applied
sciences
Article
Preliminary Selection of Road Test Sections for High-Mobility
Wheeled Vehicle Testing under Proving Ground Conditions
Mariusz Kosobudzki






Citation: Kosobudzki, M.
Preliminary Selection of Road Test
Sections for High-Mobility Wheeled
Vehicle Testing under Proving
Ground Conditions. Appl. Sci. 2022,
12, 3513. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app12073513
Academic Editor: Seong-Ik Han
Received: 8 March 2022
Accepted: 28 March 2022
Published: 30 March 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073513
Department of Off-Road Machine and Vehicle Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology,
50-371 Wroclaw, Poland; mariusz.kosobudzki@pwr.edu.pl
Abstract: Before being introduced into the maintenance system, each vehicle must undergo a series
of tests, including durability tests. Computer models and whole vehicles on test stands can be used
to identify vehicle performance parameters, which requires access to special software and test stands.
However, due to the size of the vehicle or access to test stands, experimental tests must often be
carried out on proving grounds; while generating the most complete set of loads, this is much more
time-consuming. Therefore, methods are sought to indicate whether testing at the proving ground
can be accelerated, for example, by increasing the speed of driving or using test road sections that
generate more severe loads. This paper presents a method for evaluating the suitability of selected
test road sections for durability tests of a special high-mobility wheeled vehicle. The method is
based on the Basquin model, which consider the fatigue strength of materials, and rainflow load
cycle counting method combined with the P-M damage summation method. Evaluation of test road
selection was supplemented with analysis of travel speed distributions determined using the Beta
statistic distribution. The presented model was used to evaluate the ability to accelerate a mileage
test of an 8 × 8 vehicle. While certain data mentioned in the article remain classified and are not
able to be presented in full, the author has attempted to provide a comprehensive background of the
analyses conducted and the data used to illustrate them.
Keywords: off-road vehicle; durability test; proving ground test; speed distribution
1. Introduction
The exploitation environment of equipment designed for use in special conditions
(e.g., forestry industry, power industry, mining industry, or the military) is changing rapidly
due to, among other things, the availability of new technologies, the need to ensure higher
comfort of work, and the need to meet new emission limitations. Currently-produced
engineering objects are energy efficient, comfortable, relatively easy to use and eco-friendly.
However, implementation of new solutions to such objects often results in higher purchase
costs. Unit maintenance cost can be balanced by sufficiently efficient and failure-free
operation of such objects, which is the effect of appropriate training of the operator and
the suitability of the technical parameters of the object to the local conditions of use.
Another way to improve efficiency ratings is to modernize existing equipment. New and
modernized equipment is expected to be of consistently high quality and sufficiently long
service life. This is evident in many industries, including special high-mobility wheeled
vehicles designed for off-road use. With regard to vehicles manufactured in the 1970s
and 1980s, their operation potential was planned for 30 years and the mileage for 200–250
thousand kilometers. However, at present, these expectations are changing in the direction
of increasing the mileage to 500–600 thousand kilometers and decreasing the service life
to 20 years [1]. The verification of assumptions about the maintenance profile demands
appropriate changes in the field of vehicle production and in its equipment, with newer
systems supporting the work of crews, e.g., [2–4], as well as in the testing and verification
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 in the testing and verification of operating parameters [5]. Invariably, great difficulties 2 of 14
appear when evaluating the durability of such vehicles with respect to the target mileage
in the testing and verification of operating parameters [5]. Invariably, great difficulties
[6,7].
appear when evaluating the durability of such vehicles with respect to the target mileage
Analysis and verification of the durability of a new vehicle is carried out in several
of operating parameters [5]. Invariably, great difficulties appear when evaluating the
[6,7].
stages, most often in accordance with the adopted design model, e.g., shown in Figure 1
durability of such
Analysis vehicles with
and verification ofrespect to the target
the durability mileage
of a new [6,7].is carried out in several
vehicle
[8]. Three basic stages of the verification of design assumptions can be distinguished:
stages,Analysis andin
most often verification
accordanceofwith
the durability
the adopted of design
a new vehicle
model, is carried
e.g., shownoutininFigure
several1
analysis of computational models and virtual tests carried out with the use of dedicated
stages, most often in accordance with the adopted design model, e.g., shown
[8]. Three basic stages of the verification of design assumptions can be distinguished: in Figure 1 [8].
computer
Three basicsoftware
stages of(Final Element of
the verification Method—FEM,
design tests Multibody
assumptions beDynamic
can with Simulation—
distinguished: analysis
analysis of computational models and virtual carried out the use of dedicated
MBDS)
of [9,10];
computational stand tests
models of
and subassemblies
virtual tests and,
carried if
outpossible,
with theof
useallofvehicles
dedicated[11,12]; and
computer
computer software (Final Element Method—FEM, Multibody Dynamic Simulation—
prototype
software tests of
(Finalstand qualification
Element mileage in normal and contract research conditions on
MBDS) [9,10]; testsMethod—FEM,
of subassemblies Multibody Dynamicof
and, if possible, Simulation—MBDS)
all vehicles [11,12];[9,10];
and
proving grounds
stand tests and test road
of subassemblies sections
and, [13]. of all vehicles [11,12]; and prototype tests of
if possible,
prototype tests of qualification mileage in normal and contract research conditions on
proving grounds and test road sections [13]. research conditions on proving grounds and
qualification mileage in normal and contract
test road sections [13].

