataracts, temporary or permanent infertility, decreased
immunity and cancer induction.
Acute effects include reddening of the skin (erythema) skin burns, or on a milder scale, dermatitis. Radiation
sickness results from cell death in the GI tract and hair loss is also a symptom. Changes to DNA may occur which
may lead to cancer or hereditary damage. There is also likely to be decreased immunity which makes it more
difficult to recover from acute exposure.
Chronic effects include cataracts resulting from radiation exposure to the eye, cancer induction with a long latency
period, and possible sterility.
Genetic effects affect future generations and may result in hereditary damage and harm to the unborn fetus.

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

9. A research company is proposing to use small amounts of unsealed radioactive chemicals to act as tracers
in the monitoring of the uptake and progress of chemical substances in micro-organisms.
a. Describe the key risk control measures that should be considered with respect to the risk from radiation.
(20)

1. A risk assessment would be necessary, undertaken by a competent person appointed by the employer (the
research company). This competent person might be a Radiation Protection Adviser (RPA) or they might be a
person with sufficient knowledge, training and experience of this sort of work to be considered competent in
their own right. However, they would still work under the scrutiny of an RPA.
2. The design and specification of the laboratory where the experiments would be carried out would have to be
considered.
a. Floors and workbenches would have to be of a non-absorbent nature and easy to clean in the event of
accidental spillage or contamination.
b. Suitable lockable storage facilities would have to be provided. This would have to be clearly signed as
containing radioactive sources.
c. Containment facilities would have to be provided for the handling of the radioactive sources during
experimentation. This might be in the form of fume cupboards (partial enclosures with extraction) to
prevent any vapour, mists or aerosols formed during handling from escaping into the laboratory air
environment.
d. Total enclosure might be necessary in some instances.
3. Other containment might also have to be provided, for example incubators for growing up the micro-organism
once the radioactive source has been added. These would have to be appropriately labelled so as to indicate
the radioactive nature of the experiments being carried out.
4. The laboratory would have to be suitably designated, signed and kept secure against unauthorised access.
5. If significant doses of radiation are anticipated, then the laboratory might have to be classed as a Controlled
Area. If doses are anticipated to be lower, then it might be classed as a Supervised Area. In either case, a set of
procedures and rules would have to be developed to govern the radiation risk in the lab. This might be done by a
designated Radiation Protection Supervisor (RPS) under the control of the RPA. The RPS would be responsible
for the day to day running of the radiation protection controls.
6. Handling of radioactive sources would always be done whilst wearing lab gloves, might be done using forceps to
maximise finger distance from source and might, in some instances, be done remotely using manipulators.
7. Workers within the lab might have to be designated as Classified Workers.
8. Dosimetry would have to be carried out for workers in the lab in order to ensure that relevant dose limits were
not exceeded.
9. Dosimetry would usually be carried out using dose badges, worn on the lab coats (or fingers) of workers.
10. These badges are then collected and analysed by an accredited service routinely to give a reliable estimate of
exposure.
11. This dosimetry would be organised by the RPS. Radiation detection equipment, such as a Geiger counter, would
also be present in the lab as would spill and decontamination equipment.
12. Arrangements would have to be made for the safe storage and disposal of waste materials.
13. General good hygiene rules would apply in the lab, such as no eating, drinking (or smoking) and the requirement
to remove gloves and wash hands on finishing work with radioactive materials.

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

7.4 Lasers
10. Lasers are often used by the entertainment industry during displays and music concerts attended by
members of the public. The lasers used are of very high power and are given a hazard classification.
a. Outline the hazard classification system used for lasers. (4)
b. Outline how exposure to lasers can cause damage to the eyes. (6)
c. Outline control measures that could be used to reduce the risks to the public at such displays. (10)

a. Laser classification relates to the potential hazard of the accessible laser radiation in respect to skin or eye
damage and does not relate to other potential hazards such as electrical, mechanical or chemical hazards, or
hazards from secondary optical radiation. The intent of classification is to recognize the increased risk of injury
(at short distances from the laser) with increasing powers accessible above the Class 1 base-line.
The potential hazard can be greatly reduced by additional user protective measures, including additional
engineering controls such as protective housings.

