infrastructures

Article
Properties of Blast-Furnace Slag Cement Concrete
Subjected to Accelerated Curing †
Bernard A. Zulu 1, *, Shingo Miyazawa 2 and Nobukazu Nito 3
1 Graduate School of Engineering, Ashikaga University, Ashikaga 326 8558, Japan
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Ashikaga University, Ashikaga 326 8558, Japan; smiyazaw@ashitech.ac.jp
3 Technical Center, DC Co. Ltd., Kawasaki 212-0013, Japan; nito_nobukazu@dccorp.jp
* Correspondence: bzulu04@yahoo.co.uk
† Part of this work has been presented and published in the proceedings of the 43rd Our World in Concrete
and Structures of Premier Conference, Singapore, 30–31 August 2018—pp. 395–402.




Received: 19 August 2019; Accepted: 29 October 2019; Published: 31 October 2019


Abstract: Accelerated curing is used for mass production in the precast concrete industry. Autogenous
shrinkage and drying shrinkage occur in concrete, during and after accelerated curing. Thus, thermal
cracks may occur in concrete due to both heating and cement hydration at early age, whereas drying
shrinkage causes cracks after demolding. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement (GGBS),
a byproduct in steel manufacture, has been used to improve concrete strength development during
accelerated curing but poses a challenge of increased shrinkage. In this paper, two types of granulated
blast-furnace slag cements were used to study mechanical and shrinkage properties of water cured
and concrete subjected to accelerated curing. Limestone powder and gypsums, with two different
types of fineness, were other additives used. An accelerated one day curing cycle was adopted that
consisted of a 3 h delay period, heating to 65 ◦ C, a peak temperature maintained for 3 h, and, finally,
cooling. The results indicated that increment in gypsum fineness increased concrete expansion at one
day for both sealed and accelerated cured concrete. In drying condition, similar shrinkage was observed.
The addition of gypsum provided slightly lower shrinkage, and this may help to reduce cracking of
concrete. Limestone powder improved concrete strength at early age. The difference in blast-furnace
cement fineness did not have significant differences in compressive strengths, especially at 28 days.

Keywords: accelerated curing; ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; autogenous shrinkage;
drying shrinkage

1. Introduction
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement is a supplementary cementitious material (SCM)
that is used in concrete, to reduce ordinary Portland cement (OPC) usage. OPC has a negative
environmental impact during its production [1]. There are different GGBS types for concrete works that
are distinguished either by their activity index or fineness. GGBS with fineness of about 4000 cm2 /g has
been used widely in the precast concrete industry. When added to concrete, it improves properties such
as workability, durability, and water tightness. GGBS also improves concrete resistance to salt damage,
restrained alkali–silica reaction, and so on [2,3]. Thus, its usage in concrete is generally dependent on
the size and use for the concrete structure [4].
Steam curing is a widely used accelerated curing method in the precast concrete industry. In this
method, it has been proven that there is a significant increase in early strength of concrete when
GGBS is added [5]. Curing time plays an important role in concrete strength development as it affects
the ultimate strength and other hardened concrete properties. Additionally, mineral additives such

Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69; doi:10.3390/infrastructures4040069 www.mdpi.com/journal/infrastructures

Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 2 of 13

as limestone powder or gypsum are also incorporated in concrete to improve concrete workability,
strength development, and durability in accelerated cured concrete [6].
During accelerated curing, concrete undergoes volume changes due to external temperature, heat of
cement hydration, and autogenous shrinkage. When GGBS with 4000 cm2/g is used, high shrinkage has
been observed due to its fineness. As reported by Saito et al., autogenous shrinkage of concrete may be
reduced by modifying blast-furnace slag fineness used and the content of gypsum in the binder [7]. Recently,
GGBS with a specific surface area of at least 2750 cm2/g and less than 3500 cm2/g was developed. This has
been used for low heat slag cement as a concrete additive [8]. However, little experimental data are available
on shrinkage during and after accelerated curing using this type of GGBS. Thus, this study focused on
investigating mechanical and shrinkage properties of concrete, at early and later age of the newly developed
GGBS cement. The results were compared with the widely used GGBS cement. The thermal properties of
the new GGBS cement in semi-adiabatic condition and the effect of mineral additives on cement hydration
were evaluated. Autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage tests were conducted in order to provide
experimental data sets on concrete crack resistance at early and later age.

2. Materials and Test Methods

2.1. Concrete Materials

Table 1 provides the physical and chemical properties of binder materials used in the study.
The main binders were ordinary Portland cement (“N”, hereinafter) and ground granulated
blast-furnace slag cements (“S”, hereinafter). Commercially produced ordinary Portland cement
conformed to the requirements of the Japanese standard JIS R 5210: 2009 Standard specifications for
Portland cement [9], ASTM C150/C150M-18: 2018 Standard specification for portland cement [10].
Two different types of S cements used were classified as S3000 and S4000 based on their fineness in
accordance with JIS A 6206: 2013 Ground granulated blast-furnace slag for concrete [11] and ASTM
C989-06: 2006 Standard specification for ground granulated blast-furnace slag for use in concrete and
mortars [12]. Limestone powder (“L”, hereinafter) and two different types of anhydrous gypsum
fineness, namely, normal gypsum (“G”, hereinafter) and fine gypsum (“F.G”, hereinafter) were other
additives incorporated in concrete. Six mix proportions for each type of S cement were proposed.
The percentage replacement by mass of N cement and mineral admixtures contents for each concrete
mix proportion are shown in Table 2. Air entraining agent (AE) and air entraining and water reducing
agent (AEWR) were used to produce entrained air and improve workability.
Sandstone and river sand were used as crushed coarse and fine aggregates. Figure 1a,b show
the particle size distribution curves of both coarse and fine aggregates. Coarse aggregates had 20 mm
maximum grain size with 2.64 g/cm3 specific gravity. River sand had 2.59 g/cm3 specific gravity, 2.55%
water absorption, and 2.83 fineness modulus.