Figure 1. A model of the system design process based on a NASA V model [8].
Figure 1. A model of the system design process based on a NASA V model [8].
Figure 1. A model of the system design process based on a NASA V model [8].
The dynamic development of computers and software has caused vehicle
The dynamic
manufacturers development
to increase of computers
the share and software
of virtual testing has caused
in the process vehicle manufac-
of preparing vehicle
The
turers tofordynamicthedevelopment
increase of testing
share of virtual computers and software has caused vehicle
designs serial manufacturing, allowing forin the
the process
abandonment of preparing vehicle
(or limiting) designs
of physical
manufacturers
for serial to increase the share of virtual testing in the process of preparing vehicle
testing of manufacturing,
the prototype [14]. allowing for theprogress
Significant abandonment
has been (or limiting)
attained in of the
physical
use oftesting of
test rig
designs for serial
the prototype manufacturing, allowing
has for the abandonment (oroflimiting) of physical
examination of[14]. Significant progress
subassemblies and vehicle been attained
systems overinthe thelast
use test rigand
20 years, examination
even of
testing of the prototype
of subassemblies [14]. Significantover
and vehicle progress has been attained in the use of vehicles
test rig
whole vehicles within the lastsystems the last
10 years. Examples 20
of years,
test rigsandforeven of whole
carrying out vehicle
examination
within thetests of subassemblies
last by
10 generating and
years. Examples vehicle systems over the last 20 years, and even of
durability verticalof test rigs for
excitations fromcarrying
the roadout vehicle
profile durability road
(tire-coupled tests
whole vehiclesvertical
by generating within excitations
the last 10 from
years. Examples of test rigs for carrying out vehicle
simulator) and placing the vehicle inthea road profile
complex (tire-coupled
load road simulator)
state (spindle-coupled and
road
durability tests
placing theare by
vehicle generating
in in
a complexvertical excitations from the road profile (tire-coupled road
simulator) shown Figure 2.load state (spindle-coupled road simulator) are shown in
simulator)
Figure 2. and placing the vehicle in a complex load state (spindle-coupled road
simulator) are shown in Figure 2.

Figure
Figure2.2.Tire-coupled
Tire-coupled road
road simulator
simulator (left)
(left) and
and spindle-coupled
spindle-coupled road
road simulator
simulator (right)
(right) [11].
[11].
Figure 2. Tire-coupled road simulator (left) and spindle-coupled road simulator (right) [11].
These
These tests
tests usually
usually concern
concern the
the engine
engine and
and drivetrain,
drivetrain, steering,
steering, frame,
frame, cab,
cab, seats,
seats,
suspension,
suspension,hydraulics,
hydraulics,andandcontrols.
controls.However,
However, the
theperformance
performance of ofsuch
suchtests
testsrequires
requiresthe
the
These tests usually concern the engine and drivetrain, steering, frame, cab, seats,
establishment test stand
establishment of test standcontrol
controlsignals
signals (obtained
(obtained byby
thethe compilation
compilation of recorded
of the the recorded
road
suspension, hydraulics, and controls. However, the performance of such tests requires the
load data acquisition—RLDA) [5,15–17] and the satisfaction of the test stand requirements,
establishment of test stand control signals (obtained by the compilation of the recorded
which limit the possibility of testing vehicles with 6 × 6 or larger chassis and over 6000 kg
GVW [11]. Moreover, such stands are very expensive; for this reason, they are used by
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 3 of 14

the largest vehicle manufacturers [18]. In the case of small-series vehicle production (i.e.,
special vehicles) by manufacturers who often do not have extensive testing facilities at their
disposal, the estimation of vehicle durability is carried out by means of experimental tests
performed during test runs over a distance sufficient to observe changes and to predict
the target durability of vehicle components in the context of its mileage. Here, however, a
problem arises indirectly due to the high quality of the vehicle subassemblies. To observe a
visible change in the durability of subassemblies as well as in the entire vehicle where bench
testing of components or entire vehicles is not possible, tests under normal conditions must
be performed over increasingly longer distances. Long-distance road tests of a vehicle are
time-consuming and costly if only a single vehicle is available. Therefore, ways to speed up
tests performed under contract research conditions, e.g., by increasing the driving speed
during the tests, choosing test road sections that generate higher loads than those generated
under the conditions of normal vehicle operation, and not carrying out road tests where
the level of loads does not significantly limit the durability of the vehicle component being
tested [15,19]. Therefore, it becomes particularly important to establish reference test road
sections and running speeds for mileage tests under contract research conditions in order
to establish the correlation between vehicle driving conditions (load, speed, road type) and
the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of the selected key vehicle components [20].
This paper presents a method of selection for off-road test sections in the context of
generated loads at selected points of a special wheeled vehicle with 8 × 8 running gear,
as well as the possibility of accelerating the tests. The method allows for determination of
the model speed distributions on selected test road sections (here, off-road) and indicates
which chosen off-road test sections generate the most significant loads on the key vehicle
components. It is possible to estimate the possible acceleration rate of the tests in relation
to the loads recorded on the reference road.

