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Jens K. Roehrich
Centre for Research in Strategic Purchasing and Supply (CRiSPS); School of Management, University of
Bath.
Abstract
With the continuing increase of competitive pressures in the automobile industry, the accelera-
tion of cost and price pressures and the omnipresent need for improvement of engineering
productivity managers have to constantly ensure the company’s survival in the market. This
perspective emphasises the need for managers to consider outsourcing in order to sustain a
company’s competitive advantage. The use of external assembly service providers in the au-
tomotive industry is widespread and is embraced in the build to order concept. Outsourcing
capacity brings with it the risk of outsourcing competency. Managers in the customer-
conscious automotive market have to thoroughly understand the concept and the associated
risks in order to benefit from the outsourcing practice. Therefore, this chapter critically evalu-
ates the benefits and risks associated with outsourcing core and supporting activities in the au-
tomotive industry. Moreover, the study draws on different theoretical positions delivering a
rigorous description and comparison of the theoretical outsourcing standpoints. The research
study is underpinned by empirical evidence from the automotive industry and concludes with
a set of managerial implications to facilitate well-grounded outsourcing decisions within the
automotive industry.
The management practice of outsourcing a company’s core and supporting activities in a vari-
ety of business functions has been a focus of attention, not only recently, but also during the
last decades. The Build to Order [BTO] paradigm presented in this book makes use of the out-
sourcing concept to deliver the flexible capacity necessary to deliver a car in 5 days. Apart
from the growing volume of literature describing various facets of outsourcing, the consultan-
cy business welcomes outsourcing as a weapon to fight within a competitive marketplace as
well as to focus business strategies. This chapter presents a concise analysis of outsourcing
core and supporting activities, with an emphasis on how to manage and evaluate outsourcing
practice as the automotive industry moves towards BTO.
Defining the concept of outsourcing 3
Before discussing the different approaches and their impact on outsourcing decisions, it is vi-
tal to rigorously define the concept of outsourcing. Therefore, the following section paves the
way for a discussion on outsourcing core and supporting activities by collating the various
outsourcing definitions. Outsourcing has been defined in various ways by practitioners and ac-
ademics. In common is the acknowledgement of risks and benefits that come along with out-
sourcing decisions. Definitions of outsourcing recognise the practice as the procurement of prod-
ucts or services from sources external to the organization (Lankford and Parsa 1999, p.310) or as the
transfer of previously in-house activities to a third party (Lonsdale 1999, p.176).
Seen from the view of strategic flexibility, outsourcing is just one way in which the bound-
ary of an organisation can be adjusted in response to changing global markets. It might con-
cern either a firm’s primary supply chains or its supporting activities (Lonsdale and Cox
2000). With regard to the growing interdependence of companies, a strategic flexibility per-
spective becomes increasingly important for a single firm. Recognising the controversial dis-
cussion about core competences in an organisation, Sharpe (1997, p.538) defines outsourcing
as turning over a part or all of those functions that fall outside the organisation’s chosen core competencies to
an external supplier whose core competencies are the functions being outsourced. This definition is closely
associated with the notion of the organisation’s core activities which raises the problematic is-
sue of identification of what is core and what is supporting.
Approaches to outsourcing
The following theoretical approaches have to be taken into consideration in order to derive
well-grounded outsourcing decisions that are beneficial to the company. Among the most
common theoretical approaches are the resource-based view, the resource-dependency theory,
the transaction cost theory and the industrial network approach, which will be outlined in the
following sections. The section on outsourcing approaches concludes with a summary con-
trasting the different approaches and their impact on outsourcing decisions.
