Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 548–553
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Resources, Conservation and Recycling
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec
Household organic waste composting using bins with different types of
passive aeration
Somjai Karnchanawong ∗ , Nakorn Suriyanon
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering/National Center of Excellence for Environmental and Hazardous Waste Management (NCE-EHWM),
Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 13 September 2010
Received in revised form 24 January 2011
Accepted 26 January 2011
Keywords:
Household organic waste
Passive aeration
Bin composting
Food scrap
Dry leaves
1. Introduction
At present, most municipal solid wastes (MSW) generated in
Thailand are disposed of in landfills. It has been reported that MSW
contains organic content in the range of 39–93% (PCD, 2007). Food
scraps and garden waste are the major components of organic
waste in MSW (OFMSW).
The decomposition of OFMSW under anaerobic conditions in
landfills produces carbon dioxide and methane. Methane, a green-
house gas 21 times more potent than carbon dioxide, is considered
to be a significant contributor to global warming; thus the con-
trol of methane emissions from landfills is of great importance
(Kruempelbeck and Ehrig, 1999). It has been reported that global
methane emissions from landfills amount to 16–57 Tg CH4 yr−1
(Bogner and Matthews, 2003). In addition, finding a site for a new
landfill is becoming a serious problem due to the NIMBY (“Not in
my backyard!”) phenomenon.
Furthermore, dry leaves, the major component of garden waste
in the dry season are usually open- burned (“backyard-burned”) in
the suburbs and rural areas of Thailand. As a result, various toxic
compounds are released into the environment such as nitrogen
oxides, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and particle
pollution (Kannan et al., 2004). In addition, dioxins are also emitted
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +66 5394 4192 113; fax: +66 5321 0328
. evant to bin composting have been scarcely studied. It is usually
E-mail address: somjai@eng.cmu.ac.th (S. Karnchanawong).
0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.01.006
a b s t r a c t
The objective of this study was to study the performances of six 200-L polyethylene bins, each with
different design for passive aeration to organic wastes composting. Food scraps and dry leaves (1.6 kg)
were added to each bin once a day until the bin was full. Temperatures at the middle portion were
measured daily. The compost from each bin was taken once a week for 120 days for analysis of C, N,
volatile solids, and a germination index once a week for 120 days. After 120 days, the compost sample
from each bin was taken to determine the mass reduction, size distribution, CEC, N, P and K values. The
results showed that the temperatures inside the bins were in the ranges of 24 ◦ C–57 ◦ C. The composts in
all bins were found to be stable at around 56–91 days. The wastes decayed fastest in bins with lateral and
vertical systems of natural ventilation. It took about two months to stabilize the organic wastes, with a
59–62% decrease of mass. The C/N ratio, CEC, N, P, and K values of the final composts were 14.8–16.0,
66–68 cmol/kg, and 1.26–1.50% N, 0.52–0.56% P2 O5 and 1.66–1.92% K2 O, respectively.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
(Katami et al., 2004; Wevers et al., 2004). Therefore, organic waste
should be separated from MSW and treated properly.
Composting can provide a viable alternative method for man-
aging organic waste. Composting of OFMSW has been extensively
developed and studied at an industrial level (Haug, 1993; Ruggieri
et al., 2008; Slater and Frederickson, 2001). Home composting or
backyard composting is one of the most environmentally beneficial
activities that a typical homeowner can perform. It avoids the trans-
portation of the major portion of MSW to a landfill. It has been found
that food waste decomposes rapidly to produce organic acids and a
large leachate fraction (Chanakya et al., 2007). Therefore, dry leaves
should be mixed in to absorb the leachate and adjust the mois-
ture content for proper composting. Composting can be practiced
in most backyards in a homemade or manufactured composting bin
or simply in an open pile. Bin composting is a more suitable treat-
ment option for home composting because it helps the compost pile
retain heat and moisture, and also looks neater. The environmental
burdens of home composting using the life cycle assessment tool, as
assessed by Colon et al. (2010) illustrated that the final compost had
high contents of nitrogen and organic matter, but neither pathogens
nor phytotoxic compounds even though the average temperatures
of the composts were below the thermophilic range. In addition,
fewer gaseous emissions were also detected.
Bins with passive aeration are usually used for home compost-
ing. Most of the bins available on the market generally have lateral
natural ventilation. The technical and scientific points of view rel-
suggested to stockpile organic materials for composting in order to
 S. Karnchanawong, N. Suriyanon / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 548–553
Fig. 1. Layout of 6 composting bins.
create a hot compost pile (Solomon, 2003). However, keeping the
household food scraps in the hot climate of a tropical country such
