EED2601 Study Guide

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EED2601/1/2021–2025
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CONTENTS
Page
LEARNING UNIT 1: K
EY IDEAS AND DEBATES ON ISSUES
RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION1
1.1 THE HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 1
1.1.1 From nature/outdoor studies to conservation education
to environmental education 1
1.1.2 From environmental education to education for
sustainable development 7
1.1.3 From millennium development goals to the united
nations decade of education sustainable development to
the sustainable development goals 12
1.2 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES IN
THE ANTHROPOCENE 14
1.2.1 Environmental issues 14
1.3 TIMELINE OF KEY HISTORIC
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS INFLUENCING
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION19
1.4 SUMMARY22
LEARNING UNIT 2: R
ESPONDING TO CHANGING LEARNER
AND LEARNING NEEDS AND CONTEXTS IN
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION23
2.1 DIVERSITY OF LEARNER AND LEARNING NEEDS 23
2.1.1 Different learning styles in EE 23
2.1.2 Multiple intelligences in EE 24
2.2 DIVERSITY OF CONTEXTS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PRACTICE
(EDUCATION ABOUT/IN/FOR THE
ENVIRONMENT)26
2.3 SUMMARY26
LEARNING UNIT 3: A
PPROPRIATE STRATEGIES FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT
CONTEXTS27
3.1 CONSIDERATION OF HISTORICAL AND
CONTEXTUAL ASPECTS IN EE PROCESSES 27
3.1.1 Wildlife conservation in parks and nature reserves in
southern Africa: the relationship between people and parks 27
3.1.2 Climate change effects in Southern Africa 28
3.1.3 Alien invasive plants in South Africa 28
3.2 EVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES
FOR DIVERSE CONTEXTS AND THEIR
EFFECTIVENESS (THEORETICAL, PRACTICAL
AND EXPERIENTIAL) 29
3.2.1 Choice of EE methods 29
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3.2.2 Some guiding criteria for choosing EE methods 30

3.2.3 Categories of EE methods 30
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES 40
3.3.1 Active learning 40
3.3.2 Authentic learning 40
3.3.3 Problem-solving41
3.3.4 Critical thinking 41
3.4 ROLES AND POSITIONS OF EDUCATORS
AND LEARNERS WITH REGARD TO
EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM PRACTICE FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (THEORY,
POLICY AND OBSERVED PRACTICE) 41
3.5 SUMMARY42
LEARNING UNIT 4: I NNOVATIVE APPROACHES IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION 43
4.1 EE IN MULTICULTURAL CONTEXTS
(HISTORICAL AND COLLABORATIVE
MEANING-MAKING EE PROCESSES) 43
4.2 EE PROCESSES IN DIVERSE SOCIAL CONTEXTS43
4.3 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN EE PROCESSES 45
4.3.1 Sacred sites and taboos 45
4.3.2 Indigenous agricultural practices 46
4.4 SUSTAINABILITY COMPETENCES FOR THE
21ST CENTURY 46
4.5 SUMMARY50
REFERENCES 51
(iv)
1 LEARNING UNIT 1
1 KEY IDEAS AND DEBATES ON ISSUES
RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Environmental education has emerged as a movement in response to unsustainable
human development pathways. This unit provides an overview of the origins of
environmental education and education for sustainable development. It defines
the holistic environment and outlines the principles of environmental education.
It also provides an overview of the key historical events in the development of
environmental education and education for sustainability.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this learning unit you must be able to:
• Discuss the history and origins of environmental education as a movement

• Provide a definition of the holistic environment
• Define environmental education
• Discuss the characteristics of environmental education
• Identify and discuss the key international principles of environmental education
• Define sustainable development and explain the sustainable development goals
• Discuss the emergence of the Anthropocene and its implication for sustainability
• Discuss the key historical international events in the development of
environmental education
1.1 THE HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
1.1.1 From nature/outdoor studies to conservation education to

environmental education
Environmental education emerged from early concerns about the environment. It
began with an interest in nature, which developed into the study of animals, plants and
other species. This was pursued through outdoor education or nature studies in the
late 19th century through to the early 20th century, which focused on experiencing,
investigating and appreciating nature. The study of nature gave rise to a sense of the
need to protect and conserve it, which resulted in conservation education initiatives in
the early 20th century, focusing mainly on biodiversity conservation through wildlife
and forestry parks and nature reserves. Following closely on conservation education
was the awareness of and concern about negative human–environment interactions,
particularly the impacts of industrial development on the environment as articulated
in earlier counter-development publications such as Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring,
first published in 1962.
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1.1.1.1 The holistic environment

With the acknowledgement of humankind as an integral part of the environment,
the conception of the environment has shifted from an emphasis purely on the
biophysical elements (living organisms, air, land and water) of the environment to the
inclusion of human aspects as part of the broader environment. As a result, a holistic
concept of the environment that embraces the totality of our lived environment –
human (constructed, social, cultural, economic and political), natural (biophysical),
spatial (geographic context) and temporal (time-span (see Smyth, 2006). To see this
illustrated, have a look at the holistic model of defining the environment below.
FIGURE 1.1
A holistic concept of the environment
Source: O’Donoghue & Janse van Rensburg (1995:8)
The growing concern about environmental issues and international awareness of

human effects on the environment, resulting in impacts on nature and society, grew
into environmental education as a response to these issues against a realisation in
the mid-20th century of the finite nature of the Earth’s resources. This mismatch
between human demands on the Earth’s resources and what the Earth is capable
of providing has been referred to as the environmental paradox (Williams &
Millington, 2004). This calls on us to adopt a holistic way of view the world and
ourselves as part of it. Environmental education emerged in the mid-1970s as a
movement for educational reform in response to the rapidly changing and stressed
lived world that has arisen as a result of the negative effects of human development.
Its primary intention is to change people’s views of the world and their beliefs about
and behaviour toward the Earth. It entails educational processes as a means first
to acknowledge and understand the growing environmental crises, their origins,
interrelatedness and impacts, and second to acquire the skills, values, ethics and
philosophies necessary to make relevant and informed decisions that respond to
these issues through practice (practical actions). Environmental education does not
fit into any one particular conventional knowledge discipline. Rather, it is multi-,
inter-, and trans-disciplinary in nature. In addition, it responds to the daily
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LEARNING UNIT 1: Key ideas and debates on issues relating to environmental education
environmental issues in our lives and is therefore a lifelong process of learning and
responding to them. Environmentalism is a lifestyle choice that requires constant
decision-making and action for the environment.
1.1.1.2 Definition of environmental education

A number of definitions of environmental education have been put forward over
the years. A popular definition is that proposed by the IUCN (International Union
for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources), which reads as follows:
Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying

concepts in order to develop skills and attitudes necessary to understand and
appreciate the interrelatedness among man, his culture and his biophysical
surroundings [sic]. Environmental education also entails practice in decision-
making and self-formulation of a code of behaviour about issues concerning
environmental quality (IUCN, 1971: 17).
This definition is however considered to have a behavioural emphasis.
The following are some of the key characteristics of environmental education (adapted
from findings by Hart, 1981):
(1) It must be inter-, trans- and multi-disciplinary: it should be taught across

all subject disciplines.
(2) It should be multi-level: it should be taught at all grade levels from preschool
through high school and beyond.
(3) It must be taught across all sectors of society: environmental education
involves formal, informal and non-formal education processes.
(4) It should include global views: it involves the development of a holistic global
environmental ethic.
(5) It should include environmental concepts such as biodiversity, limiting
factors, carrying capacity, and sustainability.
(6) It involves process development: environmental education processes include
the development of cognitive (environmental knowledge),ffective (pro-
environmental attitude),and behavioural elements, environmental problem-
solving and decision-making skills, and taking action.
(7) It involves values clarification: it should involve the exploration of personal
assumptions, values and feelings concerning self and society, as well as a
consideration of the relationship of self and society to the natural world.
(8) Problem-solving: environmental education involves helping learners to
develop relevant thinking processes for effective resolution of complex
environmental problems.
(9) It should employ hands-on experiences and activities: environmental education
requires the utilisation of real-life situations where learning is acquired through
exploring real-life experiences and activities which foster a deep respect and
love for the natural world.
(10) It is environmental issue oriented: it entails the use of local environmental
issues, as well as case studies, role play, simulation and games which provide
opportunities to engage in, examine and participate in the complexities of
decision-making, development of personal and alternative environmental
values, and experiencing of the actual function of natural and human-made
systems.
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(11) It must be life-long learning: environmental education is not reactive, but

instead continually assesses the present and promotes an ideology for a desirable
and better future.
(12) It involves systems thinking: environmental education is based on a holistic
view of the environment (embracing social, cultural, economic, political and
biophysical aspects) and an appreciation of the dynamic and interrelated nature
of the Earth’s living systems.
(13) It requires active participation: environmental education places emphasis
on active participation in preventing and solving environmental problems.
(14) It is community oriented: environmental education engages the
entire community as a learning environment in the attainment of
environmental education objectives. It should embrace issues of history, culture
and power and people’s relationship with the land in community contexts.
(15) Networking and communication: environmental education
involves communication and networking skills as processes that provide
holistic perspectives about environmental problems and for facilitating a flow
of environmental information.
(16) Coordination and cooperation: environmental education requires and
promotes coordination and cooperation at local, regional, national and
international levels in responding to environmental issues.
(17) Reform of education processes and systems: the nature of
environmental education implies modification of existing systems and
structures of education.
(18) Curriculum development and evaluation: environmental issues are dynamic,
interrelated and uncertain. This implies the emergence of new environmental
crises such as the global climate change effects in the 21st century and necessary
responses to them. This therefore calls for the need to continuously evaluate
and transform the curriculum
(19) Research: Environmental education requires constant research to provide
objective evidence of its benefits and to support its rhetoric with instances of
success and failure.
(20) Teacher education: effective environmental education requires continuous
professional development through pre-service and in-service channels as a
means for educators to be conversant with and to apply new content knowledge,
teaching and learning approaches, and assessment strategies.
1.1.1.3 Principles of environmental education