The resource-based view (RBV) understands the firm’s resources as the foundation for its
strategy. Focusing on internal resources and competencies to develop organisational capabili-
ties in order to achieve a distinctive competence are central to this theory. A firm’s compe-
tence can be described as a competitively valuable activity that a company performs better than its rivals
[and which] represents a competitively superior resource strength (Thompson et al. 2005, p.91). The re-
source-based view states that a firm will earn abnormal profits due to their lower cost gained
by superior productive resources (Lonsdale 1999). Furthermore, companies can also earn ab-
normal profits through superior productive capabilities or through product differentiation, en-
abling the company to provide valued uniqueness and functionality for its customers and
charge a premium. However, in order to sustain a competitive advantage in the resource-based
view, the company should install protection around its resource position to avoid substitutions
and imitations. Rumelt (1987) cited a list of ‘isolating mechanisms’ including, for instance,
buyer switching costs, reputation, producer learning and economies of scale for firms, that are
needed to protect a company’s favoured market position.
From an outsourcing perspective, another condition to gain abnormal profit is to retain the
valuable resources within the firm’s boundaries. Williamson (1985) stated that it would be
easier for a firm to do so if the resource is ‘firm-specific’, i.e. that its value diminished outside
the firm. Teece (1987) added the notion of ‘co-specialised’, i.e. it is only valuable if it is used
Approaches to outsourcing 5
in combination with other resources within a firm, as another condition which keeps valuable
resources inside the firm’s boundaries. Therefore, the resource-based view proposed that if the
firm outsourced certain resources, it will loss control over its strategic core. In other words,
the company’s competitive position depends on its ability to gain and defend advantageous
positions concerning resources important to production and distribution (Wernerfelt 1984,
Barney 1991).
In addition to deploying existing resources and capabilities, Grant (1991) cited that a com-
pany should also develop its internal resources and capabilities. In order to fully exploit a
firm’s existing stock of resources and capabilities, and to develop a competitive advantage, the
external acquisition, i.e. outsourcing, of complementary resources and capabilities may be
necessary. Grant (1991) argued that the outsourcing strategy not only secures the firm’s exist-
ing resources, but also increases resources and capabilities as well as a company’s strategic
opportunities. Managers in the automotive industry have to understand that it is seldom
enough to just posses a competitive advantage in the marketplace. The competitive market en-
vironment pronounces the need for timely responsiveness, rapid and flexible product innova-
tion, coupled with the managerial ability to effectively coordinate and redeploy internal and
external competences. The question now to ask is how do firms achieve and sustain a competi-
tive advantage over its rivals?
The competitive advantage of firms is considered as resting on distinctive processes (ways of co-
ordinating and combining), shaped by the firm’s specific asset positions (such as the firm’s portfolio of diffi-
cult-to-trade knowledge assets and complementary assets), and the evolution path(s) it has adopted or inherited
(Teece et al. 1997, p.509). Keeping in mind the definition above and the ever changing market
environment, a rather static viewpoint is less appropriate to answer the question of how a
company sustains its competitive advantage.
A more dynamic concept drawing on dynamic rather than static capabilities should be de-
ployed. Dynamic capabilities are defined as the firm’s ability to integrate, build, and reconfigure inter-
nal and external competences to address rapidly changing environment (Teece et al. 1997, p.516). In
markets where the competitive landscape is rapidly shifting, dynamic capabilities become the
source of sustained competitive advantage (Eisenhardt and Martin 2000), giving organisations
the ability to gain new and innovative forms of competitive advantage. Dynamic capabilities
and the firm’s adaptability is one of the keys to sustainable competitive advantage in the fast-
moving automotive market. Companies in the automotive market have to constantly adjust and
align their dynamic capabilities consisting of firm specific strategic and organisational pro-
cesses like product development. These alignments should be supported by strategic decision
making and senior management support in order to create value for companies working within
dynamic markets.
The resource-dependency theory (RDT) differs from the resource-based view inasmuch as the
former focuses on the external environment and not on the internal. Academics in the field ar-
gue that an organisation finds itself dependent on some elements in its external environment
(Thompson 1967). The external dependency is caused by the firm’s limited control over need-
ed resources, such as land, labour, capital, information and/or specific products or services
(Kotter 1979). An internal lack of resources can be overcome by the firm when it enters into
exchange relationships with other firms, emphasising the dependency of the firm on its exter-
nal environment. Therefore, the resource-dependency theory emphasises the need for a com-
pany to adapt to environmental uncertainty, to handle problematic interdependences and to
oversee resource flows (Pfeffer and Salancik 1978). Cheon et al. (1995) stated that the de-
pendency of a firm on any other organisation, as it occurs in outsourcing relationships, is de-
termined by the importance of the resource to the organisation, the number of potential suppli-
ers and the cost of switching supplier. In conclusion, a firm’s outsourcing strategy consists of
different degrees of dependency of one organisation on another in order to acquire critical re-
sources which are not cost effectively available internally.
