Nicole R. Cunningham & Matthew S.

Eastin

FILMS, REPRESENTATION OF VIOLENCE AND ITS EFFECTS IN

The effects of the representation of violence in films have been an ongoing debate for decades.

Violence in films has been a defining characteristic of Hollywood cinema since the silent film

era. Since then it has evolved and been endlessly reworked into various film genres ranging from

action and horror to even romantic comedies. The prevalence of cinematic violence continues to

spark heated debate among those who believe the representation of film violence has a negative

effect on the viewing audience and those who argue that its effect ends at being a form of

entertainment. According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA), the one prevailing

finding in media effects research is that exposure to media portrayals of violence increases

aggressive and violent behavior. However, media researchers vehemently disagree with this

statement. This entry will (1) discuss the increased prominence of violence in films, (2) examine

the role of film violence in mass shootings, (3) provide supporting examples of film-inspired

real-life violence, (4) examine concepts and theories used to explain the effects of film violence,

and (5) discuss why contradicting studies occur in research regarding effects of film violence.

Fewer Films, More Violence

Violence has become increasingly prominent in films over time. For example, researchers

Helena McAnally, Lindsay Robertson, Victor Strasburger, and Robert Hancox analyzed the

James Bond movie franchise, one of the world's longest-running and highest-grossing film

franchises. Starting with Dr. No (1962) and ending with Quantum of Solace (2008), the franchise

includes twenty two movies and spans over forty six years. The researchers found that the films
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have become more violent over time, with twice as many violent acts and three times as many

serious ones. In Quantum of Solace, Bond or his enemies were three times as likely to engage in

serious acts of violence, such as punching, kicking, or using a weapon, as in the earlier films. In

the study, slapping was considered a non-serious form of violence. It is estimated that

approximately thirty three characters die in Quantum of Solace, in which Bond prevents a faux

environmentalist from hijacking Bolivia’s water supply. In comparison, approximately twelve

characters die in Dr. No, in which Bond foils Julius No’s plan to use radio beams to sabotage a

manned space mission. This increase in violence can be attributed to the fact that studios are

making fewer, but pricier films. Due to the financial risk involved in making and releasing films,

studios add fights, shootouts, and explosions to make them more exciting. Moreover, violence is

universally understood through visual representation and has the ability to transcend language

barriers, allowing studios to successfully market the movies in foreign countries.

Film Violence and Mass Shootings

The issue of the impact of media on violence has been an ongoing debate for decades and often

resurfaces in the wake of shooting tragedies. For example, after the Columbine massacre in

1999, critics questioned the role shock rocker Marilyn Manson and other angry music played in

the high school shooting. In 2007, similar questions arose after the shooting at Virginia Tech

when it was revealed that the gunman was an avid video game fan whose game preferences

skewed towards violent shooter-based games. In the wake of two separate shootings at a movie

theater in Colorado and an elementary school in Connecticut, attention is being focused on the

impact of film violence.

 Nicole R. Cunningham & Matthew S. Eastin

On July 20, 2012, an armed gunman opened fire at a movie theater screening of the film

The Dark Knight Rises in Aurora, Colorado. At least twelve people were killed and fifty eight

were injured in the rampage. The gunman was identified as James E. Holmes. According to

police, Holmes had colored his hair red and told police that he was “the Joker.” At the time of his

arrest, Holmes had an AR-15 assault weapon (a semiautomatic variation of the military’s M-16

rifle), a Remington 870 (a pump-action 12-gauge shotgun) and at least one .40-caliber

semiautomatic pistol. Following the shooting, police entered Holmes’ apartment to find it

crisscrossed with waist-high trip wires attached to more than thirty improvised grenades strewn

across the living room. Among other items, police also found Batman paraphernalia including

posters and a Batman mask.

The Joker has long been a fixture in the DC Batman comics. The villain was also

famously portrayed by actor Heath Ledger in The Dark Knight, the predecessor to The Dark

Knight Rises. Ledger, who received a posthumous Academy Award for his sinister depiction of

the iconic villain who encourages anarchists to take over the fictitious Gotham City, described

his character as a "psychopathic, mass murdering, schizophrenic clown with zero empathy.” In

the film, the Joker threatens to kill people each day that Batman continues to hide his identity.

Over the course of the film, not only does the Joker succeed in killing several characters, but also

robs a bank, blows up a hospital, and takes a school bus full of hostages. During one fight scene,

he wields a Smith & Wesson M76 Submachine gun and fires into the air as he stumbles through

the streets. The Joker was also responsible for the death of Rachel Dawes and the explosion that

scorched Attorney General Harvey Dent’s face to the bone. This injury marked a turning point

for Dent who went from being Gotham’s “White Knight” to the serial killing “Two-Face.” In

transitioning from good to evil, Dent goes on a killing spree, seeking vengeance against those he
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felt were responsible for Rachel’s death.