2. Vehicle Life Cycle Environmental Profile

Vehicle test conditions are specified by analyzing the stated intended vehicle operating
conditions, e.g., in life cycle environmental profile (LCEP). This usually contains basic
data on the operating conditions, assumed vehicle speed, cargo to be carried, and target
mileage as well as indicating the types of test roads (main roads, secondary roads, off-road,
cross-country) [21–24]. An example of assumptions for testing high-mobility wheeled
vehicles is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Life Cycle Environmental Profile of High-Mobility Wheeled Vehicle (example) [23].

Total MILEAGE: 250,000 km

Percent Distance Speed—Max Speed—Avg
Terrain Type
[%] [km] [km/h] [km/h]
Primary roads 5 12,500 90 60
Secondary roads 30 75,000 80 50
Off-road 55 137,500 40 25
Cross-Country 10 25,000 10 5

A more accurate analysis of predicted speeds and road types is possible based on
an analysis of vehicle use conditions under operational conditions, e.g., [25–27]. On the
basis of the data from such analyses, it is possible to arrange the test program and to select
speeds and road test sections collected in a reference measurement loop for measuring
loads at selected vehicle measurement points. The results of the analysis of the recorded
load runs can be compared with the loads recorded on other roads of the same class to
indicate the test acceleration factor, that is, the reduction in test time (h) or mileage (km).

2.1. Speed Modeling

Vehicle speed has a significant effect on the generation of loads; hence, it should be
controlled in test runs. The beta statistical distribution can be used for this purpose, which
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 4 of 14

allows determination of the proportions of the speed spectrum components according to

the operating profile and evaluation of the speed distribution obtained from the test runs.
The statistical distribution of beta is defined as follows:
( A + B − 1 )! A −1
f (x) = x (1 − x ) B −1 (1)
( A − 1)!( B − 1)!

where f (x) is the percentage of the adopted speed range throughout the entire vehicle speed
range, x is the value of the speed range, and A, B are the parameters of the distribution
shape. Given the vehicle movement input data, for example on secondary roads (Table 1)
where the assumed speed is Vavg = 50 km/h, Vmax = 80 km/h and the share of the test road
section length per 1000 km of mileage is 25% (250 km), one can ascertain data to carry out
the tests. This is shown in Table 2 and in Figure 3.

Table 2. Data for Beta speed distribution (example) [27].

Represented Driving Driving Sectional Sectional

Vmin Vmax Vavg
Speed Time Time Mileage Mileage
[km/h] [km/h] [km/h]
Vrep [km/h] [%] [min] [%] [km]
- 0 5 2,5 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
5 2.5 7.5 5 0.1 0.4 0.0 0.0
10 7.5 12.5 10 0.6 1.7 0.1 0.3
15 12.5 17.5 15 1.3 4.0 0.4 1.0
20 17.5 22.5 20 2.4 7.2 1.0 2.4
25 22.5 27.5 25 3.7 11.0 1.8 4.6
30 27.5 32.5 30 5.1 15.2 3.0 7.6
35 32.5 37.5 35 6.6 19.7 4.6 11.5
40 37.5 42.5 40 8.0 24.0 6.4 16.0
45 42.5 47.5 45 9.3 27.9 8.4 20.9
50 47.5 52.5 50 10.3 30.9 10.3 25.8
55 52.5 57.5 55 11.0 32.9 12.1 30.1
60 57.5 62.5 60 11.1 33.3 13.3 33.3
65 62.5 67.5 65 10.5 31.6 13.7 34.2
70 67.5 72.5 70 9.1 27.4 12.8 32.0
Appl. Sci. 2022,
75 12, x FOR PEER
72.5REVIEW 77.5 75 6.7 20.0 10.0 5 of 15
25.0
80 77.5 82.5 80 2.8 8.4 4.5 11.2
99 295.7 102 255.9

Driving time Mileage

40 40
Driving time [min]

Mileage [km]

30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Driving speed [km/h]