A number of principles of environmental education have been developed in the
international arena. Prominent among these are the Tbilisi Principles of EE (Table
1.1), which are part of the Tbilisi Declaration developed at the Tbilisi Conference
in Russia in 1977 and the NGO Principles of EE (Table 1.2), which are part of the
NGO Treaty on Environmental Education for Sustainable Societies and Global
Responsibility that occurred during the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
TABLE 1.1
Tbilisi Principles of Environmental Education
Environmental education should:

1. consider the environment in its totality – natural and built, technological
and social (economic, political, cultural-historical, ethical, aesthetic);
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2. be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the preschool level and

continuing through all formal and nonformal stages;
3. be interdisciplinary in its approach, drawing on the specific content of
each discipline in making possible a holistic and balanced perspective;
4. examine major environmental issues from local, national, regional,
and international points of view so that students receive insights into
environmental conditions in other geographical areas;
5. focus on current and potential environmental situations while taking into
account the historical perspective;
6. promote the value and necessity of local, national, and international
cooperation in the prevention and solution of environmental problems;
7. explicitly consider environmental aspects in plans for development and
growth;
8. enable learners to have a role in planning their learning experiences
and provide an opportunity for making decisions and accepting their
consequences;
9. relate environmental sensitivity, knowledge, problem-solving skills, and
values clarification to every age, but with special emphasis on environmental
sensitivity to the learner’s own community in early years;
10. help learners discover the symptoms and real causes of environmental
problems;
11. emphasize the complexity of environmental problems and thus the need
to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills;
12. utilize diverse learning environments and a broad array of educational
approaches to teaching, learning about and from the environment, with
due on practical activities and first-hand experience.
TABLE 1.2
NGO Principles of Environmental Education
1. Education is the right of all; we are all learners and educators.

2. Environmental education, whether formal, non-formal or informal, should be
grounded in critical and innovative thinking in any place or time, promoting
the transformation and construction of society.
3. Environmental education is both individual and collective. It aims to develop
local and global citizenship with respect for self-determination and the
sovereignty of nations.
4. Environmental education is not neutral, but ideological. It is a political act.
5. Environmental education must involve a holistic approach and thus an
interdisciplinary focus in the relation between human beings, nature and
the universe.
6. Environmental education must stimulate solidarity, equality and respect
for human rights involving democratic strategies and an open climate of
cultural interchange.
7. Environmental education should treat critical global issues, their causes
and interrelationships in a systemic approach and within their social and
historical contexts. Fundamental issues in relation to development and the
environment, such as population, health, peace, human rights, democracy,
hunger, degradation of flora and fauna, should be perceived in this manner.
8. Environmental education must facilitate equal partnerships in the processes
of decision-making at all levels and stages.
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9. Environmental education must recover, recognize, respect, reflect and

utilize indigenous history and local cultures, as well as promote cultural,
linguistic and ecological diversity. This implies acknowledging the historical
perspective of native peoples as a way to change ethnocentric approaches,
as well as the encouragement of bilingual education.
10. Environmental education should empower all peoples and promote
opportunities for grassroots democratic change and participation. This
means that communities must regain control of their own destiny.
11. Environmental education values all different forms of knowledge. Knowledge
is diverse, cumulative and socially produced and should not be patented
or monopolized.
12. Environmental education must be designed to enable people to manage
conflicts in just and humane ways.
13. Environmental education must stimulate dialogue and cooperation among
individuals and institutions in order to create new lifestyles which are
based on meeting everyone’s basic needs, regardless of ethnic, gender,
age, religious, class, physical or mental differences.
14. Environmental education requires a democratization of the mass media and
its commitment to the interests of all sectors of society. Communication
is an inalienable right and the mass media must be transformed into one
of the main channels of education, not only by disseminating information
on an egalitarian basis, but also through the exchange of means, values
and experiences.
15. Environmental education must integrate knowledge, skills, values, attitudes
and actions. It should convert every opportunity into an educational
experience for sustainable societies.
16. Education must help develop an ethical awareness of all forms of life with
which humans share this planet, respect all life cycles and impose limits
on humans’ exploitation of other forms of life.
Industry has also developed its own environmental principles, as reflected in the Ten
Principles of the United Nations Global Compact. These are listed in Table 1.3 below.
TABLE 1.3
The Ten Principles of the UN Global Compact
Human Rights
Principle 1: B
usinesses should support and respect the protection of internationally
proclaimed human rights; and
Principle 2: m
ake sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses.
Labour
Principle 3: B
usinesses should uphold the freedom of association and the
effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining;
Principle 4: the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour;
Principle 5: the effective abolition of child labour; and
Principle 6: the elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and
occupation.
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Environment
Principle 7: B
usinesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental
challenges;
Principle 8: u
ndertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility;
and
Principle 9: e
ncourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly
technologies.
Anti-Corruption
Principle 10: B
usinesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including
extortion and bribery.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Examine the three sets of principles above. Explain in what ways they differ from
each other in terms of their environmental focus and emphasis.
Share your answers with other students on the discussion forum for this course.
Your e-tutor will provide feedback and guidance with regard to suggested responses.
1.1.2 From environmental education to education for sustainable

development
The interrelationships between humankind and the environment and our continued
reliance on the Earth’s finite resources persist today. However, human development has
grown exponentially, and with it the negative consequences on the lived environment
that affect the biophysical environment and human well-being. This has led to the
realisation that the decisions and actions that we are making today will profoundly
shape the future of humankind and the entire Earth. It has become more evident
that human development cannot progress uncurtailed; it must be capped within the
limits of the Earth’s finite resources, and there is an urgent need for us to review
and redefine our values, ethics, actions and practices towards the lived environment.
Development can no longer be defined or measured simply in terms of economic
growth, but in view of our lives as elements of the broader living systems of the
Earth and the need to address the effects of uncontrolled economic growth on
human wellbeing and the lived environment. Out of this concern has emerged
the concept of sustainable development in the discourse (discussions) relating to
environmental education in the 1990s.
The main dimensions of sustainability are environmental, social and economic,

which are usually referred to as the three pillars of sustainability. Sustainable
development requires achieving a balance between these three aspects.
1.1.2.1 Models of sustainable development

Several models of sustainability have been proposed. Below are diagrams illustrating
some of these.
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FIGURE 1.2
The three pillars model of sustainable development
FIGURE 1.3
The three circles model of sustainable development
(Source: IUCN, 2006)
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FIGURE 1.4
The prism model of sustainability
(Source: Stenberg, 2011: 42)
FIGURE1.5
The egg model of sustainable development (Guijt & Moiseev, 2001)
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FIGURE 1.6
The concentric circles (nested dependencies) model of sustainable
development
(Source: Lozano, 2008)
ACTIVITY 1.2
Consider the models of sustainability illustrated above. Which of them do you think
best represents sustainable development? Why do you say so?
Share your answers with other students on the discussion forum for this course.
Your e-tutor will provide feedback and guidance with regard to suggested responses.
1.1.2.2 Sustainability indicators

Progress towards achieving sustainability can be gauged through the use of
sustainability indicators. Indicators of sustainability can be viewed from the social,
economic and environmental dimensions, as you can see in Table 1.4 below.
TABLE 1.4
Examples of sustainability indicators
(Source: Diesendorf, 2000)
Ecological Economic Social

Rate of materials flow; ‘Genuine Progress Basic services within
Indicator’; walking & cycling
Rate of energy use;
distances of dwellings;
Distribution of
Total & per capita rate
household & personal Availability of day care
of greenhouse gas
income; for under 5s;
emissions;
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Ecological Economic Social

Vehicle kilometres Percentage of income Levels of education,
travelled per capita; needed to pay for basic including literacy &
needs of a person; numeracy;
Human population &
growth rate; Percentage of children Life expectancies at
living in households birth and at age 20;
Area of land degraded
with no adult earner;
& polluted; Morbidity rates;
Mortgage repayments &
Water pollution; Crime rates;
rents relative to median
Air pollution. income in region; Homelessness;
Employment by top Teaching of indigenous
5 companies in the languages in schools.
region.
1.1.2.3 Debates concerning education for sustainable development (ESD)

Sustainability has emerged as the buzzword for many people concerned about
environmental issues. However, there are diverse views and a multiplicity of
interpretations (definitions or meanings) of what sustainable development is in
different social contexts, which are at times competing, contradictory (opposing)
and highly contested.
The most often quoted definition of sustainable development appears in the