as Thailand may generate an odor problem. Past research regard-
ing bin or passive composting was conducted by filling or piling of
wastes at once (Krupp et al., 2005; PCD, 2002; Roper et al., 2006;
Ruggieri et al., 2008; Zhu, 2006; Zhu et al., 2004). Complete infor-
mation regarding the performance of bin composting in the case
of daily batch-feeding of wastes is still, however, lacking. There-
fore, the objectives of this research are to conduct a performance
study of bin composting using different designs for passive aera-
tion both lateral and vertical ventilation with daily batch-feeding
of household organic wastes.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Organic waste
Since the moisture content of food scraps is generally over 80%,
dry leaves were therefore added in order to adjust the moisture con-
tent to be around 55–65% in the organic waste used for composting.
Food scraps and dry leaves (1.6 kg total) with a ratio of 1:0.28 (wet
weight) were added to each bin once a day. This amount of organic
waste was calculated based on the Chiang Mai MSW generation
rate at 0.8 kg/(cap d) with 50% organic portion (PCD, 2007) and four
people living in a household. All food scraps and dry leaves were
reduced in size to less than 50 mm using knife and scissor, and
were mixed together thoroughly. In addition, the food scraps used
in this study were collected from Chiang Mai University’s canteen;
they were comprised 50% food scraps discarded during food prepa-
ration, and 50% leftover food. The food scraps discarded during food
549
preparation were mainly vegetables. The leftover food used in this
study consisted primarily of rice and noodles, and was prepared
by draining off the liquid portion. Mature compost produced from
OFMSW from Wieng Fang municipal area was also added to the
mixture of food scraps and dry leaves (10% by weight) in order to
seed the microorganisms to accelerate waste decomposition.
2.2. Details of bin and composting process
A total of six 200-L polyethylene bins – five different types of
passive aeration bins, and one control bin – were prepared for this
study. The details of each bin are as follows (see Fig. 1). Bins 1
and 2 had rectangular holes around the lower part of the bin (8
and 16 holes, respectively). Each hole was 50 mm × 100 mm. Bins
3 and 4 had the same numbers and sizes of holes as Bins 1 and 2,
and additionally fitted with a 38 mm diameter polyvinyl chloride
pipe connected to a 200 mm diameter inverted plastic funnel at the
middle part of the bin to vent the hot air. All holes in Bin 1–4 were
covered with wire mesh. Bin 5 had a 3-m-long flexible, low-density
polyethylene tube with a diameter of 38 mm; this was connected to
a hole at the lower part of the bin to allow air to pass in. The tube was
perforated every 10 mm with a 3 mm diameter hole. Finally, Bin 6
was a control bin. Mature compost (10% of bin volume) was filled
into each bin prior to filling of organic waste, in order to absorb the
leachate generated.
The filling with organic waste mix was carried out until at least
one bin was full, and then the composting process was monitored
for 120 days. Water was sprayed over the compost mix in all bins
during the last two months in order to control the moisture content
at around 50–60%.
550 S. Karnchanawong, N. Suriyanon / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 548–553
2.3. Sampling and analysis
During the period of waste addition, samples of the well-
mixed organic wastes were taken once a week to determine their
characteristics-: pH, moisture content, C, N, and volatile solids. The
temperature at the middle part of the waste layer in each bin was
recorded daily, beginning on day 7 of the waste-filling period until
the end of experiment. Compost from each bin was taken randomly
from the middle portion of the waste layer, for analysis of pH, C,
N, volatile solids, and germination index once a week until the
end of the experiment. After 120 days, the compost from each bin
was removed and weighed to determine the mass reduction and
size distribution. The final compost was mixed thoroughly and a
composite sample was taken to determine pH, C, cation-exchange
capacity (CEC), N, P and K values. All analyses of each sample were
done in triplicate.
Temperatures were recorded using a glass thermometer. The
pH of each compost was determined by measuring slurry of a 1:10
ratio of compost to water using a Horiba F-21 pH meter (Kyoto,
Japan). Organic carbon content was determined using a method
based on Walkley and Black (1934). Nitrogen was analyzed by a
modified micro Kjeldahl procedure using a 2100 Kjeltec distilla-
tion unit (FOSS, Hillerød, Denmark), according to AOAC methods
(AOAC, 1980). Volatile solids were determined using a gravimet-
ric method (APHA, 1997). CEC was measured using a displacement
method and distillation for adsorbed ammonium (Schollenberger
and Dreibelbis, 1930). Phosphorus was analyzed using digestion
with HNO3 –HClO4 followed by a colorimetric method using Bar-
ton’s solution (AOAC, 2000). Potassium was determined using
digestion with HNO3 –HClO4 and a flame photometer (AOAC, 2000).
Seed germination was carried out on water extracts by mechan-
ically shaking the fresh samples for 1 h at a ratio of solid to distilled
water of 1:10 (w/v). Three mL of each extract was pipetted into a
sterilized Petri dish lined with Whatman#1 filter paper. Ten flower-
ing white cabbage seeds (Brassica chinensis var. parachinensis) were