Figure 3. Distribution of driving time and mileage as a function of driving speed (Vmax = 80 km/h;
Figure
Vavg 3. Distribution
= 50 km/h; A =of3.25;
driving time[27].
B = 1.92) and mileage as a function of driving speed (Vmax = 80 km/h;
Vavg = 50 km/h; A = 3.25; B = 1.92) [27].
Small errors in determined driving time (%), i.e., 99 instead of 100, and in sectional
2.2.miles
Vehicle Load
(%), i.e., 102 instead of 102, are acceptable; they can be reduced by determining the
A According
and B values to more accurately.standards
the applicable The determined
and test speed distribution
procedures [23,24],can be illustrated
high-mobility
graphically, as shown in Figure 3.
wheeled vehicles should be loaded with a load equal to their maximum payload during
testing.The
Thisreceived
verifiesspeed distribution
the durability can vehicle
of the be treated
in aasvery
a reference, and theway.
conservative determined speed
In practice,
distributions
a vehicle obtained
only rarely fora full
carries selected
load,test road sections
especially can and
in off-road be compared to it.conditions.
cross-country Comparison
of has
This the adistributions
great impactprovides hints fordurability,
on the estimated the driveras asresearch
to, e.g., shows
whether speeds
that should be
the durability
of a vehicle loaded with the maximum load compared to a vehicle without load is
approximately ten times lower [28]. At the stage of selection of the test road sections,
vehicle tests are carried out with the vehicle fully loaded with cargo, maintaining its
correct location in the cargo space. Moreover, considering that special high-mobility
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 5 of 14

increased or decreased during test drives. If the given speeds cannot be reached during the
measurement runs, it may be a reason to reevaluate the road section category and reclassify
it (e.g., from off-road to cross-country).

2.2. Vehicle Load

According to the applicable standards and test procedures [23,24], high-mobility
wheeled vehicles should be loaded with a load equal to their maximum payload during
testing. This verifies the durability of the vehicle in a very conservative way. In practice, a
vehicle only rarely carries a full load, especially in off-road and cross-country conditions.
This has a great impact on the estimated durability, as research shows that the durability of a
vehicle loaded with the maximum load compared to a vehicle without load is approximately
ten times lower [28]. At the stage of selection of the test road sections, vehicle tests are
carried out with the vehicle fully loaded with cargo, maintaining its correct location in
the cargo space. Moreover, considering that special high-mobility wheeled vehicles are
equipped with a Central Tire Inflation System (CTIS), it is important to establish and
consequently maintain a constant tire pressure for the load and type of road [29]. In
addition, the driving style of the driver should be monitored, e.g., by comparing the loads
on the left and right sides of the vehicle to observe whether the driver is avoiding bumps
under the left wheels.

2.3. Selection of Road Test Sections

To determine whether the selected test conditions lead to the generation of greater
than operating loads and to determine the possible effects of accelerated testing, an appro-
priate indicator is needed, with values that can be determined at the stage of qualification
tests conducted by a designated testing institution when a limited set of operational data
concerning the tested vehicle is available. The factor that meets these limitations may be the
parameter dp , called pseudo-damage [30]. This is derived from the transformation of the
general Basquin formula into the number of permissible load cycles N of monotonic loading
with a range S of an element made of a material, the properties of which are represented
by the coefficients α (strength of the material to the load equal to half a cycle) and β (slope
coefficient of the strength curve of the material in the log-log diagram in the range of the
number of load cycles N from 103 to 106 ) [19,31], as shown in Figure 4.

NS− β = α = const (2)

When generalizing Relation (2), the damage value can be included in the Palmgren–
Miner linear damage accumulation formula as a quantity, D, which should be D ≤ 1:
n
∑ Di = ∑ Nii = α − 1 ∑ n i Si ≤ 1
β
D= (3)
i i i

Equation (3) can be expressed in a simplified form as:

D = α −1 · d p (4)

β
where d p = ∑i ni Si . Then, when the purpose of the tests is to compare the effect of
selected operating conditions (different road sections) on the damage rate of a vehicle
component, the parameters α and β can be assumed to remain constant during the tests,
and Equation (4) is simplified to

∑ i n i Si
β
D = dp = (5)

where: d p is pseudo-damage.
i. 2022, 12, Appl.
x FORSci.
PEER2022, 12, 3513
REVIEW 6 of 15 6 of 14

Figure 4. FatigueFigure 4. Fatigue

strength strength plotscale
plot on logarithmic on logarithmic
[31]. scale [31].