Notes on Nomenclature

 ‘C’ in Class 1C relates to ‘contact with’ or proximity to the skin

 ‘M’ in Class 1M / 2M refers to magnifying optical viewing instruments.
 ‘R’ in Class 3R means ‘reduced, or relaxed, requirements (for the manufacturer and the Operator)
 ‘B’ in Class 3B has historical origins - in the 1993 standard Class 3 was split into 3A and 3B.
b. The wavelength of the laser radiation is significant because only light within the retinal hazard region
(wavelength range of approximately 400 to 1400 nm) can penetrate the eye sufficiently to damage the retina.
Near-ultraviolet light of certain wavelengths can damage layers of the eye near the surface, and can contribute
to cataract formation in the lens, especially in younger people whose eye tissues have greater transparency in
this wavelength range.
Light in the near infrared can produce surface damage as well, although at a higher damage threshold than for
ultraviolet light.

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

Pulsed lasers present a different hazard than those producing continuous beams as they are generally of higher
power, and a single microsecond-pulse of sufficient power can cause permanent damage if it enters the eye. A
lower-power continuous beam may only present a hazard with long-term exposure.
The cornea, lens and vitreous fluid of the eye transmit electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range of
approximately 400 to 1400 nanometers, termed the ocular focus range. Light within this range is focused by the
eye on a very small spot on the retina, concentrating its power to a high density. The dangers are similar, in
certain respects, to those presented by direct viewing of the sun, although the potential intensity is even higher
for lasers.
c. The control measures that can reduce the risk of exposure to the public include:
i. Ensuring termination of laser beams in case of outdoor shows and evaluation risk for the nearby
buildings and entities.
ii. Removal of or consideration to reflective surfaces in and around indoor or outdoor venue including
reflective confetti.
iii. Ensure enough clearance between laser installation and public access limit including vertical distance, in
which case balcony should also be considered.
iv. Care should be taken while planning to ensure that public cannot access laser path.
v. Trained laser operator who is aware of the risks and controls.
vi. Ensuring LASER that is within Maximum Permissible Exposure
vii. Rehearsing Emergency Procedures
viii. Remote interlock- Connection provided by the manufacturer for door or enclosure interlock for Class 3B
and Class 4 lasers.
ix. Safety interlocks- Required for access panels on Class 3R, 3B and 4 laser systems.
x. Key control-A key or similar device is required to control unauthorised operation of Class 3B and Class 4
lasers.
xi. Emission indicator-An audible or visible indicator should be provided by the manufacturer for each Class
3R laser (except wavelengths 400 – 700 nm) and each Class 3B and Class 4 laser system.
xii. Beam stop or attenuator/shutter Should be provided by the manufacturer for each Class 3B or Class 4
laser system.
xiii. Beam termination-The user should ensure that all beam paths are terminated at the end of their useful
path. Note: does not apply to class 1 devices.
xiv. Beam level Avoid eye level.
xv. Beam enclosure-To guard against specular reflections from Class 3R, Class 3B and Class 4 lasers – can
mean anything from screening the experimental area to piping the beam up to a total enclosure.
xvi. Eye protection- Required for open beam work with invisible beam Class 3R and all class 3B and Class 4
devices.
xvii. Protective clothing-Mainly required for Class 4 lasers but be careful with Class 3B UV lasers as well. May
need fire resistant material for some lasers.
xviii. Eye examinations-Only required after an accident but may be important to people with poor eyesight
working with Class 3B or Class 4 lasers.
xix. Training-Required for people working with any Class 3 or Class 4 laser and any modified Class 1M or
Class 2M devices.
xx. Laser labels-Required for all lasers except low power Class 1 (though need not be directly affixed if the
size of the laser product does not permit this).
xxi. Door / area signs-Required for Class 3B and Class 4 lasers used indoors, and also for Class 1M, 2M and
3R if used outdoors.

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ELEMENT 7B: Radiation

11.
a. Identify possible health effects from exposure to ionising radiation. (5)
b. Outline control measures that should be in place where workers may be exposed to ionising radiation. (15)

a. A large dose of radiation can cause rapid development of radiation sickness, evidenced by gastrointestinal
disorders, bacterial infections, hemorrhaging, anemia, loss of body fluids, and electrolyte imbalance.
An extremely high dose of acute radiation exposure can result in death within a few hours, days, or weeks.
Delayed biological effects include cataracts, temporary or permanent sterility, cancer, mutagenic (inheritable
genetic effects), or teratogenic (interferes with embryonic development) effects.
With chronic exposure, there is a delay between the exposure and the observed health effect. The effects of
chronic exposure include cancer, benign tumors, cataracts, and mutagenic or teratogenic effects.
Genetic effects are those arising from damage to reproductive cells. Irradiation of reproductive organs increases
the risk of genetic malformation and disease in offspring and subsequent generations of offspring.
b. (b) Control Measures
i. Proper shielding of radiation
ii. Reducing the duration of exposure
iii. Increasing the distance between the source as energy reduces rapidly with distance
iv. Protection against internal radiation by
i. Restricting access
ii. Designated areas for eating and washing away from sources
iii. Proper handling and storing of work cloth
v. Justification, optimisation and dose limitation
vi. Prior Risk assessment
vii. Engineering controls
i. Engineering controls
ii. Warning devices
iii. Systems of work, local rules, instructions
iv. Dose limitation below Maximum Permissible Exposure
viii. PPE
ix. Storage and handling
i. Radiation Protection Advisor (RPA)
ii. Radiation Protection Supervisor
iii. Dose assessment and recording
iv. Health Surveillance