The Dark Knight Rises, the third movie in the Christopher Nolan Batman trilogy, was

based on Frank Miller’s “The Dark Knight Returns,” one of the most iconic Batman comics.

Bane, the villain in The Dark Knight Rises, leads a revolt of Gotham’s lower classes to overrun

Gotham, causing social upheaval and mass chaos. In doing so, Bane destroys a football stadium,

causing the tunnels to collapse and trap most of Gotham's police underground. He also kills

Mayor Anthony Garcia and forces an abducted physicist, Dr. Leonid Pavel, to convert a reactor

core into a nuclear bomb before killing him. Bane uses the bomb to hold the city hostage and

isolate Gotham from the world. Bane reveals the cover-up of Dent's crimes and releases the

prisoners of Blackgate Penitentiary, initiating a revolution. Gotham’s wealthy and powerful are

dragged from their homes and given show trials where any sentence means likely death. These

trials are presided over by Dr. Jonathan Crane, the villain from the first movie Batman Begins. In

the graphic novel version of the story, a mentally unstable man named Arnold Crimp, who

inspired by Batman, enters a crowded movie theater with a gun and proceeds to kill three people.

Though this scene was excluded from the film version, those who believe media violence

increases real-life violence could argue that it served as inspiration for the mass shooting at the

movie theater in Aurora, Colorado.

Less than six months after the movie theater shooting in Colorado, a gunman opened fire

at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Connecticut, killing twenty children and six

adults. In the days following the shooting, the National Rifle Association (NRA) blamed violent

media for the tragedy. NRA Executive Vice President Wayne LaPierre called the entertainment

industry “callous” and “corrupt,” saying that it “sells, and sows, violence against its own
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people.” In addition to blaming video games, LaPierre also focused on movies and music videos

saying, “Then there are the blood-soaked slasher films like American Psycho and Natural Born

Killers that are aired like propaganda loops on “Splatterdays” and every day, and a thousand

music videos that portray life as a joke and murder as a way of life.”

The movie theater shooting in Colorado was not the first mass shooting to be linked to

specific films. On April 20, 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold donned trench coats and

smuggled several guns, including a Tech 9 semiautomatic 30-round assault rifle and two sawed-

off shotguns, onto the Columbine High School campus in Littleton, Colorado. The shooters

opened fired, killing thirteen and injuring twenty one others before also killing themselves.

Following the shooting, it was revealed that Harris and Klebold were fans of the movie

Natural Born Killers (1994). Natural Born Killers is a film directed by Oliver Stone about two

victims of traumatic childhoods who became lovers and mass murderers. During their killing

spree, the characters Mickey and Mallory Knox are glorified by the mass media. Prior to the

massacre, Harris and Klebold used the initials 'NBK' as their code. In a journal entry, Harris

wrote about going ‘NBK’ and how he will kill whoever he deems unfit for life. Harris also

referred to April 20 as “the holy April morning of NBK.” In an undated journal entry, Klebold

wrote about being stuck in humanity and how going “NBK” with Eric will be a way to break

free. During one of the "Basement Tapes" found in shooters’ homes, Harris and Klebold

mentioned how Hollywood will want to adapt their life story. They also debate whether Quentin

Tarantino, who wrote the screenplay for Natural Born Killers, or Steven Spielberg are

appropriate choices to direct the proposed film. In addition to Natural Born Killers, it was also

revealed that in the weeks leading up to the Columbine shooting, Harris and Klebold had
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immersed themselves in other violent films, including The Basketball Diaries (1995) and The

Matrix (1999), both of which feature trench coat-clad gunmen.

Film-Inspired Violence

The mass shootings at the Aurora movie theater and at Columbine High School are only two

examples of the many “film-inspired” violent events that have taken place over the years. In

1974, director Stanley Kubrick was forced to relocate the filming of Barry Lyndon (1975) from

Ireland to England after it was discovered that Kubrick had been placed on the Irish Republican

Army’s (IRA) hit list. Though no one seemed to know specific details regarding the death threat,

many speculated that it had less to do with the staging of British “redcoats” in a Kilkenny field

for Barry Lyndon and more to do with the accumulated outrage of the sex and violence portrayed

in A Clockwork Orange (1971). The film takes places in a dystopian, future Britain and features

disturbing, violent images. The main character, Alex, is a charismatic, but sociopathic

delinquent. Alex’s interests include classical music, rape, and “ultra-violence.” The film

chronicles the horrific crime spree of his gang, his capture, and attempted rehabilitation via

controversial psychological conditioning. The “ultra-violent” scenes had spawned an outbreak of

copycat crimes in areas where the movie had been showing. For example, it had been reported

that a gang of teenagers in Lancashire were crowing “Singing in the Rain” – a favorite song of

the film’s main character Alex – as they raped a 17-year-old girl.