A different perspective of outsourcing decisions is made by the transaction cost theory
which is not based on resources but on costs which occur during transactions.
The transaction cost theory (TCT) of a firm was introduced by Coase in the 1930s and further
developed by Williamson in the mid 1970s until the mid 1980s. This approach states that the
firm’s economic activity depends on the balance of production economics against transaction
cost. Transactions are seen as the exchanges of goods or services between economic actors,
who are technologically separate units, inside and/or outside the organisation (Williamson
1985). The success of a firm in the view of that theory depends upon an effective management
of transactions.
The transaction cost approach provides, among other benefits, a generic framework for ana-
lysing outsourcing options. According to this theory, the choice lies between using an out-
sourcing provider or providing services in-house (Lacity and Hirschheim 1993). Two different
types of costs have to be considered when making the decision between in-house production
and outsourcing provider: production and transaction costs. On one hand, smaller production
cost can be achieved by the decision to outsource, primarily due to the economies of scale that
a provider might have (Cheon et al. 1995). On the other hand, Cheon et al. (1995) pointed out
that outsourcing leads to higher transaction costs arising from negotiating, monitoring and en-
forcing contracts. In order to evaluate the decision whether to outsource or not, factors which
influence the magnitude of transaction costs should be assessed. Williamson (1985) suggested
three influencing factors: asset specificity or the degree to which the transaction will produce
an asset that is dedicated to a special purpose; the degree of uncertainty in the environment
such as unpredictable markets, technological and economic trends; and infrequency of con-
tracting. Figure 1 illustrates the relationships between the influencing factors of transaction
costs by Williamson, the trade-off between transaction and production costs and its conse-
quences. Each of the three influencing factors raises the effort and cost of structuring an
Approaches to outsourcing 7
agreement between outsourcer and outsourcing provider that will assume the successful com-
pletion of the contract (Cheon et al. 1995).
Transaction Costs Factors Trade-off Decision Outcome
Transaction costs
Outsourcing
<
Production costs
Asset specificity
Uncertainty OR
Infrequency
Transaction costs
In-house
>
Production
Production costs
Fig. 1 A transaction costs perspective of outsourcing (Adapted from Cheon et al. 1995, p.214)
The transaction cost theory is solely based on a single firm, neglecting the existence of oth-
er firms and their influence on the firm’s behaviour. The industrial network approach takes the
firm’s wider network and its influence into account.
The network approach focuses on entire relationships among buying and selling firms and has
been influenced by the theory of social exchange. The industrial network approach provides,
like the resource dependency approach, a perspective on inter-organisational relationships
(Pfeffer and Salancik 1978). [I]t is concerned with a focal organisation [and] attempts to describe the mul-
tiplicity of relationships of any industrial or commercial organisation (Easton 1997, p.103). The resource
dependency view mainly concentrates on the individual relationship between firms whereas
the industrial network approach sees the network and its various relationships that exist be-
tween individuals, groups and organisations within a network.
Relationships are described in the literature as one of the most important assets of a compa-
ny. [A] relationship offers access to third parties who may have resources that are either valuable or essential
to survival (Easton 1997, p.107). The relationship consists of several important elements which
should all be met in order to reap the maximum benefit. The elements are mutual orientation,
dependence, the bond between firms, investments seen as the commitment of resources to-
wards the mutual orientation, as well as atmosphere described as the tension between conflict
and cooperation (Ford et al. 1986). Consequently, relationships form the context in which transactions
take place (Easton 1997, p.111).