evenly distributed on the filter paper and incubated at 20–25 ◦ C
in the dark for 48 h. Four replicates were analyzed for each bin
sample. Treatments were evaluated by counting the number of ger-
minated seeds, and measuring the length of the root radical. The
responses were calculated by a germination index that was deter-
mined according to the following formula (Zucconi et al., 1981a):
Germination index, % =
Seed germination, % × root length of treatment, cm
× 100%
Seed germination, % × root length of control, cm
2.4. Statistical analysis
One-way ANOVA at a 95% confidence limit was used to compare
the study results.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Waste characteristics
The average characteristics of the fresh wastes fed in all bins
were as follows: pH 6.05 ± 0.16, moisture content 62.2 ± 1.86%, car-
bon 35.4 ± 1.35% dry weight, nitrogen 0.68 ± 0.11% dry weight, C
35.4 ± 1.35% dry weight, C/N ratio 53.7 ± 9.62, and volatile solids
75.5 ± 4.21% dry weight.
3.2. Compost characteristics’ variation
Temperature is the most important indicator of the efficiency
of the composting process. (Imbeah, 1998; Stentiford, 1996). The
temperature at the middle portion of the composting bin during
the waste-filling period and after the bin was full with waste is
presented in Fig. 2. Daily temperature values between 24 ◦ C and
55 ◦ C, with the average values between 32.1 ◦ C and 33.7 ◦ C, were
found during this study. The temperature in each bin reached its
maximum value during the third to fourth weeks of the waste-
filling period. After that, the temperature generally decreased and
remained stable at composting periods from around day 48 to day
108 day after the bin was full. In general, temperatures were in
the thermophilic range (>45 ◦ C) for around 2–3 weeks during the
waste-filling period. The average temperatures during the waste-
filling period observed in Bins 1–6 were 44.9, 45.2, 47.1, 46.8,
50.4, and 46.8 ◦ C, respectively. Significantly lower temperatures
(p < 0.05) were found in Bin 1, compared with Bin 3; and in Bin 2,
compared with Bin 4, respectively. This means that the ventilation
pipe have affected the amount of air passing into Bins 3 and 4. The
longest period (23 days) of the thermophilic range was found in Bin
4, compared with all other bins (13–22 days). The high tempera-
tures demonstrated in Bins 5 and 6 might be because of the lower
heat transfer from these two bins to the ambient air, compared with
Bins 1–4.
Considering temperature variations, in general it was found that
the temperatures in all bins gradually decreased after the bins were
full (Fig. 2). The average temperatures in Bin 1–6 during the com-
posting period from day 14 to day 120, after the bins were full,
were 29.5, 29.9, 29.5, 29.1, 30.0, and 31.1 ◦ C, respectively. The tem-
peratures in Bins 1–6 reached room temperature after composting
periods of 77, 77, 55, 49, 75, and 108 days. The temperature in Bin
4 reached room temperature the fastest, followed by Bins 3, 5, 1, 2
and 6, respectively.
Fig. 3 presents the variation of pH during the composting period.
In general, pH began as slightly acidic around 6.05, and gradu-
ally increased to become slightly basic as the microbial activity
degraded the organic acids (Diaz et al., 1993). The exceptions were
the pH results in Bins 4 and 5 whose pH levels were already above
the neutral value beginning at day 14 after the bins were full. The
average pHs in Bins 1–6 during the composting period from day 14
to day 120 (after the bins were full), were 7.33, 7.41, 7.41, 7.40, 7.30,
and 7.30, respectively. There were no significant differences among
the average values of pH in all bins (p > 0.05). Since pH can be used
to follow the process of decomposition, the pH results obtained in
this study showed that the organic acids from the initial decom-
position of the organic waste had already been neutralized for one
month during the waste addition period.
The C/N ratio of the composts in Bins 1–6 decreased continu-
ously from around 53.7 to stability at 17.6, 18.0, 16.0, 14.8, 18.3,
and 19.2, respectively, at the composting periods of around 70, 77,
56, 56, 77, and 84 days (respectively) after the bins were full (see
Fig. 4). All final C/N values were <20, which illustrated that the
organic wastes had been stabilized (Mathur et al., 1993). The aver-
age C/N values found in Bins 1–6 during the composting period
from day 14 to day 120 were 24.5, 22.2, 18.8, 20.2, 20.2, and 26.9,
respectively. Statistical analysis illustrated that there were no sig-
nificant differences in the average C/N values of the composts in
Bins 1–5 (p > 0.05). However, the average C/N value in Bin 6 was
significantly higher than those in Bins 1–5 (p < 0.05).
The volatile solids of the composts decreased continuously from
75.5% to stability at around 41 to 50%, at composting periods from
around day 42 to day 91 day after each bin was full (see Fig. 5). The
average values of volatile solids in Bins 1–6 during the composting
period from day 14 to day 120 after the bins were full were 57.1,
52.6, 50.6, 51.6, 55.7, and 61.1, respectively. The volatile solids val-
ues showed that the composts in Bins 1–6 were stable around 70,
70, 49, 49, 77, and 84 days after the bins were full, respectively. The
volatile solid average values in the group of Bins 2, 3 and 4 were
significantly lower than the group of Bins 1 and 5 (p < 0.05). There
 S. Karnchanawong, N. Suriyanon / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 548–553 551