Brundtland Report, Our Common Future, where sustainable development is defined as
“development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WECD, 1987:43). A
significant weakness that has been pointed out in this definition is that there is no
mention of the environment. The IUCN, by contrast, defines sustainable development
as “improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of
supporting ecosystems (IUCN, 1991: 9). It balances the focus on human development
by emphasising the importance of the limitations of Earth’s ecological systems.
Various sectors of society, such as industry, the public sector and education, have
embraced the concept of sustainable development.
The holders of one particular view of sustainability argue that the demand on the
Earth’s resources for human development can be met by developing renewable
resources, using and managing existing resources effectively (prevention rather than
cure), creating alternative substitutes for non-renewable resources and searching
for technological solutions to environmental problems such as resource depletion
and pollution. This technocentric approach (belief and/or confidence that
humankind will find a technical solution to any environmental problem that may
arise) to sustainable development (Knuttson, 2018) is usually referred to as weak
sustainability. This view promotes unlimited economic development through
continued exploitation of nature, and works on the premise that human demands
on nature’s resources need not change. Nature is perceived as a resource, separate
from humankind, that humankind has a right to have dominion over and to use
for its own benefit. In terms of this view, economic growth is the valid measure
of human progress. This approach to sustainable development therefore adopts an
anthropocentric (human-centred) worldview regarding the relationship between
humankind and nature.
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Those holding an alternative view of sustainable development argue by contrast that

we should revise our demands on the Earth’s resources so as to live within its limits,
for example by consuming less. In other words, we should adapt to the Earth’s
finite resources rather than adapting the Earth to suit our demands. This is
referred to as strong sustainability or deep ecology.
A third view of sustainability combines both of these worldviews and seeks to increase
the stock of the Earth’s resources while concurrently reducing the demands on this
stock of resources. This is referred to as moderate sustainability.
Despite the diversity of the views about the subject, the common basic understanding
of sustainable development is that, globally, the Earth’s resources are being exploited
without sufficient regard for the future. Sustainable development is therefore premised
on the idea that the future should be a better and healthier place than the present.
This requires a balancing of human development demands on the Earth’s resources
and ensuring that these resources are not depleted and that human well-being and
that of the lived environment is not compromised. The different definitions bring
together the interrelated concerns about the environmental, social and economic
problems in different ways, with differing emphasis on each of these aspects.
ACTIVITY 1.3
(1) In your view, under which view of sustainability does the Brundtland definition
of sustainable development fall? Explain and justify (support with facts) the
reasons for your choice.
(2) Can human technological development provide solutions to all environmental
problems? Justify your answer.
(3) Which type of sustainability do you consider to be the most practical one
to implement? Why do you say this?
Share your answers to this activity with other students on the discussion forum.
Your e-tutor will provide feedback and guidance with regard to suggested answers.
1.1.3 From millennium development goals to the united nations

decade of education sustainable development to the sustainable
development goals
1.1.3.1 The Millennium Development Goals

The UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were launched in 2001 with a
focus on meeting the needs of the world’s poorest by 2015. They are listed below.
The Eight Millennium Development Goals were:

(1) to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
(2) to achieve universal primary education;
(3) to promote gender equality and empower women;
(4) to reduce child mortality;
(5) to improve maternal health;
(6) to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;
(7) to ensure environmental sustainability; and
(8) to develop a global partnership for development by 2015.
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1.1.3.2 The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

Goals
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
declared the period 2005 to 2014 as the United Nations Decade of Education for
Sustainable Development (UNDESD). UNDESD aimed to mobilise educational
resources of the world towards creating a more sustainable future. Its overall goal
was to integrate principles, values and practices of sustainable development into all
aspects of education to encourage behaviour change in favour of a more sustainable
future. Its focus was on promoting environmental integrity, economic viability and
social justice for present and future generations.
1.1.3.3 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The United Nations SDGs of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development officially
came into force in January 2016. The SDGs are a call for action by all countries –
poor, rich and middle-income – to promote prosperity while protecting the planet.
They recognise that ending poverty must go hand-in-hand with strategies that build
economic growth and fulfil a range of social needs including education, health, social
protection and job opportunities, while tackling climate change and environmental
protection.
TABLE 1.5
Sustainable Development Goals
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere

Goal 2: E
nd hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Goal 4: E
nsure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong
learning opportunities for all
Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6: E
nsure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation
for all
Goal 7: E
nsure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy
for all
Goal 8: P
romote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full
and productive employment and decent work for all
Goal 9: B
uild resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation
Goal 10: R
educe inequality within and among countries
Goal 11: M
ake cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Goal 14: C
onserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources
for sustainable development
Goal 15: P
rotect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss
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Goal 16: P
romote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development,
provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and
inclusive institutions at all levels
Goal 17: S
trengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global
partnership for sustainable development
Education for sustainable development (ESD) is explicitly recognised in the SDGs

as part of Target 4.7 of the SDG on education. At the same time, it is important to
emphasise the importance of ESD for all the other 16 SDGs. With its overall aim of
developing cross-cutting sustainability competencies in learners, ESD is an essential
contribution to all efforts to achieve the SDGs. This would enable individuals to
contribute to sustainable development by promoting societal, economic and political
change as well as by transforming their own behaviour.
1.2 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES IN THE

ANTHROPOCENE
The Anthropocene is the name used to refer to the era in which humankind has
become a geological force. It is the Age of Humans, with impacts of global proportions.
Since the beginning of the 17th century, humankind has altered the Earth’s systems on
a geological scale. The key drivers are human population growth, economic growth,
war, pollution and environmental degradation. The effects of the Anthropocene
include such global environmental crises as biodiversity loss, introduction and
spread of alien invasive species, and species extinction; environmental degradation,
deforestation and desertification; water, air and land pollution; health hazards; and
climate change.
1.2.1 Environmental issues
1.2.1.1 Pollution
Air Pollution
The atmosphere is the Earth’s largest single share resource, protecting life through
absorption of dangerous ultraviolet solar radiation, warming the earth’s surface
and regulating temperature (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). The
atmosphere also supports life by providing oxygen to animals and carbon dioxide to
plants for respiratory purposes. However, the Earth atmosphere and its support for
vital life processes is threatened by air pollutants. Our air is polluted by automotive
exhaust emissions, industrial waste gas emissions and incineration emissions among
others. There is need to manage and control emission levels of Sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), benzene (C6H6), persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
and particulate matter as this are harmful to human health. Gaseous emissions from
fossil fuel combustion, methane and human-made Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
while not directly hazardous to humans are now recognized to cause global climate
change (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012).
Indoor and outdoor air pollution account for more than one tenth of all deaths
globally each year, with most deaths occurring in low and middle income countries
(WEF, 2018). More than 90% of the world’s population live in areas with levels of air
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pollution that exceed WHO guidelines (Health Effects Institution, 2017). In South
Africa indoor and outdoor air pollution pose a serious threat to human health and are
more concentrated in urban zones, industrial and mining areas. One major cause of
pollution is our reliance on coal stations for the generation of electricity (Department
of Environmental Affairs, 2012). Low income households are more vulnerable to the
effects air pollution due to poor landuse planning that has resulted in the location of
industries near high density residential areas (Department of Environmental Affairs,
2012). Most low income households are also reliant on wood and coal energy for
cooking and heating, which increases their exposure to air pollutants.
Water Pollution
Water pollution significantly impacts on freshwater quality. Our rivers are polluted
by industrial effluent discharges, municipal waste discharges, agricultural chemical
runoff (inorganic fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides), urban storm drainage runoff,
eutrophication and acid mine drainage. Acid mine drainage is major environmental
challenge, especially in the Witwatersrand (Department of Environmental Affairs,
2012).
Land (Soil) Pollution

Our land is polluted by improper solid waste disposal, mining sludge and tailing
dams. A major source of land pollution is poor waste management. There has been
an increase in waste generation in South Africa due to economic development,
population growth and increased urbanization (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2012). South Africa relies on land to dump its solid waste, with more than
90% of waste being dumped in landfill sites (De Beer, Dreyer & Loubser, 2014).
Rising waste volumes, poor waste management, illegal dumping and inadequate
awareness amongst stakeholders, heavy reliance on landfills for waste disposal, the
dumping of hazardous waste in landfills and the rise in electronic waste (e-waste)
all contribute towards land pollution (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012).
There is growing problem in the increase in non-biodegradable waste despite efforts
to recycle, reuse and reduce waste. Land contamination also comes from agricultural
and industrial activities.
1.2.1.2 Biodiversity Loss

Globally, biodiversity loss is occurring at mass extinction rates (World Economic
Forum (WEF), 2018). The primary cause of global biodiversity loss is human
destruction of habitats, including forests which are home to 80% of the world’s land-
based biodiversity. A record 29.7 million hectares of tree cover was lost in 2016, an
area covering the size of New Zealand (WEF, 2018).
Biodiversity loss is increasing in South Africa due to human socio-economic activities,

with the aquatic ecosystem being most affected (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2012). These activities include loss of natural habitat on terrestrial ecosystems
through agriculture, mining, timber plantations, urban sprawl and coastal ribbon
development; alien invasive species; over abstraction of water in fresh water aquatic
ecosystems (rivers and wetlands); overharvesting of marine resources; pollution and
climate change.
A persistent problem in South Africa is invasive alien species that degrade and alter
our natural ecosystems by competing with and eliminating indigenous species. The
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most affected areas are wetlands and riverine ecosystems. An estimated 20 million
acres (16%) of South Africa’s ecosystems are invaded.
Poaching has been a persistent problem in South Africa and has had a heavy impact on
our rhino populations. Rhinos are killed for their horns, with the white rhino on the
brink of extinction and the black rhino population decreasing by 90% (Department
of Environmental Affairs, 2012). Linked to animal poaching is biopiracy and illegal
harvesting of useful medicinal plants.
Humans rely on biodiversity for oxygen, food, medicines, raw materials (e.g. for
industry) and shelter amongst many other needs. Biodiversity loss therefore has a
negative impact on human livelihood; more so for rural communities that directly
rely on the environment for their needs.
1.2.1.3 Climate Change