Another movie that incited a slew of copycat crimes was Natural Born Killers. For

example, in September 1994, a 14-year-old boy from Dallas, Texas decapitated a 13-year-old girl

at a Dallas middle school. When asked about the crime, the boy said he did it because he wanted
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to be famous like “the natural born killers in the movie.” A month later, 17-year-old Nathan

Martinez shot and killed his stepmother and 10-year-old half-sister after becoming obsessed with

the movie. Martinez claimed to have watched the film at least ten times the week prior to the

murders. Martinez had also shaved his head the same way that the character Mickey does at the

end of the film. He also wore the same style of round sunglasses as the character. In March 1995,

Sarah Edmonson and Benjamin James Darras spent a night together in Muskogee, Oklahoma,

watching the movie and taking LSD. Two days later, the couple traveled to Hernando,

Mississippi where Darras killed William Savage, a cotton-mill manager. After Darras told

Edmonson about killing Savage, the couple traveled to Ponchatoula, Louisiana, where Savage

shot Patsy Byers, a convenience store clerk. Byer survived the attack, but was rendered a

quadriplegic. The first victim, William Savage, had been a friend of best-selling author John

Grisham. Following Savage’s death, Grisham publicly accused Natural Born Killers director

Oliver Stone of being irresponsible in making the film. Grisham claimed that filmmakers should

be held accountable for their work when it incites viewers to commit violent acts.

Theoretical Concepts

A number of theories and concepts have been used to explain the effects of violent

representations in film. One early theory used to examine media effects was the theory of

cathartic symbolism, which suggests that the execution of an aggressive action under certain

conditions reduces the aggressive drive, thus diminishing the likelihood of further aggressive

actions. The key point in the theory of cathartic symbolism is that the observed aggressive action

does not necessarily need to be executed in reality, but rather can take place in the media.

Decreased tolerance for the display and expression of anger has led to the formation of an
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environment in which individuals lack sufficient options for the acceptable and safe release of

frustrations and resentments. As a response, the entertainment industry create media that allow

the cathartic release of aggressions through participation in a projected fantasy world that offers

safe targets and symbols for violence. Therefore, rather than harboring anger and resentment

until it explodes and results in deadly violence, aggravated individuals can release their anger by

identifying with characters in films who beat and/or kill victims designed for such cathartic

purpose.

However, studies have revealed that when angry individuals are exposed to media

violence, their aggressive propensities increased. This is in direct opposition to the theory’s key

prediction that aggression should decrease after exposure to media violence. One concept that

emerged in opposition to the theory of cathartic symbolism is disinhibition. Disinhibition

suggests that watching violence on the screen reduces inhibitions towards violence. In such

cases, violence is not only seen as a normal response to frustration and stress, but also an

acceptable solution in society. As a result, this perception changes an individual’s model code

and attitude towards the use of violence.

Another concept frequently used to explain the effects of media violence is

desensitization. Desensitization occurs when people become more accepting of real-life violence

after repeated exposure to violent images. As a result, they begin to demand more extreme forms

of violence on screen. The problem with desensitization is that it becomes cyclical. The cycle

starts with initial representations of violence in films, which, in turn, causes the audience to

demand more explicit violence. As a result, filmmakers are forced to respond to these demands

by making their films more graphic and violent. This cycle desensitizes the audience. Moreover,
 Nicole R. Cunningham & Matthew S. Eastin

the exposure to film violence increases the likelihood that people will behave aggressively and

become less concerned about other. This is one possible explanation for the increase in serious

acts of violence seen across the James Bond franchise. Additionally, researchers Ronald

Drabman and Margaret Thomas found evidence of desensitization when they conducted a study

to determine which children would be more likely to seek help after witnessing a fight. They

found that children who viewed a violent film before watching a fight were less likely to act

responsibly and report the incident to an adult than those children who had not seen the violent

film. The results suggest that the children had become more tolerant of real-life violence due to

exposure to the violent images seen in the film. However, other researchers had argued against

the desensitization effect, claiming that while desensitization may occur, it does not lead to a

desensitization of new violent images.