It can be concluded from Relation (5) that for the evaluation of selected road sections
When generalizing Relation (2), the damage value can be included in the Palmgren–
(which have an influence on damage to the vehicle component), the load process can be
Miner linear damage accumulation formula as a quantity, D, which should be D ≤ 1:
recorded and then the cycles of this load can be counted using various cycle counting
methods [19,32]. 𝑛
𝐷 = Taking
𝐷 =into account
= 𝛼 the length
𝑛 𝑆 ≤of1the road sections and assuming that the
(3) are constant),
𝑁
test conditions are fixed (i.e., the load, tire pressure, and speed distributions
a normalized value can be determined for each road section depi as follows:
Equation (3) can be expressed in a simplified form as:
𝐷=𝛼 ∙𝑑 d (4)
depi = i (6)
Li
where 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑛 𝑆 . Then, when the purpose of the tests is to compare the effect of se-
lected operatingwhere di is the
conditions value calculated
(different from Relation
road sections) on the damage Li isofthe
(4) andrate length of
a vehicle the test section.
com-
ponent, the parameters α and β can be assumed to remain constant during the tests, and of the same
By performing vehicle mileage tests on various test sections of roads
Equation (4) is class (e.g., off-road),
simplified to it is possible to determine which road generates more damage to a
component by comparing the normalized values of pseudo damage dep1 and depx under
invariable load and comparable ∑ 𝑛 𝑆 distributions in the tests:
𝐷 = 𝑑 = speed (5)
where: 𝑑 is pseudo-damage.e
d px
It can be concludedImfrom= Relation
>1 →(5)test
thattruck
for the
x isevaluation
Im − timesofmore
selected road
sevier sections
than test truck 1 (7)
(which have an influence on damagedep1 to the vehicle component), the load process can be
recorded and then the cycles of this load can be counted using various cycle counting
In our calculations, a preliminary value of β = 5 was assumed. This corresponds to a
methods [19,32]. Taking into account the length of the road sections and assuming that
high cycle strength, typical for vehicle components without finishing operations such as
the test conditions are fixed (i.e., the load, tire pressure, and speed distributions are con-
grinding or polishing, and without notches, typical for welded joints [31]. Pictures that
stant), a normalized value can be determined for each road section 𝑑 as follows:
exemplify the analyzed test road sections are provided in Figure 5. The analyzed roads
were of the off-road class only. 𝑑
𝑑 = (6)
𝐿
Equation (5) applies stress–strain history to determine the fatigue life of a component.
For preliminary selection of test road sections, this method allows the use of other signals
where 𝑑 is the value calculated from Relation (4) and 𝐿 is the length of the test section.
containing data about load cycles, for example, an acceleration signal. However, in order
By performing vehicle mileage tests on various test sections of roads of the same class
to obtain a direct correlation with the fatigue life of a component, the measurement data
(e.g., off-road), it is possible to determine which road generates more damage to a com-
should relate directly to the stress–strain history. Then, the choice of α and β values relates
ponent by comparing the normalized values of pseudo damage 𝑑 and 𝑑 under in-
strictly to the fatigue properties of the material. In other cases, the obtained value of the
variable load and comparable speed distributions in the tests:
pseudo-damage factor dp has no reference to the fatigue strength of the material, and only
𝑑
indicates the fatigue nature of the forcing source (path).
𝐼 = > 1 → test truck 𝑥 is 𝐼 − times more sevier than test truck 1 (7)
𝑑
In our calculations, a preliminary value of β = 5 was assumed. This corresponds to a
high cycle strength, typical for vehicle components without finishing operations such as
grinding or polishing, and without notches, typical for welded joints [31]. Pictures that
exemplify the analyzed test road sections are provided in Figure 5. The analyzed roads
were of the off-road class only.
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci.2022, 12,x3513
2022,12, FOR PEER REVIEW 7 7ofof15
14

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Examples
Examplesof
ofoff-road
off-road test
test sections
sections (3,
(3, 5:
5: sandy
sandy roads;
roads; 8,
8, 14:
14: gravel
gravelroads).
roads).

3. Results
Equation (5) applies stress–strain history to determine the fatigue life of a component.
For preliminary
The procedure selection of test
presented forroad sections,
the initial this method
verification allows
of the the use
test road of other
sections wassignals
carried
containing
out using adata about load
heavy-duty cycles, for example,
high-mobility an acceleration
wheeled vehicle. signal.
Due to the However,
classified in order
nature of the
to
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW obtain
tests, a direct
their correlation
description with the
and vehicle fatigue life ofare
characteristics a component,
limited. Thethe measurement
general 8data
appearanceofof
15
should relate
the vehicle is directly
shown in to Figure
the stress–strain
6. history. Then, the choice of α and β values relates
strictly to the fatigue properties of the material. In other cases, the obtained value of the
pseudo-damage factor dp has no reference to the fatigue strength of the material, and only
indicates the fatigue nature of the forcing source (path).

3. Results
The procedure presented for the initial verification of the test road sections was car-
ried out using a heavy-duty high-mobility wheeled vehicle. Due to the classified nature
of the tests, their description and vehicle characteristics are limited. The general appear-
ance of the vehicle is shown in Figure 6.

Figure6.6.General
Figure Generalview
viewof
ofthe
thetested
testedvehicle
vehicle[33].
[33].

The tested vehicle was planned for an in-service system characterized as in Table 1.
Technical specifications of the vehicle are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Basic technical data of tested 8 × 8 vehicle.

Gross Vehicle Weight 34,000 kg Approach Angle 35°

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 8 of 14

The tested vehicle was planned for an in-service system characterized as in Table 1.
Technical specifications of the vehicle are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Basic technical data of tested 8 × 8 vehicle.

Gross Vehicle
34,000 kg Approach Angle 35◦
Weight
Payload 13,000 kg Brake over angle 25◦
Vehicle length 10,450 mm Departure angle 35◦
Vehicle width 2550 mm Gradeability 30◦
Vehicle height 3590 mm Fording depth 1000 mm
Max. speed 85 km/h Operating range (on primary roads) 650 km

One of the first stages of the study was to select test road sections to perform simulated
in-service loads corresponding to off-road operation, which represented 55% of the target
mileage. Initial research focused on finding suitable test road sections for testing suspension
components. The test sections were selected for the following reasons: ability to drive at
assumed speeds, load symmetry for the left and right wheel tracks, and ability to accelerate
testing. The test vehicle was equipped with a measuring system that recorded the speed on
each test road section and the acceleration at selected measurement points. An example
presentation of speed changes on a selected test road section is provided in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Speed over Road 14 (left) and speed distribution (right).