The rising levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have resulted in global
warming and climate change (IPCC, 2013). Climate change has resulted in significant
impacts on the global and local environment. This includes recent extreme weather
events of increasing frequency and intensity which are seen through increases in
average global temperature, changes in average rainfall patterns, frequent droughts
and floods across the globe. The global average temperature of the Earth is currently
1oC or more above the 1880–1999 average (WEF, 2018). During 2017 record high
temperatures were experienced in parts of Southern Europe, Russia, China, South
America and southern Africa (WEF, 2018). This has significant impacts on agricultural
production and food security in these areas. Linked to higher temperatures has been
an increase in wildfire incidences across the globe. The world has also experienced
frequent high impact hurricanes in the Atlantic, including Hurricane Harvey, Irma
and Maria (WEF, 2018).
South Africa has experience a general warming extremes over the last 40 years while
cold extremes have decreased (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). Climate
change worsens the challenges of water, energy and food security in South Africa
(Von Bormann & Gulati, 2014).
There is link between climate change risk and poverty, with poor, vulnerable
and marginalised population groups being more vulnerable to climate change
effects (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA),
2016). A large proportion of South Africa’s population highly vulnerable to climate
change due poverty, inadequate housing and poor access to services (Department
of Environmental Affairs, 2012).
1.2.1.4 Food Insecurity

Basic food insecurity affects one billion people across the world (DESA, 2013). Water
is a necessary requirement of the agricultural production of food. South Africa has
limited arable land due to water scarcity. Most of the rural people are dependent
on rainfall to supply water for agricultural purposes. Rainwater is being seriously
affected by climate change effects, which have resulted in increasing frequency and
intensity of droughts. Growing food also requires fuel energy for drought power and
transportation of goods. The interconnectedness of these different environmental
issues makes up the food, water energy and climate nexus (DESA, 2013; Von
Bormann & Gulati, 2014).
16
The South African population has been growing steadily, with a growth of 25%
between 2000 and 2013 (Von Bormann & Gulati, 2014), meaning an increasing
demand on food resources. Accompanying this growth has been increasing affluence
and urbanization, leading to changing patterns of food consumption towards greater
consumption of meat and dairy products, putting additional pressure on existing
food resources as fewer people have direct access to land for food production (Von
Bormann & Gulati, 2014). Only 13% of the South Africa’s land is arable (suitable
for crop production) and most of it has low production potential. This means that
there is limited land to feed the growing population and this poses threat to food
security. In recent years South African has had to import some food products such
as rice, sugar and poultry (Von Bormann & Gulati, 2014).
Economically, there has been a steady rise in the price of food in South Africa,
which mainly affects low income households that spend up to 80% of their income
on food (Von Bormann & Gulati, 2014). Approximately 20% (more than 14 million)
of South Africans are estimated to be vulnerable to food insecurity Von Bormann &
Gulati, 2014). Hunger and malnourishment are a persistent problem for low income
households.
1.2.1.5 Water Scarcity

Water covers 70% of the earth’ surface, yet on 3% of the world’s water is freshwater
and two-thirds of this is locked in frozen glaciers and icecaps, making it inaccessible
for our use (Postel & Carpenter, 1997). Freshwater scarcity has been identified as
a major environmental problem of the 21st Century (Srinivasan, Lambin, Gorelick,
Thompson & Rozelle, 2012). The exponential growth of the world’s human population
is placing an ever increasing demand on the Earth’s limited freshwater supply
(Harrison & Stiassny,1999), together with economic development (demand from
industry, commerce and agriculture), increasing urbanisation and improved living
standards. Linked to urbanization and economic growth is water pollution, which
further reduces available usable freshwater supply. A total of 1 billion people on
Earth lack access to water and 2.7 billion people have water scarcity for at least one
month of the year. Lack of access to water can lead to starvation, diseases, political
instability and armed conflict (Gleick, 1998). Our fresh water sources are also exposed
to pollution from agriculture chemicals, untreated human wastewater and industrial
waste effluent. Water availability is also under threaten from climate change effects
such as frequent and prolonged droughts.
South Africa is a water-scarce country due to its limited surface and ground freshwater
resources. The high demand for water, poor water management, poor water quality
and the degradation of aquatic (river and wetland) ecosystems pose a threat to
continued water availability and future development (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2012). An additional threat to water security is invasive alien plants, which
threaten aquatic and riverine biodiversity, affect ecological function of ecosystems
and productive land use.
1.2.1.6 Disease Epidemics

South Africa is plagued by several diseases, some of which are highly contagious and
can spread to epidemic proportions. These include cholera, dysentery, tuberculosis,
influenza (flu) and HIV/AIDS. Some of these diseases are spread by poor sanitation,
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for example, cholera and dysentery, which can be due to a lack of adequate water
supplies and sanitation infrastructure in unplanned urban settlements and rural areas.
With climate change effects that have resulted in an increase in temperature, causing
the hosts of some diseases to spread into new zones. For example, malaria-causing
mosquitoes have now spread into the northern part of South Africa, where the
disease was never encountered before.
1.2.1.7 Population Growth

There are currently over 7.5 billion people on Earth and the world population is
estimated to grow at a rate of 1.1% per year (DESA, 2017). Population growth is
considered to be one of the biggest challenges for Africa. There are currently more
than 1 billion people on the continent and it is expected that this will increase
to 3 billion in the next 100 years. Linked to this population growth is increasing
demand for food, rising poverty, unplanned development and land degradation.
The current population of South Africa is approximately 56 million (Statistics South

Africa, 2017), with the largest population being in Gauteng. The overall population
growth rate is 1.61%. Most of the population growth is occurring in urban areas.
Population growth places a stress on environmental resources such as water, food,
housing and energy, as well as o opportunities for employment.
1.2.1.8 Poverty
Poverty is measured as individual per capita household expenditure. Poverty generally
refers to material lack, especially lack of resources necessary for survival. In its narrowest
sense poverty relates to lack of income, while in the broader sense it encompasses
aspects such as food insecurity and lack of access to housing, health, education and
services (e.g. water and energy). Poverty therefore refers to deprivation of social-
economic and environmental rights of individuals. Poverty is best expressed in the
inequality (in resource allocation) between the rich (the haves) and the poor (the
have nots). There is strong correlation between poverty and direct dependence on
the environment for livelihood sustenance
1.2.1.9 Rapid Urbanisation

Urbanisation is progressing rapidly in developing countries (DESA, 2016). In South
Africa, urban growth is accelerating, and with it the associated problems of informal
housing, provision of access to clean water, sanitation and affordable energy for
the urban poor (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). A total of 62% of
South Africa’s population is urbanised, with an estimated yearly increase of 1.2%.
Urbanisation is largely driven by rural-to-urban migration in search for better
employment prospects (De Beer, Dreyer & Loubser, 2014).
1.2.1.10 Growing Energy Needs

Energy is required to run our everyday lives, from cooking, to heating, to lighting,
to transport among many other needs. The South African economy is dependent
on fossil fuel, with coal accounting for three quarters of our primary energy supply
(Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). The demand for electrical energy
18
in South Africa is increasing with population growth, rapid urbanization and

industrialisation. The country is heavily reliant on fossil fuels, mainly coal, for the
generation of electricity and is increasingly struggling to meet the growing energy
demand of the population. Furthermore, the reliance on the burning of coal to
generate electricity results in air pollution that affect human health and ecosystem
functioning, making South Africa the 15th largest carbon dioxide emitter in the world
and significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change
(Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). Increasing prices of electricity affect
the agriculture and industry sector, driving up costs of commodities. In addition,
increases in electricity costs also increases the cost of pumping water and subsequently
the price of water to consumers.
Fuel is necessary for transportation and for agriculture. The volatility of oil
prices has resulted in an increase in cost of fuel, which also drives ups the cost of
agricultural commodities such as food. Accompanying fuel use is air pollution, which
is higher in urban and industrial areas.
1.3 TIMELINE OF KEY HISTORIC INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

INFLUENCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
Environmental education is in a continuous process of development. Below are some key
international events that have influenced the development of environmental education
over time.
TABLE 1.6
Key historic events in the development of environmental education
Year Event and summary

1946 (UNESCO) The United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation focused on conservation and
environmental awareness, and later on became involved in
the process of developing environmental education.
1948 (IUCN) Thomas Pritchard, Deputy Director of the Nature
Conservancy in Wales, uses the term “environmental education”
at the Conference for the Establishment of the International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in Paris, in October
1948. This was perhaps the first public professional use of the
term. The IUCN was established to study and identify factors
causing the decline of natural resources and species diversity.
1961 (WWF) World Wildlife Fund focused on raising funds to
conserve wildlife.
1962 The book Silent Spring, by Rachel Carson, brings together
research on toxicology, ecology and epidemiology to suggest
that agricultural pesticides are building to catastrophic levels,
to the detriment of animal species and human health. The book
alerts readers to the threats of pesticides to the environment
and emphasises the negative effects of uncontrolled human
progress.
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1972 The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
held in Stockholm brought both poor and rich countries together
to discuss environmental concerns that had assumed global
proportions; this led to the establishment of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), the coordinating body for UN
environmental activities. This event resulted in a declaration
containing 26 principles. Principle 19 of the Stockholm
Declaration specifically calls for “education in environmental
matters, for the younger generation as well as adults giving
due consideration for the underprivileged.”
1975 The First International Workshop on Environmental Education
was held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Organised by UNESCO and
UNEP, it resulted in the Belgrade Charter, which built on the
framework of the Stockholm Declaration and described the
goals, objectives, audiences and guiding principles of EE. It
proposed what has become a widely accepted definition of EE:
Environmental education is a process aimed at developing
a world population that is aware of and concerned about the
total environment and its associated problems, and which
has the knowledge, attitudes, motivations, commitments, and
skills to work individually and collectively toward solutions
of current problems and the prevention of new ones.
1977 The First Inter-Governmental Conference on Environmental
Education was held in Tbilisi, Russia, hosted by UNESCO and
attended by official government delegations of 66 UNESCO
member states together with representatives of numerous
NGOs. It resulted in the Tbilisi Declaration and 12 Principles
of Environmental Education, which provided guidelines for the
practice of environmental education on global, regional and
national scale.
1980 Publication of the IUCN/UNEP/WWF-sponsored World
Conservation Strategy. This ground-breaking document
achieved world-wide recognition and constituted a basis for
national policy-making. This document stressed the importance
of resource conservation through “sustainable development”
and promoted the idea that conservation and development are
mutually inter-dependent. The Strategy included a chapter on
EE containing the following message:
Ultimately, the behaviour of entire societies towards the
biosphere must be transformed if the achievement of
conservation objectives is to be assured, the long-term
task of environmental education (is) to foster or reinforce
attitudes and behaviour compatible with a new ethic.
1983 Publication of the Brandt Commission Report, entitled Common
Crisis North – South: Cooperation for World Recovery, dealing
with the relationship between the “rich” north and the “poor”
south. It focused on the need for fairer distribution of the world’s
wealth and resources.
20