2.2. Mix Proportions of Concrete

The general composition of six (6) mix proportions used in the experiments with varying mineral
admixture contents are tabulated in Table 3. Target slump and air content were 12.5 to 17.5 cm and
3.5% to 5.5%, respectively.
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Table
Table1.1.Physical
Physicaland
andchemical
chemicalanalysis
analysisofofcementitious
cementitiousmaterials.
materials.
Cementitious Density Fineness Chemical Composition (%)
Cementitious Density3 Fineness2 Chemical Composition (%)
Materials (g/cm ) (cm /g) ig-loss SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O
Materials (g/cm ) 3 (cm /g)
2
ig-loss SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2 O K2 O
OPC (N) 3.16 3200 0.94 20.84 5.49 3.07 63.89 1.97 2.4 0.4 0.32
OPC
S3000(N) 3.16
2.90 32003350 0.94 0.25 20.8434.01 5.49
14.28 3.070.33 63.89
42.61 1.97
6.23 2.4 - 0.4
0.2 0.32
0.35
S3000
S4000 2.90
2.90 33504580 0.25 0.09 34.0133.9014.28
14.16 0.330.30 42.61
42.92 6.23
6.24 -- 0.2
0.19 0.35
0.32
S4000
L 2.90
2.71 45807420 0.09 43.4033.90 - 14.16 0.08 0.30 - 42.9255.3 6.240.23 - 0.0 0.19- 0.32
-
GL 2.71
2.90 74204100 43.40 1.10 - 0.90 0.080.20 - 0.10 55.3
39.7 0.230.10 0.0
58.0 -- --
G
F. G 2.90
2.90 41009680 1.10 1.10 0.90 0.90 0.200.20 0.10 0.10 39.7
39.7 0.100.10 58.0
58.0 -- --
F. G 2.90 9680 1.10 0.90 0.20 0.10 39.7 0.10 58.0 - -
N: ordinary Portland cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; L: limestone powder; G: normal
N: ordinary Portland cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; L: limestone powder; G: normal
gypsum;
gypsum; F.F.G:G:fine
finegypsum.
gypsum.

Table
Table2.2.Binder
Bindercontent
contentpercent
percentbybymass
massper
percubic
cubicmeter
meterofofconcrete.
concrete.
Blending (%)
Proportion Blending (%) Total (%) by Mass
Total (%)
Proportion
N S L G F. G
N S L G F. G by Mass
NS 75 25.00 - - - 100
NSG NS 75 75
23.25 25.00
- 1.75 - - - - 100100
NSG 75 23.25 - 1.75 - 100
NSF.G 75 23.25 - - 1.75 100
NSF.G 75 23.25 - - 1.75 100
NSL 75 22.50 2.50 - - 100
NSL 75 22.50 2.50 - - 100
NSLG NSLG75 20.75
75 2.50
20.75 1.752.50 - 1.75 - 100100
NSLF.GNSLF.G 75 20.75
75 2.50
20.75 - 2.501.75 - 1.75 100100
N:N:ordinary
ordinary Portland cement;S:S:ground
Portland cement; ground granulated
granulated blast-furnace
blast-furnace slag cement;
slag cement; L: limestone
L: limestone powder;powder;
G: normal
G:gypsum;
normalF.gypsum;
G: fine gypsum.
F. G: fine gypsum.

100 100
Percentage passing (%)

Percentage passing (%)

80 80

60 60

40 Upper limit 40 Upper limit

20 Lower limit 20 Lower limit
Crushed stone River sand
0 0
2.5 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.2 2.5 5.0 10.0
Sieve size (mm) Sieve size (mm)
(a) (b)
Particle
Figure1.1.Particle
Figure size
size distribution
distribution curvefor
curve for(a)(a)coarse
coarseand
and(b)
(b)fine
fineaggregates.
aggregates.

Table 3. Concrete mix proportions.

Table 3. Concrete mix proportions.
Amounts of Contents (kg/m3 ) Chemical
W/B s/a Amounts of Contents (kg/m3) Chemical Admixture
ProportionW/B
Proportion
s/a
(%) Binder (B)
Binder (B)
Admixture
AEWR
(%) g
(%) (%) Water Water s gs AEWR (B X %)
N SN L S GL F.G G F. G (B X %)
NS 50 47 175 262.5 87.5 - - - 812 933 1.0
NS 50 47 175 262.5 87.5 - - - 812 933 1.0
NSG 50 47 175 262.5 81.4 - 6.1 - 812 933 1.0
NSG 50 47 175 262.5 81.4 - 6.1 - 812 933 1.0
NSF.G
NSF.G 50 5047 175
47 262.5
175 81.4
262.5 -81.4 - - 6.1 - 812
6.1 933
812 933 1.01.0
NSLNSL 50 5047 175
47 262.5
175 78.6
262.5 8.6
78.6 -8.6 -- 811
- 933
811 933 1.01.0
NSLG
NSLG 50 5047 175
47 262.5
175 72.6
262.5 8.6
72.6 6.1 -
8.6 6.1 811
- 933
811 933 1.01.0
NSLF.G
NSLF.G 50 5047 175
47 262.5
175 72.6
262.5 8.6
72.6 -8.6 6.1
- 811
6.1 933
811 933 1.01.0
N:N:ordinary
ordinaryPortland
Portlandcement;
cement;S:S:ground
groundgranulated
granulatedblast-furnace
blast-furnaceslag
slagcement;
cement;L:L:limestone
limestonepowder;
powder;G:G:normal
normal
gypsum; F. G: fine gypsum; W: water; B: Binder; s: sand; a: aggregates; g: coarse aggregates.
gypsum; F. G: fine gypsum; W: water; B: Binder; s: sand; a: aggregates; g: coarse aggregates.
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2.3.Test
2.3. TestMethods
Methods