Driving speeds on selected test roads were recorded in a similar manner; speed
distributions were derived from these measurements, as summarized in Figure 8.
A summary of the driving characteristics of the selected road test sections is presented
in Table 4.

Table 4. Speeds on selected off-road class test road sections.

Reference
Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 6 Road 7 Road 8 Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
Speed
Road Belgian block +
sandy sandy sandy sandy gravel gravel gravel sandy gravel gravel
surface gravel
Road length [m] 450 810 650 490 1200 1080 720 1010 1070 2680 1920
Vmax [km/h] 27.1 22.8 23.7 22.9 22.0 18.3 19.8 20.5 19.2 39.3 24.5 40.0
Vmax /Vmax ref 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.6
Vavg [km/h] 13.5 14.1 17.8 18.5 16.6 13.2 15.0 15.4 14.3 27.7 15.4 25.0
Vavg /Vavg ref 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 1.1 0.6
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 9 of 14

Figure 8. Summary of speeds on test road sections.

An example of the distribution of loads acting on the left (aL) and right (aR) sides of
the vehicle is shown in Figure 9, and a summary is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 9. Examples of cabin acceleration cycles on the left (aL) and right (aR) sides of the vehicle.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2022,
2022, 12,
12, x3513
FOR PEER REVIEW 1110ofof 15
14

9.0 8.3
8.0PEER REVIEW
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR 11 of 15
7.0
7.0
Load asymmetry aL/aR

6.0
4.7 4.8
5.0
9.0 8.3
4.0
4.0
8.0 3.5
7.0 3.0
3.0
7.0
Load asymmetry aL/aR

2.2 1.9 2.0

2.0
6.0 1.5
4.7 4.8
1.0
5.0
4.0
0.0
4.0 3.5
3.0
3.0 Road 1 Road 3 Road2.2
5 Road 6 Road 7 Road
1.9 2.08
2.0 1.5
Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
1.0
Figure 10.
Figure Asymmetricnature
10.Asymmetric nature of
ofthe
theloads
loadsacting
actingon
onthe
thewheels
wheelsof
ofthe
thevehicle
vehicle(with
(withsymmetry
symmetry being
being
0.0
dL/dR==1).
dL/dR 1).
Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 6 Road 7 Road 8
The accelerations
Figure 11 Road
shows aofsummary
the cab toof the left
the are represented
value by the value
of the Im indicator aL. Respectively,
calculated accordingthe to
Road
accelerations 10 11 Road
of the cab to the 12 Road 14 Road
right side are of 16
represented byloads
the value aR. If the acceleration
Equation (7), representing a multiplication normalized corresponding to individ-
distribution
ual road issections
balanced forequally for the left and right sides, then the magnitude represented
Figure
in Figure10.test
Asymmetric
10 as Load Asymmetry
Reference
nature Section
of the loads
has aacting
1. The
valueonofthe
loads
1.wheels
corresponded
of the vehicle
If the value
to cyclical
(with
is greater symmetry
than
changes
1, thenbeing
the
in the vertical
dL/dR = 1). acceleration of the front axle of the vehicle which represent simultaneous
accelerations operating to the left side are dominant, which may be due to larger bumps
deflection of the spring elements of the suspension for the left and right sides of the vehi-
under the wheels on the right side of the vehicle.
cle. This affected,
Figure 11 shows among other things,
a summary of thethe effect
value of the
of the inclinationcalculated
Im indicator of the whole vehicle
according to
Figure 11 shows a summary of the value of the Im indicator calculated according to
around
Equation the(7),
transverse axis (i.e.,
representing pitching). of normalized loads corresponding to individ-
a multiplication
Equation (7), representing a multiplication of normalized loads corresponding to individual
ual road test sections for Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to cyclical changes
road test sections for Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to cyclical changes in the
3.5 in the vertical
vertical accelerationacceleration of the
of the front axlefront axle
of the of thewhich
vehicle vehicle which simultaneous
represent represent simultaneous
deflection
deflection of the 3.15
springof elements of the suspension forand
theright
left and right sides of the vehi-
of the spring elements the suspension for the left sides of the vehicle. This
3 cle. This among
affected, affected, among
other other
things, thethings, thethe
effect of effect of the inclination
inclination of the whole ofvehicle
the whole vehicle
around the
2.63 the
around 2.64
transverse axis (i.e., pitching).
factor (Road 1 as reference)

transverse axis (i.e., pitching). 2.56 2.53

2.5
3.5 1.96
2 3.15
3 1.50
2.63 2.64 1.40
as reference)