1987 Our Common Future (also known as the Brundtland Report),
a report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development, chaired by the then Prime Minister of Norway,
Mrs Gro Harlem Brundtland, wove together social, economic,
cultural and environmental issues and global solutions. It set the
basis for and popularised the term “sustainable development”.
1987 The Education Congress on Environmental Education and
Training (also called Tbilisi +10), organised by UNESCO and
UNEP, was held in Moscow. It reaffirmed the Tbilisi Principles
as sound guidelines for environmental education programmes.
1990 The World Conference on Education for All was held in
Jomtien, Thailand. The conference called upon all countries
to universalise basic education for all, and it was emphasised
that this education had to include knowledge about sustainable
lifestyles.
1991 Publication of the IUCN/UNEP/WWF-sponsored Caring for the
Earth: a strategy for sustainable living. This was a revised and
updated version of the document created in 1980.
1992 The Rio Earth Summit/United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development was held in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. One of its key outcomes was Agenda 21. Chapter 36
of Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992) is a key document emanating
from this conference, emphasising the need for wide-scale
environmental education programmes to respond to the
environmental crisis. An outcome of the Summit was a treaty
on environmental education for sustainable societies. It focused
on “reorienting education towards sustainable development:
increasing public awareness and promoting training.” The
Summit also produced the Biodiversity Convention, the first
treaty to discuss the ownership of genetic resources. Another
key outcome of the Earth Summit was the Rio Declaration,
a statement of 27 principles for sustainability. Linked to the
conference was the development of the Treaty on Environmental
Education for Sustainable Societies by NGOs, which recognised
the central role of education in shaping values and social action
and resulted in the NGO Forum Principles of Environmental
Education for Equitable and Sustainable Societies.
1997 The Earth Summit +5. Environmentalists and policy-makers
from around the globe gathered in Rome to review progress
since the 1992 Earth Summit. They reemphasised the role of
environmental education in support of sustainable development.
1997 The International Conference on Environment and Society:
Education and Public Awareness for Sustainability (also known
as Tbilisi +20) was held in Thessaloniki, Greece. It resulted
in the Declaration of Thessaloniki. The 1997 UNESCO-
published document, Education for a Sustainable Future:
a transdisciplinary vision for concerted action provided the
framework for discussions at this conference.
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2000 The UN Millennium Summit was held in New York City to
discuss the role of the United Nations at the turn of the 21st
century. The outcome of the summit was the eight Millennium
Development Goals (2000–2014), which emphasised global
efforts to meet the needs of the world’s poorest.
2002 The World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)
(also called the Johannesburg Earth Summit) was held in
Johannesburg. The role of education was emphasised as a
response to issues of poverty, global inequalities and the need
for sustainable development in all societies.
2005 The Education for a Sustainable Future Conference, organised
by the Centre for Education, was held in Ahmedabad, India.
It was the first international gathering of the UN Decade of
Education for Sustainable Development 2005–2014). The
conference produced the Ahmedabad Declaration on Education
for Sustainable Development.
2007 The 4th International Conference on Environmental Education
(also called Tbilisi +30), hosted by UNESCO and UNEP, was
held in Ahmedabad India. This conference emphasised the
need for green jobs for young entrepreneurs as a means
to enable the developing world to fight climate change and
contribute to local economies.
2009 The United Nations Climate Change Conference was held in
Copenhagen, Denmark with the intention of mapping the path
towards avoiding dangerous climate change, and resulted in
the Copenhagen Accord.
2012 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
(also called Rio +20) was held in Rio de Janeiro. This resulted
in the document The Future We Want, a declaration on
sustainable development and a green economy. The Future We
Want called for the negotiation and adoption of internationally
agreed Sustainable Development Goals (which built upon the
Millennium Development Goals) by the end of 2014. The 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were launched in
2016. The SDGs are a call for action by all countries – poor,
rich and middle-income – to promote prosperity while protecting
the planet.
1.4 SUMMARY
In this unit we examined the emergence of environmental education as a movement
and a response to unsustainable development pathways having a severe negative impact
on the health and well-being of the biophysical and human environment. We traced
the evolution of environmental education and its transformation into education for
sustainable development, and outlined the key events in this history.
22
2 LEARNING UNIT 2
RESPONDING TO CHANGING LEARNER
2
AND LEARNING NEEDS AND CONTEXTS

IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Preparing learners for work, citizenship and life in the 21st century is an enormous
task. Globalisation, technological advancement, and global environmental, political
and economic challenges all require the acquisition of new knowledge and skills by
learners, which are referred to as 21st century competences. Present approaches
to teaching and the structuring of learning environments are inadequate to address
and support 21st century learning needs. As our societies are becoming knowledge
societies, schools and higher education must evolve to ensure that the information
and competency needs of students are met to enable them to deal with complex
societal, economic and environmental issues.
Learning outcomes
• Explain the diversity of learning styles

• Discuss the multiple intelligences in environmental education processes
• Discuss the application of the different approaches to environmental education
in different learning contexts
2.1 DIVERSITY OF LEARNER AND LEARNING NEEDS

It has become evident over time that, within any given environmental learning
context, different learners have different learning styles. This diversity of learning
styles requires the use of a range of learning methods.
2.1.1 Different learning styles in EE

Learners may prefer one or more of a number of learning styles, and on this basis,
we place them in the following categories:
• Auditory learners
These learners prefer to learn through listening, for example to verbal presentations
on environmental topics and discussions on environmental issues. Auditory learners
interpret underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch,
pace of delivery, and so on. Presentations by environmental educators need to be
interesting, lively and varied to retain learners’ attention.
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• Visual learners
These learners prefer to learn using their sense of sight. To fully understand the
content of a presentation, visual learners need to see the educator’s body language
and facial expressions. They tend to think in pictures and learn best from visual
displays, for instance pictures, computer programs, diagrams, illustrated textbooks,
overhead projectors, videos, flipcharts and handouts.
• Tactile learners
These learners prefer to learn though touching, moving and doing. They are suited
to outdoor learning experiences such as hands-on approaches and active exploration
of the physical world around them. To appeal to these learners, educators must utilise
the learners’ sense of adventure and their need to explore and be active.
2.1.2 Multiple intelligences in EE

Different learners demonstrate different forms of intelligence. The following types
of intelligence are possible:
Visual spatial intelligence

Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence have the ability to perceive and
understand visual aspects; they tend to think in pictures and to create vivid images as
a way to retain information. They enjoy activities such as reading maps and looking at
real objects, charts, pictures, videos and computer images. These learners are good at
activities such as puzzle building, reading, writing, understanding charts and graphs,
sketching, painting, manipulating images, constructing, fixing, designing practical
objects and interpreting visual images. They also have a good sense of direction and
are good at orienting themselves.
Verbal linguistic intelligence

Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence have the ability to understand and
use words and language. They have highly developed auditory skills and are eloquent
speakers. They tend to think in words rather than pictures. These learners are good
at activities such as listening, speaking, writing, storytelling, explaining, teaching,
use of humour, understanding the meaning of words, memory recall, convincing
people of their point of view and critically analysing language use.
Logical intelligence
Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence have the ability to use reason,
logic and numbers. They are curious about the world around them and forever
trying to find answers to their questions. They think conceptually in logical and
numerical patterns, making connections between pieces of information, and they
are able to make sense of masses of information. They are good at activities such
as problem-solving, classification and categorisation of information, working with
abstract concepts to determine the relationships between them, working with long
chains of reason and making logical progressions, geometry, performing controlled
experiments and investigating natural events.
Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence
Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence are capable of controlling
body movements and skilfully handling objects. They prefer to express themselves
through motion. They are able to remember and process information through their
24
LEARNING UNIT 2: Responding to changing learner and learning needs and contexts in environmental education
interaction with the space around them. They display a good sense of balance and
hand-eye coordination, and are good at a variety of sports, activities and games
such as dancing, hands-on experimentation, use of body language, using the body
to express emotions, craft-making, acting, miming and creating and building using
their hands.
Musical/rhythmic intelligence
Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence have the ability to appreciate
and produce music, as they are musically inclined and think in sounds, rhythms and
patterns. They respond quickly to music, either appreciating or criticising what they
hear, and are extremely sensitive to environmental sounds (e.g. crickets, birds, bells,
and dripping taps). They prefer activities such as singing, whistling, playing musical
instruments, recognising tonal patterns, remembering melodies, composing music
and understanding the structure and rhythm of music.
Interpersonal intelligence
Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence have the ability to relate to and
understand others. The demonstrate empathy and make an effort to see things from
another person’s point of view in order to understand how the other person thinks
and feels. They have a keen ability to sense feeling, intentions and motivations,
they are great organisers, and they are good at motivating others. They generally
try to maintain the peace in a group setting, and encourage cooperation. They
employ both verbal (e.g. speaking) and non-verbal (e.g. eye contact, body language)
language to open communication channels with others. They are good at activities
such as listening, using empathy, understanding other people’s moods and feelings,
counselling, group or team work, communicating verbally and non-verbally, trust-
building, peaceful conflict resolution and establishing positive relations with others.
Intrapersonal intelligence
Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence have the ability to self-reflect
and to be aware of their inner state of being. They tend to reflect on and try to
understand their inner feelings and dreams, their relationships with others and
their strengths and weaknesses. They prefer activities such as recognising their
strengths and weaknesses, self-reflection and self-analysis, self-awareness of their
inner feelings, desires and dreams, self-evaluation of thinking patterns and reasoning,
and understanding their role in relation to others.
Naturalistic intelligence
Learners who demonstrate this form of intelligence display keen sensory skills,
which they use to notice and categorise things from nature. They have a preference
for the outdoors and tend to notice patterns from their environment easily. They
display a keen interest in and care about plants and animals, and most learners
who demonstrate this form of intelligence enjoy making and keeping collections,
scrapbooks, logs or journals about natural objects. They have an interest in and easily
learn the characteristics and names of and data relating to natural phenomena, and
have concern for the environment. They prefer activities such as collecting natural
objects, mounting specimens, organising collections, observing nature outdoors,
doing experiments in nature, drawing or photographing natural objects, wildlife
conservation projects and visiting zoos, botanic gardens and wildlife reserves.
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ACTIVITY 2.1
Go to the online discussion forum for this module, and discuss with other students
how the different types of intelligence relate to the different learning styles we
have discussed.
Your e-tutor will provide you with feedback and guidance with regard to suggested
answers.
2.2 DIVERSITY OF CONTEXTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