Nowadays, companies have a portfolio of different types of supply relationships with a
number of suppliers of various capabilities and resources. Classifications of buyer-seller rela-
tionships can be based upon several variables such as involvement of the supplier, the strategic
importance of the outsourced product/service or the complexity of the supply market. Howev-
er, companies should always view relationships to their various suppliers in the network con-
text, as the total supplier network determines the efficiency and the effectiveness of the operations on the
supply side of the companies (Gadde and Håkansson 2001, p.174). The network approach empha-
sises the combined and integrated capabilities and the exchange of information between the
involved actors. Companies should also be aware that any action undertaken by one actor impacts the
others in several different ways (Gadde and Håkansson 2001, p.176). Therefore, companies need to
include other network actors in their thinking and the company’s own activities and resources
should be seen as assets of the network rather than of a single company.
Table 1 collates the four presented outsourcing approaches that should be taken into consid-
eration. Each approach addresses different vital aspects of the company and its surrounding
network. The amalgam of theses approaches will prove useful in facilitating managers to ar-
rive at well-grounded outsourcing decisions. The degrees to which the various approaches
should be taken into consideration depend strongly on organisational factors and environmen-
tal conditions.
Limits to out- Core competences (Critical) core re- Activities that re- Core competences
sourcing and activities that sources and valuedquire specific in- which would make
do not have these resources vestment (high the company redun-
attributes, but specificity) dant
cannot be sourced
from the market
Risks Firm may be- Loss advanta- Transaction cost Firm does not man-
come ‘hollow’, geous position more than produc- age the relationships
Loss control over (resources), tion cost, properly and fails to
strategic core, Loss control Outsourcing activi- mobilise resources,
over strategic ties with high activities and actors
Loss of access
to assets resources, specificity
Become depend-
ent on too many
firms
Understanding the concept of core and supporting activities is crucial for companies in the
automotive sector when considering the outsourcing option. The following sections will ex-
plore the controversial debate over core and supporting activities and identify different models
which seek to distinguish between both.
In principle any part of the value chain can be externally sourced, though for that to occur for a particular firm
would imply that the company has no unique value-adding capabilities, and that its processes are available for
replication by competitors and possibly by customers (Jennings 2002, p.26). Since the 1980s there has
been a trend to reduce the degree to which companies are vertically integrated. Which activi-
ties should be considered in an outsourcing decision is a topic of an ongoing controversial dis-
cussion among practitioners and academics. Outsourcing can concern either a firm’s primary
supply chain(s) and consequently its core activities or it can concern its supporting activities.
Figure 2 depicts the distinction proposed by Arnold (2000).
outsourcing
subject
outsourcing
com- outsourcing partner
pany object (supplier)
core
core-close activities
core-distinct activities
disposable activities
degree of
manufacturing penetration
outsourcing
design
Arnold’s outsourcing model is build upon four elements of outsourcing: the subject, the ob-
ject, the partner and the design of outsourcing. The subject of outsourcing can be considered
as the company which wants to outsource processes. The objects are the processes which
might be outsourced. Arnold (2000) distinguished between four different activities of a firm.
The core activities of a company are defined as all activities which are necessarily connected with a
company’s existence (Arnold, 2000, p.24). The other three activities range from core-close to
disposable activities. The latter one, the disposable activity, is an activity readily available on
the market. Outsourcing partners can be considered as all partners who might be considered as
possible suppliers, even an in-house supplier such as an independent business unit of the com-
pany (Arnold, 2000). Moreover, the outsourcing design is strongly influenced by the market
and company structure and will give a guideline for up-coming outsourcing decisions.
One of the primary driving forces for companies to rely increasingly on outsourcing is gaining access to the
resource collections of specialised actors (Gadde and Håkansson 2001, p.125). Authors who support
this argument note that the outsourcing company can concentrate on its own resources in order
to improve and exploit its capabilities. According to Quinn and Hilmer (1994) a company’s
focus on core activities has two main strategic advantages. First, a company who concentrates
solely on its own resources and capabilities will maximise its return on these internal re-
sources and second, the further developed capabilities may function as an entry barrier.