12. Low power lasers are widely used to read bar-code labelled products at checkouts in retail premises.
Outline the design features and procedural controls that should be incorporated into these laser products
to ensure their safe operation and maintenance. (4)
Design features that should be incorporated into the laser products to ensure their safe operation and
maintenance include the laser having no greater power than Class 1; the use of embedded systems; the fitting of
a protective housing with trigger operation on the hand held version; incorporating a key control with interlock
to the power source; the provision of signage and the appropriate positioning of the laser, including hand-held
equipment, to avoid eye-level exposure.

Procedural controls include strict observance of the manufacturer’s guidance and training workers in the safe
use of the equipment for example warning them that they should not look directly into the beam; drawing up
and introducing a safe system of work for the maintenance and repair of the equipment; ensuring that if the

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case is to be removed, it requires a special key or tool and that the beam is properly controlled; introducing a
procedure for reporting defects and ensuring that any maintenance and repair of the equipment found to be
necessary is carried out by a competent person.

13. A training organisation wants to introduce hand-held laser pointers for use by their trainers when
presenting courses to students. Recent media reports suggest that some hand-held laser pointers can
contain Class 3B or Class 4 lasers.
a. Identify potential eye damage that could result from exposure to lasers with these classifications. (3)
b. Outline control measures that could help reduce the potential for eye damage to the trainers and students.
(7)

a. Light in the near-infrared can produce surface damage as well, although at a higher damage threshold than for
ultraviolet light. Pulsed lasers present a different hazard than those producing continuous beams as they are
generally of higher power, and a single microsecond-pulse of sufficient power can cause permanent damage if it
enters the eye. The light enters the eye and blinking response is not quick enough to protect the eye. A lower-
power continuous beam may only present a hazard with long-term exposure. The cornea, lens and vitreous fluid
of the eye transmit electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range of approximately 400 to 1400 nanometers,
termed the ocular focus range. Light within this range is focused by the eye on a very small spot on the retina,
concentrating its power to a high density. The severity of any injury from exposure to the laser light depends on
a number of factors including wavelength, duration and angle of exposure.
b. Control measures include:
i. The need to use lower power lasers or lower-class lasers
ii. Avoidance of reflective surfaces
iii. Positioning the teacher platform at a level higher than the eyelevel of students to reduce effects
iv. Locks in the pointer device to prevent accidental unintentional use
v. Use of beam terminators when appropriate
vi. Not pointing lasers directly at students
vii. Importance of securing lasers from student use.

14. Outline the precautions needed to prevent accidental exposure to a high-power laser used for cutting
metals. (10)

i. Prior to the use of the laser a risk assessment, focusing on the risks associated with the use of a class 4 laser,
would be necessary, as would the development of a safe system of work on the safe use of the laser.
ii. The room or area that the laser was in would have to be designated a Laser Protection Area and appropriate
warning notices should be displayed.
iii. One of the most important precautions that would be taken, to prevent accidental exposure to a high-powered
laser used for cutting metal, would be the total enclosure of the laser, the beam and the metal item being cut.
iv. This would be achieved by the use of metal enclosures (guards) around the machine and its workbench.
v. Any openings into the enclosure, such as access doors, material feed hatches, etc. should be interlocked in such
a way that electrical power is isolated from the laser itself until the guards are in place. In some instances, this
total enclosure is possible.
vi. In other instances, it is not and then partial enclosure of as much of the laser and work area as possible must be
achieved using fixed and interlocked guards.
vii. Access to the laser must be restricted to authorised personnel with suitable training to understand the risks and
precautions of the device.

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viii. Eye protection would have to be worn in the vicinity of the laser to prevent damage from UV radiation emitted
by the cutting process.
ix. With a high-powered laser, there is also the risk of reflected laser light scattering off rough dark surfaces, so the
eye protection should totally enclose the eye so as to protect against this laser scatter.
x. Warning signs should be displayed during the actual operation of the laser, perhaps with a visible warning at the
same time.
xi. Training for operators and their supervisors would have to be given on the various risks inherent with the device
and the precautions necessary to ensure safety

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