EDUCATION PRACTICE (EDUCATION ABOUT/IN/FOR THE
ENVIRONMENT)
Environmental education practice needs to be implemented:
(1) As a life-long process (across all age groups)

(2) Formally, non-formally and informally (across all sectors of society)
• Formal EE includes EE in schools and tertiary education institutions. It
is curriculum driven.
• Informal EE includes EE provided by institutions and organisations such
as government departments and conservation organisations. It is driven
by institutional goals, polices and strategies. Informal EE can be aligned
with the formal education curriculum.
• Non-formal EE is education that occurs in the home and community
contexts through various forms such as environmental sustainability stories,
songs, practices and cultural events. Non-formal EE can also be linked
to the curriculum and used to teach the formal EE taught in schools and
at tertiary institutions.
ACTIVITY 2.2
In the online discussion forum, discuss with other students the context in which
you will employ:
(1) formal EE approaches

(2) informal EE approaches
(3) non-formal EE approaches
2.3 SUMMARY
In this unit we explored different learning styles and multiple intelligences in
environmental education processes. We also discussed the diversity of contexts in
which environmental education processes can occur.
26
3 LEARNING UNIT 3
3 APPROPRIATE STRATEGIES FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN
DIFFERENT CONTEXTS
INTRODUCTION
In environmental education processes, consideration should be given to historical and
contextual aspects in the learning environment. Different learning contexts require
the application of different methods and strategies for environmental education.
In addition, the transition to globalisation and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
means that learners need to acquire the necessary 21st century competences for a
sustainable future.
Learning outcomes
• Discuss historical and contextual aspects to be considered in environmental education

processes
• Describe and apply relevant methods and approaches suited to the different
learning contexts
3.1 CONSIDERATION OF HISTORICAL AND CONTEXTUAL

ASPECTS IN EE PROCESSES
Environmental education processes need to take into consideration the history and
context behind certain environmental issues and their implications for communities
and their lived contexts. We explore a few case examples below.
3.1.1 Wildlife conservation in parks and nature reserves in southern

Africa: the relationship between people and parks
Conservation of wildlife in parks and nature reserves in southern Africa is associated
with the events of colonisation. Establishment of wildlife parks and nature reserves
involved the demarcation of large tracts of what had been indigenous land and its
appropriation for wildlife conservation. The process involved forced eviction of
indigenous communities and their resettlement in marginal lands. In reality colonisation
entailed not only colonisation of humans, but of nature as well. Indigenous people
and their lands were portrayed as terra nullias – uninhabited, empty and underutilised.
The result was a forced separation and exclusion of indigenous communities from
their ancestral lands based on the European notion of the Cartesian duality between
humankind and nature. In this construction of wildlife parks and nature reserves,
nature was perceived as a resource for human benefit and the wilderness as a challenge
for humankind to conquer (Murombedzi, 2003). Pre-colonial conservation practices
EED2601/127

were marginalized and excluded from Western wildlife conservation practices, the
exception being selected knowledge of the veld and the movement of wildlife, which
has been appropriated for game-tracking through the use of indigenous game trackers.
3.1.2 Climate change effects in Southern Africa

Southern Africa has experienced a drastic increase in surface temperatures, which
has resulted in widespread and prolonged droughts, water scarcity, food insecurity,
heat waves, increased frequency of veld fires, and rainfall extremes such as floods
and hailstorms. Climate change has now become a key developmental challenge for
Southern Africa and the broader sub-Saharan Africa context. Empirical research
over the past few years has revealed that the continent of Africa is among the most
vulnerable and least prepared to cope with the severe impact of climate change,
as it is still grappling with basic issues such as food, health, clean drinking water
and education. Over the years we have seen communities being severely affected by
the effects of climate change, which has depleted Africa’s natural resource base over
time. Climate change in Africa now poses a real threat that could potentially reverse
the development gains achieved by African countries over the years. The majority
of Africa’s population is highly vulnerable to climate change effects. Research has
shown that Africa is bearing the brunt of climate change, even though it contributes
the least to carbon emissions. Most greenhouse gas emissions are released by the
developed countries in the Global North and yet their impacts are inequitably
affecting Southern African countries.
3.1.3 Alien invasive plants in South Africa

The majority of alien plants in South Africa were introduced by colonial
settler communities either in an effort to make the new lived environment similar
to their counties of origin, or unintentionally. Most softwood tree species such as
Pine, Wattle and Eucalyptus were introduced as sources of timber or as sources of
raw materials (for instance, Wattle was introduced to supply tannin). Other species,
such as the prickly pear cactus, were introduced as food plants. However, over time,
these ‘innocently’ introduced plants have become invasive, with devastating effects
on the natural vegetation (causing vegetation degradation and biodiversity loss) and
on natural water bodies (causing water scarcity by depleting water resources).
ACTIVITY 3.1
In your deliberations with other students on the online discussion forum for this
module:
Consider the three case examples above.
(1) Describe the historical and contextual aspects of each issue.

(2) Discuss the long-term interrelated effects of each issue.
28
LEARNING UNIT 3: Appropriate strategies for environmental education in different contexts
3.2 EVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES FOR DIVERSE

CONTEXTS AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS (THEORETICAL,
PRACTICAL AND EXPERIENTIAL)
Environmental education processes can and should occur in diverse learning contexts,
namely: formal, informal and non-formal. Environmental educators have over time
realised that there is a need to go beyond awareness raising about environmental issues
or providing learners with fun-filled experiences. This has required the development
of broad range methodologies suitable for diverse learning contexts. The methods
are appropriate for specific contexts and purposes. However, in many cases several
methods can be employed for a lesson, course, workshop or programme. A variety
of methods enables us to achieve a variety of environmental learning purposes and
outcomes. Purposes and outcomes for environmental education include those listed
below, which have been adapted from Rosenberg, O’Donoghue and Olvitt (2013):
(1) Coming to understand one’s lived world better

(2) Gaining the skills and values to live well within it
(3) Awareness or sensitisation to environmental issues and possibilities
(4) Gaining environmental information and new insights
(5) Un-learning certain perspectives on the environment
(6) Recognising and reconstructing the frames through which we look at the
lived world
(7) Seeing a growing array of possibilities to act on environmental issues
(8) Shaping better sustainability practices
(9) Action competence, agency and commitment to caring for the environment
ACTIVITY 3.2
On the online discussion forum platform for this module:
Consider an environmental and sustainability concern that is particularly pertinent

in your work context. Consider and explain how, in your environmental education
practice, you could:
(1) find out, with learners, what is being done and what is already known
(2) survey local landscapes and change with regard to this concern
(3) audit biodiversity (or resource use, if more relevant)
(4) investigate ecosystem services and human livelihoods
(5) assess the likelihood and extent of issues and risks
(6) deliberate about what can and should be done better
3.2.1 Choice of EE methods

The choice and use of methods by the educator are influenced by:
(1) Our view of education – is education about getting others to change their
behaviour? Is it about getting people together for collaborative learning and
action? Is it about transformation, or is it about keeping things the way they
always have been?
(2) Our views on knowledge – is knowledge fixed and certain, something to
pass on? Or is it dynamic, co-constructed and open to change?
EED2601/129

(3) Our views on learning and learners – are learners empty vessels to fill? Active
minds eager to make sense of something? Co-learners? What is the educator’s
role? And how do learners learn?
3.2.2 Some guiding criteria for choosing EE methods

Environmental education methods should/should be:
(1) Learner-centred
Environmental education methods should enable full and active participation of
learners
(2) Activity-based
EE methods should provide activities in which all learners can participate.
(3) Relevant to learners

The methods chosen should be relevant to the learners’ needs and interests.
(4) Utilise the environment

EE is about education responses to environmental issues. Almost all environmental
learning can take place by utilising the environment around the learners. Consideration
should also be given to environmental issues of regional, national and global extent.
(5) Cross-curricular in their application

Almost all environmental issues can be taught across all subject disciplines.
3.2.3 Categories of EE methods