The most common theory used to explain media effects is Albert Bandura’s Social

Learning Theory (SLT), which suggests that people learn within a social context. This form of

learning is facilitated through concepts such as modeling and observational learning. This was

evidenced by a study that investigates under what circumstances children would imitate

aggressive behavior. The children in the study were shown a film where an adult starts hitting

and kicking a “Bobo doll,” a plastic punching bag with a red nose. The children were divided

into three categories: those who saw the aggressor being punished, those who saw the aggressor

being rewarded, and a neutral group who saw no consequence for the behavior. The children

who viewed the film where the aggressor was rewarded and those in the neutral group

demonstrated a considerable number of aggressive behaviors. Children who viewed the

aggressor being punished showed limited imitation of the aggressor. This indicates that

regardless of having acquired aggressive behaviors, these behaviors would only be acted out in
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favorable or rewarding circumstances. This is known as observational learning. Observational

learning enables a single model to transmit new ways of thinking and behaving concurrently to

countless people in widely dispersed locales. For instance, using mass media, such as films, to

form idea and behavior patterns is a form of observational learning. Therefore, according to SLT,

an individual can watch a graphic, violent film and learn about human values, styles of thinking,

and behavior patterns. Social behavior is learned by observing and imitating the actions of

others. This suggests that the individual will then imitate the violence he or she viewed in the

film. Thus, leading some researchers to believe that viewing violent media results in real-life

violence, specifically in the case where the individual is imitating the violence seen on screen.

Observational learning could be used to explain James Holmes’ imitation of the Joker and to

reenact violent scene from the Batman comics or why Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold wore

trench coats the day of the Columbine shooting.

Critiques of Media Violence Effects

There are two schools of thought in the debate on the effects of media violence. There are those

who argue that film violence increases imitation of violent and aggressive behavior and those

who do not believe film violence causes real-life violence. Those who believe in the mimetic

effects of film violence claim that numerous studies find that media violence contributes to

aggressive behavior in children, adolescents, and young adults. They also argue that media

violence influences audience perception and attitude toward violence. Support for these

arguments is primarily based on the Surgeon General’s Scientific Advisory Committee report of

1972. The report emphasizes that there is a causal relation between viewing violence and

aggressive behavior. However, critics argue that the report focuses on a weak correlation
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between viewing violence and violent behavior, not an actual causal link. This weakness of the

report leads other researchers to conclude that there is no substantial evidence that film violence

affects crime or aggression. Researcher Jonathan Freedman came to this conclusion after

reviewing over 200 studies focusing on the impact of television and film violence on violent and

aggressive behavior. Freedman found that the majority of the studies were critically flawed in

some way. Among other flaws, the studies exhibited difficulty relating laboratory testing to the

real-life viewing experience. The studies also had problems with the researcher’s expectations

influencing the subject’s behavior and the evaluation of that behavior. There were also

inconsistent findings and interpretations derived from field and real-life studies. More

importantly, studies on media violence show correlation, not causation. This is contrary to the

claims made by the Surgeon General in his 1972 report.

Future Debate

Instead of blaming media violence for real-life violence, it is possible there are other

explanations for the link between film violence and real-life violence. For example, rather than

claiming film violence causes real-life violence, perhaps real-life violence only resembles film

violence. It is possible that violent, aggressive people are more driven to media with violence.

Based on the correlation is not causation argument, it cannot be said that watching The Dark

Knight or Natural Born Killers caused John Holmes, Eric Harris, and Dylan Klebold to become

aggressive and go on mass shooting sprees. There were other factors involved that led to Eric

Harris, Dylan Klebold, and John Holmes committing their crimes. For example, it was reported

that Eric Harris was depressed and wanted a way out of life and John Holmes had been kicked

out of school weeks prior to the shooting. It is possible these were triggers for their rampages,
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not the fact they watched violent films. Instead of these movies causing these actions, perhaps

their only role was to inspire or resemble certain aspects of films (i.e. wearing trench coats,

dying hair, being called The Joker). The idea that real-life violence may resemble film violence

could be seen as a middle ground between both schools of thought. On one side, there is the

acknowledgement that there is a link between the film and the violent act. However, this

acknowledgement still avoids the declaration that the film caused the violent act to occur.

FURTHER READINGS

Bandura, A. (2004). Social Cognitive Theory for Personal and Social Change by Enabling

Media. In A. Singhal, M. J. Cody, E. M. Rogers & M. Sabido (Eds.), Entertainment

Education and Social Change. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Desilet, G. (2006). Our Faith in Evil: Melodrama and the Effects of Entertainment Violence.

Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers.

Drabman, R. S., & Thomas, M. H. (1974). Does media violence increase children's toleration of

real-life aggression? Developmental Psychology, 10(3), 418-421. doi: 10.1037/h0036439

Freedman, J. (2002). Media Violence and Its Effect on Aggression: Assessing the Scientific

Evidence. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

McAnally, H. M., Robertson, L. A., Strasburger, V. C., & Hancox, R. J. (2012). Bond, james

bond: A review of 46 years of violence in films. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent

 Nicole R. Cunningham & Matthew S. Eastin

Medicine, 1-2. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.437

Pennell, A. E., & Browne, K. D. (1999). Film Violence and Young Offenders. Aggression and

Behavior, 4(1), 13.

Torr, J. D. (Ed.). (2001). Violence in the Media. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press.

Torr, J. D. (Ed.). (2002). Examining Pop Culture: Violence in Film and Television. San Diego,

CA: Greenhaven Press.