The author’s empirical data, derived from interviews conducted with middle- and senior-
management in the automotive industry, illustrates that activities concerned with product de-
velopment including design, international marketing, innovation and technology and the final
assembling of vehicles are considered core. Activities concerned with the IT function are seen
by most of the interviewed managers as core close whereas supporting activities are found in
The quest for competitiveness – Identifying core and supporting activities 11
areas such as assembling parts or systems, design modelling, human resources, finance and
accounting, manufacturing and customer services.
The majority of outsourcing activities are concerned with outsourcing supporting activities
(also called non-core activities) as shown in several surveys such as conducted by PA Consult-
ing (1996) and Cox and Lonsdale (1997). Companies which are well-positioned in their mar-
kets have already understood and embraced the concept of outsourcing non-core activities
(Quinn and Hilmer 1994). Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) stated the example of manufacturing
firms outsourcing standardised sub-components to specialised firms which guaranty appropri-
ate service levels at lower cost than an in-house production.
Managers often feel more comfortable taking their first outsourcing steps in relatively un-
important activities of the firm rather than to outsource crucial parts of the business. With the
increase of companies outsourcing supporting activities such as catering, security or mainte-
nance, a large facilities management industry evolved. Therefore, [s]uppliers are offering to take
over both the management and the operation of whole business premises (Lonsdale and Cox 2000,
p.448). The most prominent part of supporting services outsourcing is undoubtedly infor-
mation technology (IT). However, IT outsourcing is seen as controversial when discussed by
practitioners and academics. Many argue that IT should not be seen as a supporting activity as
it is vital to retain the competitive edge of the company. Suggestions cover the bandwidth
from keeping it in-house or partly outsourcing to complete outsourcing.
According to Lankford and Parasa (1999), functions such as payroll and benefits, human
resources and cafeteria services are ‘ripe’ to be contracted out. Overall, it can be noted that
supporting functions serve companies better if they are given to an outside organisation that is
able to perform the tasks more timely and cost-efficiently. Interviewed managers in the auto-
motive industry state that activities such as catering, security or cleaning and maintenance of
buildings were completely outsourced to external providers as automotive companies have no
competences and no benefits in carrying out these activities. Despite outsourcing supporting
activities, the pressure on firms to further improve efficiency and their competitive advantage
still remains present (Baden-Fuller et al. 2000). Many practitioners and academics are asking
the question if there are some aspects of the primary supply chain (the company’s core busi-
ness) which could be or even should be outsourced.
The opinion of traditional approaches to strategy which state that outsourcing aspects of the
core business is risky is supported by many practitioners and academics. Companies may lose
their competencies and become hollow (Prahalad and Hamel 1990). Furthermore, negative
outsourcing effects can be experienced when competitors are able to steal key aspects of the
firm's knowledge base (Bleeke and Ernst 1991). As core activities mostly lie in the area of
core competence which are important for the survival of the company, an understanding of the
core competence concept is vital. The approach of Prahalad and Hamel (1990) suggests that
only goods and services which are considered as core competences should be produced inter-
nally. Alexander and Young (1996) highlight the different ways in which the term core is de-
fined by managers. The four meanings of ‘core activities’ due to Alexander and Young (1996)
are (i) activities traditionally performed internally with long-standing precedent, (ii) activities
critical to business performance, (iii) activities creating current or potential competitive ad-
vantage, and (iv) activities that will drive the future growth, innovation or rejuvenation of the
enterprise.
Considering the fast-moving automotive market, Granstrand et al. (1997) add a new term to
the concept of ‘core’ or ‘distinctive’ competences as suggested by Prahalad and Hamel.
Granstrand et al. (1997) recommend that the management in large firms needs to sustain a broader (if
less deep) set of technological competences in order to coordinate continuous improvement and innovation in
the corporate production system and supply chain (p.18). Moreover, they see the necessity for the
management to do this in order to explore and exploit new opportunities emerging from scientific and
technological breakthroughs (Granstrand et al. 1997, p.18). Granstrand et al. (1997) recommend
that large companies should become multi-technology companies and further introduce us to a
more accurate description of large multi-technology firms’ competences which they call dis-
tributed technological competences. The so-called distributed technological core competences
can be found in a number of technological fields, in different parts of the organisation and
among several distinctive strategic objectives of the corporation.