AA pan
pan typetypeconcrete
concretemixer mixerwas wasused for all
used forconcrete mix proportions
all concrete mix proportions and batching was conducted
and batching was
conducted according to the mix designs and as specified in JIS A 1119: 2014 Method of of
according to the mix designs and as specified in JIS A 1119: 2014 Method of test for variability freshly
test for
variability of freshly mixed concrete by measuring mortar and coarse aggregate contents [13], JIS Aof
mixed concrete by measuring mortar and coarse aggregate contents [13], JIS A 1138: 2005 Method
making
1138: 2005test sampleofofmaking
Method concrete insample
test the laboratory
of concrete [14],in
andtheASTM C192/C192M:
laboratory [14], and2002ASTM Standard
C192/C192M:practice
for making and curing concrete test specimens in the laboratory
2002 Standard practice for making and curing concrete test specimens in the laboratory [15]. Air [15]. Air entraining agent (AE) and
water reducing
entraining agent agent
(AE) and (AEWR)waterwere used agent
reducing in all the mix proportions.
(AEWR) were used inAEWR all the dosage was kept constant
mix proportions. AEWR
as recommended by the manufacturer, whereas AE was
dosage was kept constant as recommended by the manufacturer, whereas AE was varied to varied to achieve target concrete airachieve
content.
target concrete air content. Fresh concrete properties such as slump, air content, and temperaturecasting,
Fresh concrete properties such as slump, air content, and temperature were measured just after were
accordingjust
measured to JIS orcasting,
after ASTM according
standardsto [16–23]. Transducer
JIS or ASTM standards strain gaugesTransducer
[16–23]. and data logger
strain were
gauges used andto
measure concrete strain and temperature throughout the study period.
data logger were used to measure concrete strain and temperature throughout the study period. The The gauges were installed in the
centralwere
gauges portion of 100 in
installed × 100
the × 400 mm
central beamof
portion molds,
100 × as100 shown
× 400 inmm Figure
beam2.molds,
Specimens for compressive
as shown in Figure
strength tests were prepared, according to JIS A 1108: 2006 Method
2. Specimens for compressive strength tests were prepared, according to JIS A 1108: 2006 Method of test for compressive strengthofof
concrete
test [24] and ASTM
for compressive C39/C39M:
strength 2005 [24]
of concrete Standard
and ASTMtest method for compressive
C39/C39M: 2005 Standard strength
testof cylindrical
method for
concrete specimens [25], using (100 mm diameter and 200 mm
compressive strength of cylindrical concrete specimens [25], using (100 mm diameter and 200 mm height) cylinder molds. Temperature
rise, due
height) to heatmolds.
cylinder of cement hydration,rise,
Temperature was due
measured
to heatunder semi-adiabatic
of cement hydration, condition
was measuredin cubicundermolds
semi-adiabatic condition in cubic molds with internal dimensions of 200 mm made of foamedof
with internal dimensions of 200 mm made of foamed polystyrene of 200 mm thick. Setting time
concrete was
polystyrene ofdetermined
200 mm thick. according
Settingto JIS of
time A 1147:
concrete 2007wasMethod of test for
determined setting to
according time
JISby A penetration
1147: 2007
Method of test for setting time by penetration resistance [26] and ASTM C403/C403M: 1999ofStandard
resistance [26] and ASTM C403/C403M: 1999 Standard test method for time of setting concrete
mixtures
test method byfor penetration
time of settingresistance [27]. mixtures by penetration resistance [27].
of concrete
Immediately after casting,
Immediately after casting, all specimens all specimenswere weresealed
sealedand andstored
storedininaatemperature-controlled
temperature-controlled
room at 20 ◦ C and 80% relative humidity (RH) [18]. Some selected beams, together with cylinder
room at 20 °C and 80% relative humidity (RH) [18]. Some selected beams, together with cylinder
specimens,for
specimens, for1-,
1-,7-,
7-,and
and14-day
14-daycompressive
compressivestrengthstrengthteststestswere
werethen
thensubjected
subjectedtotohighhightemperature
temperature
curing, 3 h after casting time. Figure 3 shows the target ambient
curing, 3 hours after casting time. Figure 3 shows the target ambient temperature profile used temperature profile usedin inthe
the
experiments.This
experiments. Thisprofile
profilewas wassimilar
similartotoaatypical
typicalsteam
steamcuringcuringprocess
processiningeneral
generalprecast
precastconcrete
concrete
factories. In this study, steam was not applied. The remaining beam
factories. In this study, steam was not applied. The remaining beam and cylinder molds were kept and cylinder molds were keptinin
a temperature-controlled room at 20 ◦ C and 80% RH; strain and temperature was measured in beam
a temperature-controlled room at 20 °C and 80% RH; strain and temperature was measured in beam
specimensas
specimens as well.
well. Accelerated
Accelerated curing curingwas wasconducted
conductedonon three mix
three mixproportions
proportions on the
on same
the sameday. day.
Thus,
twelve (12) mix proportions were cast and cured on four
Thus, twelve (12) mix proportions were cast and cured on four (4) different days. (4) different days.
After24
After 24 hours,
h, all specimens
all specimens were were
demolded. All theAll
demolded. accelerated cured specimens
the accelerated were then
cured specimens weresubjected
then
to drying condition in a different temperature-controlled room at 20 ◦ C and RH 60%. Drying shrinkage
subjected to drying condition in a different temperature-controlled room at 20 °C and RH 60%.
was measured
Drying shrinkageinwas beams specimens
measured using
in beams data logger.
specimens usingBeam data specimens
logger. Beam which were stored
specimens which were in the
temperature-controlled room at 20 room ◦ C were sealed withsealed
aluminum adhesive tape for measuring
stored in the temperature-controlled at 20 °C were with aluminum adhesive tape for
autogenous shrinkage. The storage condition for both sealed
measuring autogenous shrinkage. The storage condition for both sealed and drying condition and drying condition of beam specimens of
are shown
beam specimensin Figure 4. The cylinder
are shown in Figurespecimens
4. The cylinderfor thespecimens
28-day compressive
for the 28-day strength test werestrength
compressive stored in
water at 20 ◦ C.
test were stored in water at 20 °C.