55 55
waste filling waste filling
50 50

Temp (°C)
45 45

Temp (°C)
No. 1 Ambient No. 2 Ambient
40 40

35 35

30 30

25 25

20 20
0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160
Day Day
55 55
waste filling waste filling
50 50

Temp (°C)
45 45
Temp(°C)

No. 3 Ambient No. 4 Ambient

40 40

35 35

30 30

25 25

20 20
0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160
Day Day

55 waste filling 55
waste filling
50 50

45 45
Temp (°C)

No. 5 Ambient No. 6 Ambient

Temp (°C)

40 40

35 35

30 30

25 25

20 20
0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160
Day Day

Fig. 2. Temperature variation during composting.

were no significant differences in the volatile solids found in the
group of Bins 2, 3, and 4 versus the group of Bins 1 and 5 (p > 0.05).
Finally, the volatile solid average value of Bin 6 was significantly
higher than all other bins (p < 0.05).
All germination indices were over 80% at composting periods
from around day 50 to day 70 day after the bins were full (see Fig. 6),
showing that the final compost was not phytotoxic (Zucconi et al.,
1981a,b). The average values of germination indices in Bins 1–6
during composting period from day 14 to day 120 day after the
bins were full were 106, 108, 105, 108, 99.6, and 100, respectively.
The germination indices of the composts in Bins 1 to 6 were stable
at around 77, 77, 56, 56, 77, and 98 days, respectively. There were
no significant differences among the average values of germination
indices in all bins.