Practitioners and academics, who challenge the traditional point of view about outsourcing,
argue that outsourcing core activities could dramatically improve the shape of the company,
combined with leanness and agility. This perspective draws on the industrial network perspec-
tive where external suppliers are able to provide benefits for the outsourcing company and
gives access to the exploitation of network competences. However, for most firms, but not for
all, the protection of core activities is a necessity.
Academics have theoretically and empirically researched four different circumstances
where outsourcing what seems to be core gives the company a competitive advantage over its
rivals. The four circumstances proposed by Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) are as follows:
Catch-up: a company has fallen behind its rivals despite a slow moving environment;
Changing value chains: changing customer needs call for a firm to respond;
Technology: new technology made the firm's core obsolete;
Emerging markets: rapid changes in customer demand and technology make new markets
available to the firm.
The quest for competitiveness – Identifying core and supporting activities 13
Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) developed a 2x2 matrix (Table 2) which plots the four different
circumstances depending on the two dimensions which are technology environment and cus-
tomer needs.
Managers, whose company find itself in one or more of the circumstances described in Ta-
ble 2, should consider outsourcing part of the company’s core activities in order to gain back
the firm's competitive advantage. Moreover, Baden-Fuller et al. (2000) argue that when the
core competencies that a company currently possesses fade away, outsourcing could bring
back its competitive advantage. This view is supported by Alexander and Young (1996), urg-
ing managers not to stop outsourcing if it comes to core activities. According to their research,
problems occur mostly at the start of outsourcing as managers’ lack a consistent definition of
the notion of 'core activities'.
Table 2 Four categories of outsourcing core activities (From Baden-Fuller et al. 2000, p.287)
Additionally, managers in the automotive industry should be aware of the shifting nature of
core activities, prescribing the concept of ‘core’ in a dynamic and evolving rather than static
manner. Various academics (e.g. Lonsdale and Cox 1998) urge managers to focus on not only
on what is core today, but on what will be core to the company in the future. Disadvantages of
that interpretation are most obvious in fast moving technology markets, where companies may
lose their competitive advantage ‘over night’. Therefore, companies should adopt a more stra-
tegic view on outsourcing which may include the transfer of an entire product, a product line,
or even an entire plant to achieve strategic value.
The author’s empirical research in the automotive industry illustrates that certain activities
in a company’s core functions are partly or completely outsourced to external providers. For
instance, the production of body modules, chassis, seats and interiors is commonly outsourced.
However, automobile manufacturers state that the production of drive trains and their compo-
nents still remain mostly in-house, as it is seen as one of the core activities. In contrast, almost
no automobile manufacturer invests in stamping and pressing machinery anymore. Another
point of interest for the automobile industry and its supplier is the growth of a few mega sup-
pliers who will be given major pieces, such as sub-assembling complete systems.
Furthermore, interviewees cite that logistics activities including warehouse and inventory
management are partly outsourced. Interviewed managers expect a significant rise of outsourc-
ing to external logistics providers within the next few years due to their efficiency and cost
savings. While considering IT activities as close to core, companies in the automobile industry
have outsourced most activities concerned with hardware and application maintenance, docu-
mentation development and application support to external providers. In addition, repetitive
and generic activities in the accounting and finance as well as human resources function, such
as billing processing, revenue accounting and payroll processing, have been partly or com-
pletely outsourced. However, even more specific activities, for instance, activities associated
with the credit and collection function have been partly outsourced as companies expect to
leverage the best-in-class credit and collection capabilities of its outsourcing providers.
In conclusion, a prerequisite for successful outsourcing is that the company is able to iden-
tify which are the core and supporting activities, adapting a dynamic and forward looking
management style. Additionally, problems might occur if companies outsource today’s sup-
portive activities which become important in the future. In-sourcing of these activities in the
future is likely to be a costly, time-consuming and problematic process. Once outsourcing de-
cisions are agreed upon, the careful selection of the appropriate partner is vital to outsourcing
success. Outsourcing does not finish with signing the contract and should rather be seen as a
relationship that includes support for the partner with expertise and managerial resources.