Cable to
data logger

Figure 2. Beam concrete mold for shrinkage measurement.

Figure 2. Beam concrete mold for shrinkage measurement.
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Figure 3. Target temperature history for accelerated curing.

Figure 3. Target temperature history for accelerated curing.
Figure 3. Target temperature history for accelerated curing.

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 4. Measurement (b)shrinkage (b).
of autogenous shrinkage (a) and drying

3. Results Figure 4. Measurement of autogenous shrinkage (a) and drying shrinkage (b).
3. Results
3. Results
3.1. Fresh Properties
3.1. Fresh Properties
TableProperties
3.1. Fresh 4 shows the results of the fresh properties for all the mix proportions. Similar results were
Table 4 shows the results of the fresh properties for all the mix proportions. Similar results were
obtained in the mix proportions.
obtained
Tablein4 the mixthe
shows proportions.
results of the fresh properties for all the mix proportions. Similar results were
obtained in the mix proportions. Table 4. Fresh concrete properties.
Table 4. Fresh concrete properties.
Slump (cm)
Table 4.(cm) Air Content (%)
Fresh concrete properties. Temperature (◦ C)
Mix Proportion Slump Air Content (%) Temperature (°C)
Mix Proportion S3000 S4000 S3000 S4000 S3000S3000 S4000
S3000 S4000
Slump (cm) S3000 S4000
Air Content (%) Temperature S4000
(°C)
Mix Proportion
NS
NS 19.3
19.3 19.2
19.2 5.8
5.8 5.5
5.5 18.5
18.5 28.0
28.0
S3000 S4000 S3000 S4000 S3000 S4000
NSG
NSG 19.0
19.0 19.7
19.7 5.5
5.5 6.4
6.4 19.5
19.5 28.5
28.5
NS
NSF.G 19.3
18.2 19.2
19.2 5.8
5.6 5.5
4.8 18.5
20.0 28.0
28.5
NSF.G
NSG
NSL
18.2
19.0 19.2
17.7 19.7 20.7
5.6
5.5
4.4
4.8
6.4
6.5
20.0
19.5
19.0
28.5
28.5
26.5
NSL
NSLG
NSF.G 17.7
18.2 20.7
18.5 19.2 20.5 4.4
4.5
5.6 6.5
5.4
4.8 19.0
19.0
20.0 26.5
26.0
28.5
NSLG
NSLF.G
NSL 18.5
19.4
17.7 20.5
20.0
20.7 4.5
4.6
4.4 5.4
5.0
6.5 19.0
20.0
19.0 26.0
26.0
26.5
NSLF.G
N: ordinary Portland
NSLG 19.4 granulated
cement; S: ground
18.5 20.0 blast-furnace
20.5 4.6
4.5 5.0
slag 20.0
cement; L:
5.4 26.0 G: normal
limestone powder;
19.0 26.0
gypsum; F. G: Portland
N: ordinary fine gypsum.
cement; S:19.4
ground 20.0
granulated4.6
blast-furnace
NSLF.G 5.0 slag cement;
20.0 L: limestone
26.0 powder;
G: normal gypsum; F. G: fine gypsum.
N: ordinary Portland cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; L: limestone powder;
3.2. Setting Time
G: normal gypsum; F. G: fine gypsum.
3.2. Setting
Table 5Time
provides the results for the concrete setting time test. As reported in previous studies,
when
3.2. ground
Setting
Table Timegranulated
5 provides the blast-furnace
results for theslag cement
concrete is added
setting timetotest.
concrete, the setting
As reported time of concrete
in previous studies,
is generally
whenTable increased [28]. Furthermore, it has been reported
ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement is added to concrete,that the extent of concrete
settingintime setting
of concrete is
5 provides the results for the concrete setting time test. As reported previous studies,
time retardation
generally depends
increased [28]. on many factors
Furthermore, it such
has beenasreported
fineness,that
composition,
the extent level
of of replacement
concrete setting of
time
when ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement is added to concrete, the setting time of concrete is
generally increased [28]. Furthermore, it has been reported that the extent of concrete setting time
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supplementary cementitious material used, amount and composition of the Portland cement or blended
retardation
cement depends
(particularly on many
its alkali factors
content), such as fineness, composition,
water-to-cementitious level(w/cm),
materials ratio of replacement of
and temperature
supplementary cementitious material used, amount and composition of the Portland cement
of concrete [28,29]. Similarly, the results also showed a trend of longer setting times. In this study, or
blended cement
the observed initial(particularly
setting timeits alkali content),
of each water-to-cementitious
mixture was used as thematerials
starting ratio (w/cm),
point and
for measuring
temperature of concrete [28,29]. Similarly, the results also showed a trend of longer setting times. In
autogenous shrinkage.
this study, the observed initial setting time of each mixture was used as the starting point for
measuring autogenous shrinkage.
Table 5. Setting time of concrete.
TableInitial
5. Setting time of
Setting concrete.Final Setting Time
Time
(hours)
Mix Proportion
Initial Setting Final(hours)
Setting
Mix Proportion S3000 Time (hours)
S4000 Time (hours)
S3000 S4000
NS S3000
7.03 S4000
5.70 S3000
10.42 S4000
7.50
NSGNS 7.03
6.83 5.70
5.21 10.42
9.83 7.50
7.25
NSG
NSF.G 6.83
7.36 5.21
5.27 9.83
9.90 7.25
7.57
NSF.G
NSL 7.36
6.38 5.27
5.92 9.90
9.27 7.57
8.65
NSLG
NSL 6.93
6.38 5.80
5.92 9.58
9.27 8.25
8.65
NSLF.G
NSLG 6.64
6.93 5.60
5.80 9.58
9.58 8.15
8.25
NSLF.G
N: ordinary Portland cement; 6.64 blast-furnace
S: ground granulated 5.60 slag cement;
9.58 L: limestone
8.15 powder; G: normal
gypsum; F.G: finePortland
N: ordinary gypsum.cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; L: limestone powder;
G: normal gypsum; F.G: fine gypsum.
3.3. Accelerated Temperature History
3.3. Accelerated Temperature History
Figure 5 shows the typical accelerated temperature history observed in all mix proportions with
Figure 5 shows the typical accelerated temperature history observed in all mix proportions with
similar temperature rise of about 20 ◦ C/h. Although the heating temperatures were not exactly the same,
similar temperature rise of about 20 °C/hour. Although the heating temperatures were not exactly
all the mix proportions were heated within the temperatures recommended in AC1 51 7.2R-87 [30].
the same, all the mix proportions were heated within the temperatures recommended in AC1 51 7.2R-
During the constant maximum heating, all the mix proportions reached the target temperature of
87 [30]. During the constant maximum heating, all the mix proportions reached the target
◦
65 C. At the start of °C.
cooling,
temperature of 65 At theall theofconcrete
start specimens
cooling, all were
the concrete kept inside
specimens wereakept
closed oven
inside to prevent
a closed
high-temperature
oven to preventdifference in concrete
high-temperature and in
difference surrounding
concrete andthat would have
surrounding led to have
that would crackingled todue to
thermal shock.
cracking dueDuring thisshock.
to thermal period, there
During was
this no automated
period, there was nocooling system
automated installed
cooling systemininstalled
the chamber.
in the chamber.
Considering Considering
this chamber this chamber
condition, condition,
cooling cooling specimens
of concrete of concrete specimens
was still was still achieved
achieved in a similar
in a similar
temperature temperature
decreasing of 1.8 ◦ C/h
ratedecreasing rate
onofaverage.
1.8 °C/hour
Thisoncooling
average. This
rate cooling
was rate was
also within also
the within
recommended
rate the recommended
in AC1 51 7.2R-87rate
[30]in of
AC1 51 7.2R-87[30]
about 2 ◦ C/h. of about 2 °C/hour.