Education methods can be grouped into the following categories, as presented in
Table 3.1 below (adapted from Rosenberg et al, 2013):
30
TABLE 3.1
Environmental education methods
Underlying Disadvan-
Method Examples Possibilities
ideas tages
Information Awareness People do • Aware- • Aware-
transfer campaigns not know ness ness mes-
(stickers, about the does not sages can
posters, leaf- issues, or necessar- provide a
lets, public tend to forget ily lead to platform
announce- about them action for en-
ments, • People gagement
walks, activi- may and delib-
ties such as reject the eration
clean-up messages • Messages
campaigns, • People can pro-
etc.) may not vide ideas
know how about
to act on solutions
the mes- and ways
sages, to act
and this
may
cause
anxiety
• The mes-
sages
may be di-
rected at
the wrong
audiences
Lectures, Transfer of • Usually a • Provide
talks and new knowl- passive, a useful
presentations edge to one-way way to im-
(presentation a willing infor- part new
of content recipient/ mation knowl-
knowledge audience transfer edge and
on a topic • Can ideas to
by means turn the a large
of struc- audience group
tured verbal, off due • Are less
visual and/or to their time con-
audiovisual lengthy suming
presenta- and top- and more
tions) down manage-
approach able
• Can • Informa-
cause or tion has to
reinforce be pre-
power im- sented in
balances an engag-
ing and
interactive
way
EED2601/131

ideas tages
Demonstra- “Seeing is • Educators • Learners
tions and believing” may as- or partici-
experi- – practi- sume that pants can
ments (use cal visual they have perform
of models experience made their own
or prepared a con- experi-
experiments nection ments
to intro- between or make
duce, prove, the model their own
reinforce or or experi- models,
clarify infor- ment and thereby
mation and the real develop-
concepts) world, ing skills
when in of obser-
reality vation and
they might prediction
not have and a
• This ap- sense of
proach inquiry
is educa-
tor-orient-
ed
Guided ques- A construc- • When • Learner
tioning (use tivist ap- asked the par-
of probing proach to wrong ticipation
questions to learning way, enhances
direct learn- that empha- questions confi-
ers’ thinking sises the way can make dence and
about partic- people think partici- motivation
ular aspects and make pants feel to learn,
of their meaning of as if they stimulat-
experience) what they are being ing more
see. Learn- examined interactive
ers make • The edu- learning
sense of their cator may • Guided
experiences become questions
and actively dominant can add
construct in the a sense
meaning by conver- of fun,
drawing on sation, especially
past experi- thereby when
ences and stifling work-
using infor- opportuni- ing with
mation they ties for younger
can access learners learners,
in their own to pursue who enjoy
context. their own the chal-
areas of lenges
interest of giving
good an-
swers in a
spontane-
ous and
collective
way
32
ideas tages
• There is
an as-
sump-
tion that
learners
have prior
knowl-
edge,
which
might not
be true for
learners
in a new
environ-
ment
Games and An alterna- • High
quizzes (en- tive approach levels of
countering to traditional excite-
and testing ‘talk and ment as-
knowledge chalk’ meth- sociated
in a playful ods; learning with com-
way, usually is fun and petitive
through for- interactive, events
mal or infor- with high can
mal competi- levels of stimulate
tion between participation interest in
teams or and com-
individuals) mitment
to envi-
ronmental
concerns
• Games
can place
more
emphasis
on col-
laborative
learning,
participa-
tion, cre-
ativity and
problem-
solving
processes
EED2601/133

ideas tages
Experiential Field trips Broaden- • Adequate • Encour-
methods and excur- ing learners’ prepara- age
sions (ex- perspec- tion is different
tended trips tives through required learner
or visits exposure before the perspec-
to one or to real-life field trip tives
more sites situations or (e.g. work- • Are good
of interest contexts sheets, for ‘on
for education- guidelines the job’
al purposes) for reports training
or case in fields
studies) where
• Planning basic
is needed qualifica-
for par- tions do
ticipants not ad-
to get the equately
relevant prepare
informa- practi-
tion, e.g. tioners
reading in for the
advance challeng-
• Usu- es of a
ally do not particular
provide workplace
adequate
time for
reflec-
tion on
learning
Interpretive People learn • The in- • Interpre-
trails (guided from expo- terpretive tive trails
walks, trails sure to things resource enable
with interpre- and first- is often learners
tive signage) hand experi- static (e.g. to open
ence, espe- signage, their
cially if they posters, senses
are provided booklets, to things
with relevant guide) and that they
information may not would
about what satisfy the have
they can see, interests otherwise
touch, feel or of differ- missed
smell ent indi- • They
viduals or provide
groups informa-
• Interpreta- tion on
tion can things that
distract are not
atten- obviously
tion from evident
alternative
experi-
ences
34
ideas tages
• They
provide a
framework
for inves-
tigation,
which
learners
can use
elsewhere
• Interpreta-
tions need
to be
varied
Solitaire (sit- A nature- • People • Can make
ting quietly to based may not pos-
experience individual necessar- sible com-
nature and to experiential ily act on parison
reflect on the learning ap- their ex- between
experience, proach with periences experi-
e.g. through strong values upon ence
art) orientation returning and the
home realities of
• The everyday
assump- life
tion that • Helps in
nature environ-
speaks mental
to us in values
silence is clarifica-
an incom- tion
plete • Can aid
picture reflection
– nature and evalu-
speaks ation on
to us field trips
through
other
means
• There is
the anxi-
ety as-
sociated
with risk
in unfamil-
iar places,
espe-
cially for
children
• Young
children
may find
it hard to
remain
alone
for long
periods
EED2601/135

ideas tages
Investigative Participatory Leaners • Learners • Involve-
methods methods should be as par- ment of
involved in ticipants learners
the education do not in the
processes. always planning
agree on of the cur-
everyting riculum,
leading to particu-
conflicting larly adult
interests learners
• Pseudo-
participa-
tion – par-
ticipation
can be
engineer-
ing to give
a false
percep-
tion of full
participa-
tion while
hidden
agendas
of the
conveners
are being
pursued
• Young
learners
may not
be ca-
pable of
taking full
control of
the cur-
riculum
planning
process
Fieldwork Learning and • Time • active and
and col- development consuming expe-
laborative of skills and • Learning riential
research principles does not learning
in real- life take place involving
contexts unless ‘hands-on’
the right activities
ques- • collabora-
tions and tive par-
processes ticipatory
are impl- research
mented processes
in collect-
ing and
analysing
data
36
ideas tages
Exploring Investing • Juxtapos- • Provide
indigenous indigenous ing/com- contex-
ways of knowledge paring/ tualised
knowing and practices contrast- environ-
in indige- ing in- mental
nous commu- digenous learning
nity contexts knowl- oppor-
dges vs tunities
modern to learn
knowl- about
edge nature,
when culture
these are and prac-
knowl- tices, e.g.
edges Traditional
from conser-
different vation,
world- traditional
views knowl-
• Mul- edge of
tiple in- plants and
digenous animals,
knowl- etc.
edges • Op-
from porunties
differ- for com-
ent community
munities/ resource
tribes/ persons
languages to share
of indig- their envi-
enous ronmental
peoples knowl-
edge as
knowl-
edge
holders
Case studies Provide • Can be • Provide
the closest decontex- an op-
alternative to tualised portunity
actual field • Can be to learn
experiences. biased from other
depend- people’s
Provide a a
ing on environ-
connection
the com- mental
between
ploirer of experi-
ones prior
the case ences
knowledge
and the
study • Can be
knowledge • Can over- used in
simplify conjunc-
of other
reality tion with
particpants
field
excursions
EED2601/137

ideas tages
Learning by Projects and Hands-on • Doing can • Projects
doing practical practical be without (e.g. gar-
actions skills acqui- reflection dening,
sition (e.g. • Possible recycling,
recycling, to get etc.) can
food garden- distracted be linked
ing, compost- form to and
ing, water the edu- used to
harversting, cational extend
etc.) purpose formal
of the classroom
project activities
Action Transforma- • Time • Collabora-
research tive learning consuming tive learn-
and commu- and prob- • Difficult to ing and
nity problem- lem solv- assess for research
solving ing through learners to improve
participatory practice
researching and to im-
of practice prove the
lived en-
vironment
in com-
munities
Deliberative Dialogic Enable • Divergent • Provide
methods cartoons and learners to views opportuni-
programmes express their can divert ties for
views and from the exploring
values and the real divergent
to learn from purpose views on
views and of the an envi-
values of discussion ronmental
others • Possi- issue and
bilities for to reach
bias and consensus
manipula-
tion
Social learn- Situated • Group • Devel-
ing methods learning dyanmics, opment
in com- discomfort of par-
munities of in participants’
practice, ticipatory knowl-
actor net- contexts edge,
work theory values
– participa- and aci-
tory learning tion com-
and action petence
through com- for sus-
munities tainable
and networks develop-
ment
38
ideas tages
Media Informed • Knowl- • Values
analysis critical analy- edge and clarifica-
sis of and aware- tion
reflection on ness • Self-de-
mass media does not velopment
information necessar- of lifestyle
ily lead to choices
behaviour
change
Story Engaging • Stories • Possi-
methods and delibera- can be bility of
tion on final decon- follow up
outcome textual- and en-
of the ized and vrionemn-
story(action) culturally tal ac-
irrelevant. tion on
• Stories stories in
can have learners’
bias context
• Opportu-
nities for
values
clarifica-
tion, delib-
eration,
problem-
solving
and
creativity.
Bear in mind that:

(a) Some educational methods do not fit into the above method categories.
(b) Not all the possible methods are listed above, and some may have different
labels in different contexts. Some methods can be applied for a range of
purposes, and fall into more than one category.
(c) There is an educational theory behind each method and how it is supposed
to be used. However, people sometimes use methods without thinking about
the theory behind them.
(d) Methods are developed historically in relation to a particular context, and so
there is a need to adapt and re-interpret them to suit our contexts of use. Today
we place particular emphasis on action-oriented and interactive meaning-
making processes and deliberations towards a broad and open-ended range
of environmental learning outcomes.
ACTIVITY 3.3
On the discussion forum, with other students:
(1) Discuss which of the learning methods above fall under the active learning
approach shown figure 3.1 below.
EED2601/139