1.5 2.56 2.53

2.5 1
1
1.96
Im factor (Road 1 Im

2
0.5
1.50
1.40
1.5 0.01 0.01
0 1Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 6 Road 7 Road 8
1
Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
0.5 Figure 11. Vertical loads of the unsprung mass (simultaneous deflection of parabolic springs).
0.01 0.01
0 Figure 12 shows a compilation ofRoad
the 6values of the Im indicator calculated according
Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 7 Road 8
to Equation (7), representing a multiple of the normalized loads corresponding to the in-
Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
dividual road test sections for Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to the cycles
of change
Figure
Figure 11. in vertical
11. Vertical
Vertical acceleration
loads
loads of the
of of the
theunsprung
unsprung sprung
mass
mass mass on deflection
(simultaneous
(simultaneous the front of
deflectionaxle of the vehicle.
ofparabolic
parabolic springs).
springs).

Figure
Figure 12
12 shows
shows aa compilation
compilation of
of the
the values
values of
of the
the Im
Im indicator
indicator calculated
calculated according
according
to
to Equation (7),
(7), representing
representingaamultiple
multipleofofthe
thenormalized
normalized loads
loads corresponding
corresponding to the
to the in-
dividual road test sections for Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to the cycles
of change in vertical acceleration of the sprung mass on the front axle of the vehicle.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 11 of 14

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
individual road test sections for Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to the cycles
of change in vertical acceleration of the sprung mass on the front axle of the vehicle.
3.5 3.23
3.5 3.23
3
Im factor (Road 1 as reference)

3 2.57
Im factor (Road 1 as reference)

2.5 2.57
2.5
2
2
1.5 1.37 1.31
1.20 1.37
1.5 1 1.31
1.20
1 1
1 0.56 0.52 0.56
0.46 0.45
0.5 0.56 0.52 0.56
0.46 0.45
0.5
0
0 Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 6 Road 7 Road 8
Road101
Road Road113
Road Road125
Road Road146
Road Road167
Road Road 8
Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
Figure 12. Vertical loads on the vehicle frame at the front end.
Figure 12.Vertical
Figure12. Verticalloads
loadson
onthe
thevehicle
vehicleframe
frameatatthe
thefront
frontend.
end.
Figure 13 presents a summary of the Im indicator values calculated according to
Figure 13 presents a summary of the Im indicator values calculated according to
Figure
Equation (7), 13 presents aasummary
representing multiple ofof the
thenormalized
Im indicator values
loads calculated according
corresponding to the indi-to
Equation (7), representing a multiple of the normalized loads corresponding to the indi-
Equation
vidual road(7), representing
test sections with a multiple
respect toof Reference
the normalized
Section loads
1. Thecorresponding to the indi-
loads corresponded to
vidual road test sections with respect to Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to
vidual
cycles road test sections with respect to Reference Section 1. The loads corresponded to
cycles of
of changes
changes in in the
the angular
angular acceleration
acceleration ofof the
the front
front axle
axle ofof the
the vehicle
vehicle relative
relative to
to the
the
cycles of
longitudinal changes in the angular acceleration of the front axle of the vehicle relative to the
longitudinal axisaxis of
of the
the vehicle,
vehicle, causing
causing the
the effect
effect of
of body
body tilting
tilting (rolling).
(rolling).
longitudinal axis of the vehicle, causing the effect of body tilting (rolling).

3.5
3.5 3.07
3 3.07 2.89
2.89
Im factor (Road 1 as reference)

3
Im factor (Road 1 as reference)

2.5 2.38
2.5 2.38
2.04
2 1.88 2.04
1.77
2 1.88
1.77
1.5 1.29
1.5 1 1.29
0.91
1 1 0.91
1
0.5
0.5 0.10 0.19
0 0.10 0.19
0 Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 6 Road 7 Road 8
Road 1 Road 3 Road 5 Road 6 Road 7 Road 8
Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
Road 10 Road 11 Road 12 Road 14 Road 16
Figure 13. Bending of the front axle stabilizer bar.
Figure 13. Bending of the front axle stabilizer bar.
Figure 13. Bending of the front axle stabilizer bar.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
The data presented in Figures 7 and 8 show that vehicle speed distributions during
4. Discussion
The data presented in Figures 7 and 8 show that vehicle speed distributions during
the test run were different from the assumptions included in the LCEP; the maximum and
the The
test run data
were presented
different in
fromFiguresassumptions
7 and 8 show that vehicle speed distributions during
average speeds in the road testthe
sections were betweenincluded in the
50% andLCEP; the maximum
70% with respect toand
the
the test run were
average different from the assumptions included
50%in the LCEP; the respect
maximum and
referencespeeds
speed.inBoth
the the
roadachieved
test sections
maximumwere between
and average and
speeds70% with
were to the
lower compared
average speeds
reference speed. in thethe
Both road test sections
achieved maximum wereandbetween
average50% and 70%
speeds were with
lowerrespect to the
compared
to the required values (see Table 1). The achieved speeds were closest to the LCEP on the
reference
to theSectionspeed.
required Both(see
the Table
achieved maximum and average speeds werethe lower compared
Test 14, values
as indicated 1). The
in Table achieved
4. The other roadspeeds were
sections closest
did nottoallow LCEP on the
the assumed
to
Testthe required
Section 14, values
as (see
indicated Table
in 1).
Table The
4. achieved
The other speeds
road were
sections closest
did not to
allow thethe
LCEP on the
assumed
speed limits to be reached. On the basis of this, a preliminary conclusion can be made that
Test Section 14, as indicated in Table 4. The other road sections did not allow
speed limits to be reached. On the basis of this, a preliminary conclusion can be made that the assumed
speed
the roadlimits to be reached.
roughness On thethe
profile places basis of this,
roads a preliminary
between off-roadconclusion can be made
and cross-country. Duethat
to
the road roughness profile places the roads between off-road and cross-country. Due to
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 12 of 14