75 75
65 65
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

55 55

45 45
NS NSL
35 NSG 35 NSLG
NSF.G NSLF.G
25 25
Target Temp. Target Temp.
15 15
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Elapsed Time (hrs) Elapsed Time (hrs)

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Cont.
Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 7 of 13
Infrastructures 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

75 75
65 65
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
55 55
45 NS 45 NSL
NSG 35 NSLG
35
NSF.G NSLF.G
25 Target Temp. 25 Target Temp.
15 15
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
Elapsed Time (hrs) Elapsed Time (hrs)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure5. Temperature history
5. Temperature for accelerated
history curingcuring
for accelerated in S3000in(aS3000
and b)(a,b)
and and
S4000S4000
(c and(c,d).
d).

3.4. 3.4.
Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength
Compressive
Compressive strength
strength results
results forfor acceleratedcured
accelerated curedconcrete
concreteareareshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 6 and
and water
water cured
cured compressive strength at 28 days in Figure 7. Higher one-day compressive
compressive strength at 28 days in Figure 7. Higher one-day compressive strength for accelerated strength for
accelerated cured concrete specimens was observed for specimens containing
cured concrete specimens was observed for specimens containing limestone powder. The trend for limestone powder. The
trend for strength remained, generally, the same for the 28-days compressive strength of specimens
strength remained, generally, the same for the 28-days compressive strength of specimens cured under
cured under water. When S3000 was used, strength development after accelerated curing was slower
water. When S3000 was used, strength development after accelerated curing was slower than S4000.
than S4000. This can be attributed to the difference in cement fineness that affects the rate of cement
Thishydration.
can be attributed
Due to theto the fineness
lower difference in cement
of S3000 cement,fineness that of
the addition affects the rate
limestone powderof cement
in S3000hydration.
had
Dueatosignificant
the lowereffect
fineness of S3000
as filler cement,
in strength the additionAmong
improvement. of limestone powdercontaining
the specimens in S3000 had a significant
limestone
effect as filler
powder, in strength
similar strengthimprovement.
values from one-dayAmong the specimens
to 14-day results werecontaining
observed in limestone powder,
both S cement types.similar
strength
At 28 values
days, mixfrom one-daycontaining
proportions to 14-dayNSLF.G
results had
were theobserved in both S cement
highest compressive strength.types.
In thisAt 28 days,
case,
fine gypsum contributed to strength development in concrete at 28 days under
mix proportions containing NSLF.G had the highest compressive strength. In this case, fine gypsum water. It was also
observed to
contributed that an increase
strength of S cementin
development fineness didat
concrete not28have
daysa significant
under water. influence
It was onalso
compressive
observed that
strength, especially at 28 days. Thus, S4000 may be used if early strength is needed
an increase of S cement fineness did not have a significant influence on compressive strength, especiallyfor demolding.
at 28 days.Infrastructures
Thus, S4000 2019, 4,may
x FORbe used
PEER if early strength is needed for demolding.
REVIEW 8 of 14