The following sections critically review and discuss benefits and risks closely linked to the
managerial practice of outsourcing. This should by no means be considered either a complete
list of benefits and risks of outsourcing or a judgement for one of the sides, but instead facili-
tate managers’ well-grounded outsourcing decisions. Practitioners and academics alike argue
in favour of both benefits and risks of outsourcing. Whereas, one side argues that outsourcing
helps to reduce costs, capacity on demand and it might give access to advanced technology,
the opposite side describes outsourcing management practice as risky. Outsourcing risks in-
clude the loss of control, the loss of flexibility, the loss of qualified personnel and the loss of
competitive advantage. It can be stated that most potential benefits are mirrored by potential
risks.
Outsourcing benefits
The perceived benefits of outsourcing have changed over the years. In the beginning of the
outsourcing trend, a couple of decades ago, the cost factor was perceived as the ultimate rea-
A snapshot of outsourcing benefits and risks 15
son to outsource. Nowadays, companies see additional benefits in the opportunity to concen-
trate on their core business, the increased service predictability and the ability to effectively
manage costs. In order to reap the best possible advantages for the outsourcing company, it is
suggested that automotive companies develop flexible outsourcing partnerships and pro-
grammes that are designed to meet their unique needs and cultures.
Outsourcing risks
Despite the extensive list of benefits for a company provided by outsourcing, several reports
(e.g. PA Consulting Group 1996) state that only a small percentage of managers felt that out-
sourcing had met its objectives, with the majority reporting a mediocre outcome. Criteria to
measure outsourcing success and failure are as diverse as opinions about outsourcing. Never-
theless, companies that wish to outsource need to consider both sides and evaluate their own
position in terms of benefits and risks involved.
Loss of competences
If tasks are not too specialised, the remaining work force can be moved to a different project,
which helps to maximise workers productivity. In addition, transferable skills of workers can
be leveraged. For instance, companies who completely outsourced their IT staff are forced to
use external expertise when minor IT problems occur. For companies pursuing outsourcing,
inter-functional competences might get lost as resources, tangible or human, will be contracted
out to a supplier.
Loss of intellectual property rights and confidentiality leaks are another outsourcing risk,
particularly if the supplier provides services to the company’s competitors (Lonsdale and Cox
2000). Additionally, outsourcing may lead to a loss of internal coherence which means that the
gap left by the outsourced activity negatively influences other internal departments or groups.
Empirical findings show that managers in the automotive industry are aware of the risk that
valuable data might fall into competitors’ hands, particularly if the supplier provides services
to the company’s competitors. Managers reported that tight data guidelines had to be incorpo-
rated into the outsourcing contract to avoid data misuse.
sourcing provider. Lonsdale and Cox (2000) argue that the time of contract renegotiation,
where the balance of power has changed, is most critical for outsourcing companies. Compa-
ny’s options may be limited and the decision to cancel the outsourcing contract may no longer
be practical as the outsourcing provider has acquired all the necessary skills. Companies may
be ‘forced’ to renew the contract as no other supplier will be able to fulfil the required stand-
ards.
Managerial implications for (beneficial) outsourcing decisions
The amalgam of theoretical and empirical findings presented in this chapter provides several
managerial implications. The following recommendations should support middle- and senior-
management in the automotive sector in deriving benefits and eliminating (or at least mitigat-
ing) various risks from outsourcing activities.
Once management has decided on what to outsource, a careful selection of the outsourcing
provider is vital for business success. The author’s empirical data illustrates that financial sta-
bility, expertise and the ‘cultural fit’ are the major assessment criteria to be used for outsourc-
ing providers. Outsourcing companies should have a thorough assessment scheme in place
which follows a rigorous, structured process. In return, several outsourcing risks can be elimi-
nated or at least minimised. Managers should be aware that once activities are outsourced,
bringing activities back into the company or switching outsourcing providers is a time and
cost consuming process.