the road roughness profile places the roads between off-road and cross-country. Due to the
type of road surfaces in question, the roughness profile is not constant and may change
seasonally throughout the year. This is a variable factor that should be taken into account
when planning vehicle durability tests.
From the chart in Figures 9 and 10, it can be seen that the loads were asymmetric
during the test drives. The load asymmetry index shows a consistent pattern wherein cab
accelerations to the left have values greater than accelerations to the right. In Figure 9,
the results of the test of the symmetry of the loads acting on the left and right wheels of
the vehicle are presented for the Test Sections 14 and 16 and the Reference Section 1. The
data presented in this case provide an assessment of the load symmetry, which affects
the equal load on the left and right side of the vehicle. It can be seen from this figure
that there is load asymmetry in each of the assumed ranges in the sections shown. A
summary of the determined asymmetry is shown in Figure 10. This may be due to different
bump profiles on the left and right sides of the vehicle, to the driver’s driving style, or
to a combination of those factors. An effort can be made to eliminate the effect of load
asymmetry by alternating runs in opposite directions on each section of the test road. If
this does not correct the observed load asymmetry, it may be improved by discussion with
the driver and persuading him or her not to avoid bumps acting on the left wheels of the
vehicle.
From the data presented in Figure 11, it can be seen that the highest vertical loads
inducing simultaneous deflection of the left and right suspension appear on Test Sections
3, 5, 6, 12, and 14. In comparison to the loads occurring on Reference Section 1, the test
acceleration on these sections is from two to three times higher. At the same time, the
acceleration recorded on these test road sections do not result in an increase in the loads
acting on the elements that make up the sprung mass of the front of the vehicle compared
to Reference Section 1. This is advantageous because, as noted, the subject of the tests was
the vehicle’s suspension system. By analyzing the data presented in Figure 13, it can be
seen that Test Sections 3, 5, 6, 8, 14, and 16 caused loads that led to angular motion of the
vehicle axles. At the same time, it can be observed that Test Section 12 is better-suited
for testing springs than for testing stabilizers. It can additionally be pointed out that Test
Sections 10 and 11 did not generate significant loads, leading to the conclusion that they
can be excluded from the testing programme.

5. Conclusions
The implementation of the method presented here should begin by determining the
assumed test speeds (Vmax and Vavg ) from the LCEP data. Then, control spreads should be
performed using the beta distribution for the preselected road section types. In the next
step, the control rides should be performed and the symmetry of the loads for the left and
right paths should be checked. After acceptance of the obtained results, the recording of the
loads at the chosen points can be carried out and the possible Im factor can be evaluated.
The further procedure depends on the specific objectives of the tests and the decisions
to be made. The presented procedure for the initial selection of road test sections allows
identification of the most suitable test road sections for the planned tests. The use of the
Beta statistical distribution provides a reference distribution of the test speed, which is the
basis for evaluating the speeds achieved on the test road sections. The use of acceleration
as a load indicator is easy to use and simple to interpret. As can be seen from the presented
results, when testing the springs, the highest test acceleration was achieved Test Sections 7,
8, 10, and 11 due to their high deflection values. However, in order to take into account the
loads acting on the stabilizers, Test Sections 7, 8, and 14 can be eliminated from the testing
programme. Considering the speed distributions on individual test road sections, it can be
seen that only Test Section 14 provides speeds close to those in the LCEP; over the other
sections, speeds were lower than assumed. This leads to the general conclusion that for
advanced accelerated testing specially prepared test road sections should be used, as these
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 3513 13 of 14

can cause particular forms of loading and permit the possibility of significantly accelerated
testing.

Funding: This research did not receive external funding. The findings presented in this paper, carried
out within the framework of the research project entitled “Model of the system of load identification
of the critical element of the suspension system of a high-mobility wheeled vehicle of military purpose
to the requirements of Health and Usage Monitoring System—HUMS and estimation of Remaning
Useful Life—RUL” granted from the pro-quality subsidy for the development of research potential of
the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering PWr in the year 2022.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The study did not report any data.
Acknowledgments: The author acknowledges that the vehicle for testing was provided by the
manufacturer. The manufacturer’s representatives had no influence on the research or the final
results.
Conflicts of Interest: The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses,
or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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