40
(a)
Compressive Strength

30
(N/mm2)

20 NS
NSG
NSF.G
10 NSL
NSLG
0 NSLF.G
0 7 14
Age (Days)

40
(b)
Compressive Strength

30
NS
(N/mm2)

20 NSG
NSF.G
10 NSL
NSLG
NSLF.G
0
0 7 14
Age (Days)

Figure 6. Compressive
Figure 6. Compressive strengthstrength at 1 day,
at 1 day, 7 days,and
7 days, and 14
14 days
daysforfor
accelerated curedcured
accelerated S3000 (a) and S4000
S3000 (b). S4000 (b).
(a) and

S3000 S4000
ength (N/mm2)

50 45 46
45 42 43 42 44
40 39 38 37 38
37 37
35
30
 NSLG
NSLF.G

Co
0
0 7 14
Age (Days)
Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 8 of 13
Figure 6. Compressive strength at 1 day, 7 days, and 14 days for accelerated cured S3000 (a) and S4000 (b).

S3000 S4000
Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 50 45 46
45 42 43 42 44
40 39 38 37 38
37 37
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
NS NSG NSF.G NSL NSLG NSLF.G
Concrete mix proportion

Figure 7. Compressive strength for water cured S3000 and S4000 concrete at 28 days.
Figure 7. Compressive strength for water cured S3000 and S4000 concrete at 28 days.
3.5. Autogenous and Drying Shrinkage, Sealed and Accelerated Cured Concrete
3.5.In
Autogenous and Drying
the experiments Shrinkage,
conducted, Sealed
total strainandwhich
Accelerated
is theCured
sum ofConcrete
thermal strain and autogenous
shrinkage strain, was observed. To obtain autogenous shrinkage,
In the experiments conducted, total strain which is the sum of thermal the coefficient of heat
strain and expansion
autogenous
ofshrinkage
concrete was assumed
strain, to be 10
was observed. 10 / autogenous
To×obtain
−6 ◦ C [31]. Thus, autogenous
shrinkage, strain wasofcalculated
the coefficient as theof
heat expansion
difference between total strain and thermal strain. The observed autogenous
concrete was assumed to be 10 × 10 /°C [31]. Thus, autogenous strain was calculated as the difference
−6 shrinkage in sealed
concrete
betweenspecimens
total at 20 ◦ Cthermal
containing S3000 and some for S4000 are presented in Figures 8 and 9.
Infrastructures 2019, strain
4, x FORand
PEER REVIEW strain. The observed autogenous shrinkage in sealed concrete 9 of 14
Only mix proportions
specimens containing
at 20 °C containing limestone
S3000 and some powder for S4000
for S4000 were prepared
are presented in Figuresfor 8the
and autogenous
9. Only mix
shrinkage
proportions
Additionally, measurement.
increment Mix
containing in proportions
limestone
gypsum powder
finenesscontaining
for S4000
showed gypsum showed higher
wereexpansion.
more prepared for theexpansion
Similar autogenous
shrinkage atatearly
laterage.
shrinkage
age
Additionally,
inmeasurement. increment
all mix proportions in gypsum
Mix proportions
was observed.fineness
containingshowed
Figures 10 more
gypsum expansion.
and 11showed Similar shrinkage
higher expansion
show autogenous at
shrinkageatandlater age age.
early in
drying
all mix proportions
shrinkage, during was and observed. Figurescuring.
after accelerated 10 and 11 show
Mix autogenous
proportions shrinkage
containing and drying
gypsum showedshrinkage,
higher
during and after accelerated curing. Mix proportions containing gypsum showed
expansion during accelerated curing and slightly lower shrinkage after demolding. The addition of higher expansion
during accelerated
fine gypsum showedcuring
theand slightly
highest lower shrinkage
expansion. This trendafter demolding.
was The addition
also observed in sealedofspecimens,
fine gypsum as
showed the highest expansion. This trend was also observed in sealed specimens,
shown in Figures 8 and 9. In addition, in sealed condition, all mix proportions showed similar as shown in Figures 8
and 9. In addition, in sealed condition, all mix proportions showed similar shrinkage
shrinkage values at later age. Gypsum, in this case, provided the expansive effect on concrete that values at later
age. Gypsum, shrinkage.
compensates in this case, provided the expansive effect on concrete that compensates shrinkage.

80
Autogenous strain (x10-6)

40

0 Age (Days)
0 1 10 100 1000
-40 NS
NSG
-80 NSF.G
NSL
-120 NSLG
NSLF.G
-160
Figure 8. Autogenous shrinkage, S3000.
Figure 8. Autogenous shrinkage, S3000.

80
genous strain (x10-6)

40
Age (Days)
0
0 1 10 100 1000
-40
NSL
-80
 NSLF.G
-120
-160

A
NSLG
NSLF.G
-160
Figure 8. Autogenous shrinkage, S3000.

Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 Figure 8. Autogenous shrinkage, S3000. 9 of 13

80

) -6)
(x10-6(x10
80
40
Age (Days)

strainstrain
400
0 1 10 Age (Days)
100 1000

Autogenous
0
-40
0 1 NSL10 100 1000

Autogenous
-40
-80
NSLG
NSL
-80
-120 NSLF.G
NSLG
-120
-160 NSLF.G

-160 Figure 9. Autogenous shrinkage, S4000.