50
9
45
40
35
8
30
C/N

25
pH

20
7 15
10
5
6 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Day Days
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6

Fig. 3. pH variation during composting. Fig. 4. C/N ratio variation during composting.
552 S. Karnchanawong, N. Suriyanon / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 548–553

Table 1
Final compost characteristics and mass reduction.

Bin % Size smaller than 12.5 mm pH C/N CEC (cmol/kg) N–P–K (%N, %P2 O5 ,%K2 O) Mass reduction (% dry mass)

1 82.6 7.45 17.6 62.8 1.45–0.54–1.92 47.6

2 83.6 7.19 18.0 63.6 1.49–0.55–1.66 49.0
3 89.2 7.33 16.0 65.6 1.50–0.53–1.81 59.4
4 82.8 7.14 14.8 68.2 1.49–0.53–1.91 61.5
5 62.0 7.22 18.3 63.3 1.26–0.56–1.85 52.2
6 46.7 7.86 19.2 61.4 1.50–0.52–1.84 40.3
Thai compost standards 100 5.5–8.5 20 – 1–0.5–0.5 –

80 It can be concluded from this study that the vent pipe installed
in the middle part of Bins 3 and 4 enhanced the air uptake from
outside, through the holes around the bottom part of the bin;
Volatile solids, %

70
and resulted in the higher rate of biological decomposition of the
organic wastes in these two bins, compared with the bins without
60 ventilation pipes (Bins 1 and 2). In addition, all bins with passive
aeration (Bins 1 to 5) had a significantly higher decomposition rate
than the control bin (Bin 6).
50

40
0 20 40
No. 1 No. 2
Fig. 5. Volatile solid variation during composting.
3.3. Evaluation of composting performance
When all of the above characteristics’ variations are taken into
consideration, the composts in all bins were found to be stable by
day 56–day 91. The wastes decayed fastest in Bins 3 and 4, followed
by Bins 5, 1, 2 and 6, respectively. There were no significant differ-
ences in the average characteristics of the composts in Bins 3 and
4. It took about two months to stabilize the organic wastes in Bins
3 and 4.
Table 1 presents the final compost characteristics and mass
reduction obtained from this study. Higher ratios of compost par-
ticle size smaller than 12.5 mm were found in Bins 1–4, compared
with Bins 5 and 6. All composts had neutral pH values. C/N and CEC
of composts obtained in Bins 3 and 4 were lower than in all other
bins. The composts produced from all bins had C/N lower than 20,
at which there is no danger of robbing the soil of nitrogen (WSU,
2010). CEC of composts from all bins were higher than 60 cmol/kg,
which is sufficiently mature for application to the soil (Harada and
Inoko, 1980). The qualities of all composts had pH, C/N, CEC, and
N–P–K that meet the Thai compost standard. Considering the mass
reduction of compost, it was found that the % reductions obtained
from Bins 3 and 4 were higher than all other bins.
160
Germination index (%)
4. Conclusions
60 80 100 120 140
The performance of six 200-L polyethylene home composting
Day bins, each with a different design for passive aeration of household
No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 organic waste composting, was analyzed in this study. When all
characteristics’ variations are taken into consideration, the com-
posts in all bins were found to have become stable by day 56 to day
91. The wastes decayed fastest in Bins 3 and 4, followed by Bins 5,
1, 2 and 6, respectively. It took about two months to stabilize the
organic wastes in Bins 3 and 4 with a 59–62% decreasing of mass and
84%–89% of the compost smaller than 12.5 mm in size. The C/N ratio,
CEC, and N–P–K values of the final compost from these two bins
were 14.8–16.0, 66–68 cmol/kg, and 1–0.35–1.21 to 1–0.36–1.28,
respectively. The compost quality meets the standards of organic
compost established in Thailand. It can be concluded from this
study that the bin with holes around the bottom part of the bin, and
installed with ventilation pipe in the middle, resulted on a higher
rate of biological decomposition of organic wastes.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the Faculty of Engineering, Chi-
ang Mai University for financial support of this research project.
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