Conclusion
In the face of rising profit pressures, automotive companies are increasingly pursuing out-
sourcing practice as part of their BTO strategies. This also allows them to gain access to sup-
pliers’ innovative research and technology expertise, to focus resource allocation toward core
activities and to cut down expenses.
Outsourcing activities are concerned with both, companies’ core and supporting activities.
In addition to outsourcing repetitive activities in several areas, more analytic or strategic activ-
ities in areas such as finance and accounting or human resources are contracted out to external
providers. The automotive industry even partly outsources core activities where resources and
capital are not sufficient to carry out these activities in-house.
This chapter considered the benefits and risks of outsourcing for BTO. It examined core
and supportive activities of business functions such as manufacturing, human resources, in-
formation technology, logistics, accounting and finance. Apart from the cost and quality as-
pects and the possibility of focusing on core activities, companies may enjoy several other
outsourcing benefits. According to the author’s empirical data, outsourcing offers access to
specialist knowledge and expertise, to innovative technologies and processes and to econo-
mies of scale to perform activities cheaper and at better quality.
But caution must temper enthusiasm for outsourcing. In the highly risky and customer-
conscious automotive market management should be aware of several outsourcing risks. Out-
sourcing raises fears among managers across sectors about losing power and control over ac-
tivities and proprietary knowledge. Furthermore, poor performance delivery of external pro-
viders is feared by automobile companies as they can not tolerate mistakes, especially where
regulations have to be met and vehicles delivered more quickly to the final customer. Inter-
viewees stated that a thorough provider assessment as well as integrated quality tests for all
outsourced activities helped companies to achieve beneficial results.
Consequently, empirical findings indicated that outsourcing presents a significant challenge
in managing relationships with external providers and underlined the need for managers to be
fully aware of the risks and benefits involved in outsourcing activities. An understanding of
the concept of core and supporting activities, as presented in this chapter, is vital to arrive at
well-grounded, beneficial outsourcing decisions that will enable companies to transition to
BTO production.
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Transaction Costs Factors Trade-off Decision Out-
come
Transaction costs
Out-
<
sourcing
Production costs
Asset specificity
Uncertainty O
Infrequency R
Transaction costs
In-house
>
Production
Production costs
Figure 1
Conclusion 25
outsourcing
subject
outsourcing
co outsourcing
partner
m- object
(supplier)
pa-
ny core
core-close ac-
tivities
core-distinct activi-
ties
disposable activ-
ities
degree of
manufacturing pene-
tration
outsourc-
ing
design
Figure 2
Resource-based Resource- Transaction cost Industrial Network
view (RBV) dependency theo- theory (TCT) Approach
ry (RDT)
Possibilities to Resources which Resources which Activities that do Issue of what the
outsource miss some or miss some or not require assets company can mobi-
several attributes several attributes specific investment lise through the net-
such as rare, such as rare, work
non-imitable, non-imitable, and Activities and re-
and non- non-substitutable sources which can be
substitutable produced more effi-
ciently within the
network
Main variables Resources Resources in the Asset specificity, Network,
& fundamental (internal) external environ- Frequency, Relationships and
units of analysis ment Interactions (activi-
Uncertainty ties/ actors/ re-
(Transactions) sources)
Overall industrial
network structure
(How to mobilise re-
sources from other
actors?)
Limits to out- Core competences (Critical) core re- Activities that re- Core competences
sourcing and activities that sources and valuedquire specific in- which would make
do not have these resources vestment (high the company redun-
attributes, but specificity) dant
cannot be sourced
from the market
Risks Firm may be- Loss advanta- Transaction cost Firm does not man-
come ‘hollow’, geous position more than produc- age the relationships
Loss control over (resources), tion cost, properly and fails to
strategic core, Loss control Outsourcing activi- mobilise resources,
over strategic ties with high activities and actors
Loss of access
to assets resources, specificity
Become depend-
ent on too many
firms
Table 1
Conclusion 27
Table 2