Figure 9. Autogenous shrinkage, S4000.
Figure 9. Autogenous shrinkage, S4000.
200
) -6)

Age (Days)
(x10-6(x10

2000
0 1 10 Age 100
(Days) 1000
shrinkage

-200
0
NS
0 1 10 100 1000
shrinkage

-400
-200 NSG
NS
NSF.G
-600
-400
Drying

NSG
NSL
-800 NSF.G
NSLG
-600
Drying

NSL
NSLF.G
-800 -1000 NSLG
Infrastructures 2019, 4, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
NSLF.G
-1000 Figure 10. Drying shrinkage, S3000.
Figure 10. Drying shrinkage, S3000.

200
Figure 10. Drying shrinkage, S3000.
Drying shrinkage (x10-6)

Age (Days)
0
0 1 10 100 1000
-200
NS
-400 NSG
NSF.G
-600
NSL
-800 NSLG
NSLF.G
-1000
Figure 11. Drying shrinkage, S4000.
Figure 11. Drying shrinkage, S4000.
3.6. Heat of Cement Hydration of Concrete, Semi-Adiabatic Condition
3.6. Heat of Cement Hydration of Concrete, Semi-Adiabatic Condition
Cement hydration in concrete is an exothermic reaction and causes temperature rise in concrete.
Cement hydration
This property in concrete
is responsible is an
for thermal exothermic
cracking reaction
in concrete and causes
members temperature
and has an influence riseon
inshrinkage
concrete.
This property
properties. is responsible
Generally, there isfor thermal cracking
a relationship between in the
concrete
extentmembers
of rise in and has an influence
temperature on
on the type
shrinkage properties. Generally, there is a relationship between the extent of rise
and content of cementitious materials in concrete. To establish the general behavior of this concretein temperature on
the type and content of cementitious materials in concrete. To establish the general
property, temperature rise, due to cement hydration in semi-adiabatic condition, was conducted on NS behavior of this
concrete
and property,
NSLF.G temperature
containing S3000. This rise,
alsodue to cement
enabled a checkhydration
of the effectinofsemi-adiabatic
adding limestone condition,
powder wasand
conducted on NS and NSLF.G containing S3000. This also enabled a check of the
fine gypsum on rise in concrete temperature. The results are shown in Figure 4a,b. The results were, effect of adding
limestone
then, used powder and
to predict fine gypsum
adiabatic on rise rise
temperature in concrete temperature.
of concrete The results
using Equation areequation
(1). This shown inisFigure
based
4a and b. The results were, then, used to predict adiabatic temperature rise of concrete using Equation
(1). This equation is based on a simple thermal insulation test on the relationship between semi-
adiabatic temperature rise and adiabatic temperature rise, proposed from previous research [32].
ρCVT′ − Shθ = ρCVθ′ (1)
where ρis the density of the sample specimen (kg/m3), C is the specific heat capacity of concrete taken
as (1.05KJ/kg °C), V is the volume of the sample specimen (m3), S is the surface area of the sample
Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 10 of 13

on a simple thermal insulation test on the relationship between semi-adiabatic temperature rise and
adiabatic temperature rise, proposed from previous research [32].

ρCVT0 − Shθ = ρCVθ0 (1)

where ρ is the density of the sample specimen (kg/m3 ), C is the specific heat capacity of concrete taken
as (1.05 KJ/kg ◦ C), V is the volume of the sample specimen (m3 ), S is the surface area of the sample
specimen (m2 ), h is the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ◦ C), T is the temperature gradient existing
between the sample specimen and ambient room temperature, and θ is the adiabatic temperature state.
Predicted parameters using experimental data from Equation (1) were then used to generate
constants in the JCI model Equation (2), shown below, and graphs obtained are also presented in
Figures 12 and 13 [31]. The derived constants from Equation (2) are given in Table 6. Test results
indicated that the addition of limestone powder and fine gypsum contributed to faster and higher
predicted adiabatic temperature rise and ultimate temperature rise [3,33].
h n   oi
Q(t) = Q∞ 1 − exp −rAT t − t0,Q )SAT (2)

where t is age in days, Q(t) is adiabatic temperature rise at t (◦ C), Q∞ is ultimate adiabatic temperature
Infrastructures
rise (◦ C), rAT2019,
, SAT4, xare
FOR PEER REVIEW
parameters 11 of at
representing rate of adiabatic temperature rise, and t0,Q is age 14
Infrastructures 2019, 4, x
starting of temperature rise.FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

60
60 NS
(℃)(℃)

50 NS
50
Rise

40
Semi Adiabatic T.R. (Observed)
Rise

40
30 Predicated AdiaT.R.
Semi Adiabatic T.R (Observed)
- Eqn. 1
Temperature

30 Adiabatic
PredicatedT.R.-
AdiaJCI Model
T.R - Eqn.Eqn.
1
Temperature

20
Adiabatic T.R.- JCI Model Eqn.
20
10
10
0
0
-10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10 0 5 10 15
Age (Days) 20 25 30
Age (Days)
Figure 12.
Figure 12. Observed
Observedsemi-adiabatic
semi-adiabaticand
andpredicated
predicatedadiabatic
adiabatictemperature rise
temperature in S3000
rise containing
in S3000 NS.NS.
containing
Figure 12. Observed semi-adiabatic and predicated adiabatic temperature rise in S3000 containing NS.
60
60 NSLF.G
50
(◦C)(◦C)

NSLF.G
50
40
Rise

40 Semi Adiabatic T.R.(Observed)

Rise

30 Semi Adiabatic
Adia.T.R.(Observed)
Temperature

Predicated T. R - Eqn 1
30
Temperature

20 PredicatedT.R.-
Adiabatic Adia.JCIT.Model
R - Eqn 1
Eqn.
20 Adiabatic T.R.- JCI Model Eqn.
10
10
0
0
-10 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-10 0 5 10 15
Age (Days) 20 25 30
Age (Days)
Figure 13. Observed
Figure 13. Observed semi-adiabatic
semi-adiabatic and
and predicated
predicated adiabatic
adiabatic temperature
temperature rise
rise in
in S3000
S3000 containing
containing
NSLF.G.
NSLF.G. NSLF.G—N:
NSLF.G—N: ordinary Portland
ordinary Portland cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag
slag cement; L:
Figure 13. Observed semi-adiabatic and cement; S: ground
predicated granulated
adiabatic blast-furnace
temperature rise in S3000 cement; L:
containing
limestone powder; G: normal gypsum; F.G: fine gypsum.
limestone powder; G: normal
NSLF.G. NSLF.G—N: gypsum;
ordinary PortlandF.G: fine gypsum.
cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; L:
limestone powder; G: normal gypsum; F.G: fine gypsum.
Table 6. Adiabatic temperature rise properties of S3000 concrete.
Table 6. Adiabatic temperature rise properties of S3000 concrete.
Mix Proportion W/B (%) Q∞ (°C) rAT SAT t0,Q
Mix Proportion
NS W/B
50(%) Q42.14
∞ (°C) rAT
1.179 SAT 0.183
1.0 t0,Q
NS
NSLF.G 50
50 42.14
45.14 1.179
1.378 1.0 0.183
1.0 0.177
Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 11 of 13

Table 6. Adiabatic temperature rise properties of S3000 concrete.

Mix Proportion W/B (%) Q∞ (◦ C) rAT SAT t0,Q

NS 50 42.14 1.179 1.0 0.183
NSLF.G 50 45.14 1.378 1.0 0.177
N: ordinary Portland cement; S: ground granulated blast-furnace slag cement; L: limestone powder; G: normal
gypsum; F.G: fine gypsum.

4. Discussions
Fresh concrete properties, such as slump, play various roles in precast concrete just like in
other types of concrete. The slump values obtained, in this case, provided increased workability.
This would make it easier to place, consolidate, and finish precast concrete units. Additionally,
the setting time of concrete has been used in precast concrete to determine the start time for accelerated
curing, although, generally, the delay period of two to five hours has been employed in many precast
companies [34]. In this study, the setting time was used as the starting point for measuring autogenous
shrinkage [31]. Three hours of preheating period were adopted, despite longer setting times observed
in mix proportions. A curing cycle of one day was adopted, as it is generally effective for curing of
civil engineering precast concrete products.
The main aim of accelerated curing of concrete, as mentioned earlier, is to enhance early strength.
In all the mix proportions, higher concrete strength was produced at demolding time. This satisfied
the minimum required strength, as recommended in published document [4,35]. On the other hand,
the influence of introducing other additives, such as limestone powder, showed more effect on strength
gain, especially with a decrease in blast-furnace slag cement, as observed at seven and 14 days. This may
also help to have good concrete strength for dispatching of precast concrete units from precast yard to
installation site that generally takes place 14 days after demolding.
During accelerated curing, more expansion was observed in the mix proportions containing
limestone powder and gypsum. The increment in fineness of gypsum showed increase expansion
even more. Thus, this combination may be helpful by acting as expansive agents for such mix
proportions, because this effect showed a slight reduction in the drying shrinkage at later age. It was
also observed that the increase in fineness of blast-furnace slag cement showed a slight reduction in the
drying shrinkage which may help in cracking resistance when a concrete unit is in service, although,
the difference of about 200 µm in drying shrinkage was not so significant to show major cracking
tendency between the two types of cements.
Adiabatic temperature rise in concrete has been used to assess the rate of cement hydration for
some purpose related to cracking. Generally, the addition of supplementary cementitious materials,
such as blast-furnace slag cement, has been used to reduce rise in temperature in concrete. In this
study, the rise in temperature was used to check the effect of using additives such as limestone powder
and fine gypsum. The results showed a slight increased rate and rise in temperature when the two
additives were used. The difference observed and other concrete properties obtained may be used in
three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis method to check the cracking tendency at early age.

5. Conclusions
This study investigated the fresh, mechanical, and shrinkage properties of concrete made with
S3000 and S4000 cement as main mineral admixtures and subjected to accelerated curing by heating.
On the basis of the results from the laboratory tests, conclusions were drawn and summarized
as follows:

1. Fine gypsum contributed to higher expansion at early age in sealed and accelerated cured concrete.
A combination of limestone powder and fine gypsum had the highest expansion in concrete;
2. Limestone powder contributed to compressive strength of concrete at early age whereas gypsum
addition showed significant influence on concrete strength at 28 days;
Infrastructures 2019, 4, 69 12 of 13

3. There was an insignificant difference in compressive strength, especially at 28 days, between two
types of slag cements even when additives such as limestone powder and gypsum were used;
4. Similar drying shrinkage was observed at later age. Concrete containing fine gypsum showed
slightly lower shrinkage which may help in cracking resistance.

Author Contributions: Second author, S.M.; and third author, N.N.; actively participated in the conceptualization
of research; the first author, B.A.Z.; and second author, S.M. conducted the laboratory work, analysis and
interpretation of data and documentation of the study; original draft of this article was done by first author, B.A.Z.;
under the supervision of the second author, S.M.
Funding: This research had no external funding except the support of the Japan International Cooperation Agency
(JICA) through the Africa Business Enterprise (ABE) initiative scholarship awarded to the first author.
Acknowledgments: The authors express gratitude to the management and staff of the Civil and Environmental
Engineering Department of Ashikaga University and Technical Center, DC Co. Ltd., for their infallible support on
this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors hereby declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this journal.

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