(2) Explain how each of these methods involves the interaction of the three
aspects of active learning shown in the diagram.
FIGURE 3.1
Active learning process
(Source: Rosenberg et al, 2013)
3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION STRATEGIES
3.3.1 Active learning

Learners should not only learn about the environment, but should also be active
participants in learning situations in environmental education processes. They must
be given the opportunity to be critical and creative, as well as be able to discover
things on their own. Learning processes must enable learners to develop and
acquire knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes and values that will help them
to understand and respond to the environmental challenges in our world.
Learners should acquire the ability to solve problems confidently and apply their own
solutions where possible. Active learning requires learners to apply information by
transforming it into new and personal meaning. Meaning is co-constructed through
exploring the environment, dealing with issues, solving problems, or applying acquired
information to new situations.
Active learning is usually closely associated with the constructivist theories postulated
by Bruner (1986) and others, who recommend that learning experiences or tasks
should be designed to facilitate exploration, extrapolation and elaboration, and should
be built on experiences, convictions and constructs that learners already possess.
3.3.2 Authentic learning

Because of its nature, environmental education needs to have an applied focus and
should be authentic. This implies learning about real environmental issues, threats
and problems, and seeking real solutions to these. It also implies active, hands-on
learning.
40
In authentic environmental learning, educators use local/community sources of

information such as community newspapers, local/community resources such as
gatherings, events, meetings, societies, clubs and organisations, and indigenous
knowledge available from members of the community.
Where possible, learning should consist of authentic tasks (real-life activities), and
should occur in real-world contexts. The environment presents educators with a broad
range of subject matter and a variety of learning contexts, which can make learning
interesting and enjoyable. Authentic learning tasks help learners to understand the
interaction of environmental, social and economic processes and to cope better with
the complexity of environmental sustainability issues.
3.3.3 Problem-solving
Problem-solving and decision-making are critical to ensure meaningful environmental
learning experiences in environmental education. With the necessary guidance and
support, learners will make a genuine effort to solve problems if these are real,
and especially if adults have been unable to find a solution. Learners who have
succeeded in effecting change through their solutions to problems have a sense of
accomplishment, become involved and exhibit responsible environmental behaviour.
Achieving success is important, but we cannot place excessively high expectations
on learners in terms of solving environmental problems.
3.3.4 Critical thinking

Many environmental learning outcomes include the phrase: “Learners should critically
engage with ....” This implies a higher dimension of thought and requires learners to
acquire a lot of information on different perspectives associated with an environmental
problem, issue or risk if their critical engagement is to be meaningful. It also requires
teachers to have access to current (up-to-date) information on an issue in order to
avoid narrow or simplified interpretations of it.
The use of critical thinking skills in solving environmental problems is a key trait of
an environmentally literate citizenry, and a key objective of environmental education.
Critical thinking comprises the acquisition and processing of relevant content
knowledge, procedural knowledge, and the ability to apply critical thinking skills to
use this knowledge to respond to environmental issues. It develops logical reasoning,
creative thinking and problem-solving skills. Environmental learning provides
an excellent mechanism for the development and use of critical thinking skills by
providing real-life problems and issues to critically examine and reflect on.
The purpose of environmental learning, as seen from a social-critical paradigm, is to

enable learners to construct, critique, emancipate and transform their environment.
3.4 ROLES AND POSITIONS OF EDUCATORS AND LEARNERS

WITH REGARD TO EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM PRACTICE
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (THEORY, POLICY AND
OBSERVED PRACTICE)
In the past educators played a central role in the dissemination of environmental
knowledge, skills, ideas, values, appropriate behaviour and practices. Education was
EED2601/141

therefore mainly teacher-centred, and behaviourist approaches to education were

dominant. Learners were predominantly recipients of environmental knowledge.
However, in the current era, characterised by a learner-centred curriculum, there
has been a shift in the role of educators and learners. Educators serve as facilitators
in environmental learning processes, while learners become active participants in
deliberating, making decisions and carrying out actions in response to environmental
issues.
3.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we explored various strategies and approaches that can employed in
environmental education processes, and the changing role of educators.
42
4 LEARNING UNIT 4
INNOVATIVE APPROACHES IN THE
4
DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
The 21st century post-modern era of globalisation calls for new and innovative
approaches to achieve a sustainable future. This requires the involvement of diverse
peoples and the use of diverse knowledges, cultures and practices in processes of
meaning- and decision-making and taking action towards sustainability for present
and future generations.
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to
• Discuss the role of different cultures, knowledges and practices in

environmental education processes
• Discuss the application of indigenous knowledge in environmental education
processes
• Outline and develop necessary 21st century competences among learners towards
a sustainable future
4.1 EE IN MULTICULTURAL CONTEXTS (HISTORICAL AND

COLLABORATIVE MEANING-MAKING EE PROCESSES)
Global migration patterns and the dissolution in South Africa of the apartheid
system of racial segregation have given rise to new environments characterised
by multiracial communities. This provides opportunities for sharing histories and
cultures, and for collaborative meaning-making processes in environmental education.
Most important, marginalised peoples and communities are able to share their
knowledge, experiences and practices with others in a decolonised learning and
living environment. This creates opportunities for inter-cultural dialogue and for
the valuing of different knowledges, practices and experiences during collaborative
meaning- and decision-making process and taking action for a sustainable future.
4.2 EE PROCESSES IN DIVERSE SOCIAL CONTEXTS

People live in a flux of interactive environments as they constantly move between
home, community, leisure, work and/or school. In each of these contexts,
consideration of and care for the environment is essential for future sustainability.
Environmental education processes in social contexts can be viewed as education
about the environment, in the environment and for the environment, as we discussed
in unit 3.
EED2601/143

(1) Education about the environment provides learners with knowledge to enable
them to recognise the diversity of the ecosystems (biomes) and their value.
(2) Education in or through the environment enables learners to cherish personal
memories of environmental experiences (such as excursions, holidays, and
camping and fishing trips) and in the process value the environment as their
living heritage.
(3) Education for the environment helps learners develop skills, attitudes and values
that endow them with responsibility and stewardship for the conservation,
protection and sustainable use of lived environments and local resources. It
equips them with the capacity to make informed decisions and take action
for the local environment they live in.
To bring together education about, in and for the environment, O’Donoghue

(2008) proposes an active learning approach to EE involving enquiry encounters,
information seeking, reporting and action. Have a look at figure 4.1 below to see
this illustrated.
Finding out ‘ABOUT”
Investigations ‘IN’ Doing things ‘FOR’
FIGURE 4.1
Education in, for and about the environment
(Source: O’Donoghue 2008)
44
LEARNING UNIT 4: Innovative approaches in the development of environmental education
ACTIVITY 4.1
With reference to the environmental education methods set out in Table 3.1 in unit
3, identify which methods of EE will be suitable for education about, in and for the
environment by completing the table below.
Type of environmental education

Examples of methods
context
Education about the environment
Education in the environment
Education for the environment
Discuss your answers on the online discussion platform, and compare them with
those of other students.
4.3 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN EE PROCESSES

Indigenous communities have had a long interaction and relationship with their lived
environments (the land), and their association with the land makes it an integral part
of their identity. Indigenous communities rely heavily on the land’s natural resources
for their livelihood needs and survival. As a result, they have established a reciprocal
relationship with the lived environment in which it cares for them, and they care
for it in return. In terms of this, they have a holistic view of lifewhere everything
is interconnected.
4.3.1 Sacred sites and taboos

The indigenous ethic of care is seen through observance of taboos and protection
of sacred natural sites and biological species. Observing these indigenous practices
is important for biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, and should be included
in environmental sustainability education processes.
Sacred sites and objects include sacred forests, woodlands, groves, trees, animals and
bodies of water. Sacred sites are protected from use, which conserves these ecosystems.
Indigenous people have taboos on the timing of harvest of wild fruit trees, the
seasonal hunting of birds and other animals, fishing, and the harvesting of medicinal
plants. These taboos are intended to protect and conserve these species from
over-exploitation.
EED2601/145

4.3.2 Indigenous agricultural practices

Indigenous communities rely on mixed farming systems rather than on modern
crop and/or livestock monocultures. Indigenous mixed farming systems reduce
the vulnerability that comes from a reliance on a small number of staple crops or
animal breeds.
Indigenous crop systems are characterised by multi-cropping and low chemical and
energy inputs. This makes these systems biodiverse and highly compatible with the local
environment. Indigenous farming systems simulate natural ecosystems, making them
ecological in nature. Moreover, the diversity of crops enables indigenous communities
to have a varied diet.
Similarly, indigenous communities rely on a number of indigenous species and breeds

of livestock (cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, etc.). These different breeds provide them
with a range of products, including eggs, milk, manure, skins (leather), feathers and
meat.
Education on indigenous agricultural practices can play a significant role in promoting

sustainable agricultural education and in ensuring local food security and food
sovereignty.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Fieldwork activity
In your own work context:
(1) Divide learners into groups to engage with community members to identify
indigenous environmental sustainability practices in their area.
(2) Explain how these indigenous practices can be used to teach
environmental education in the curriculum.
(3) Discuss your findings with other students on the online discussion forum.
4.4 SUSTAINABILITY COMPETENCES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

There is growing universal acceptance of the need for education and learning systems
to be relevant, holistic, inclusive, just and supportive of sustainable development.
Against the background of increasing global environmental risks and uncertainty
and new technologies that influence our behaviour, performance and production,
there is an emerging argument that education curricula and learning environments
in the current era require a focus on competencies rather than skills, and that
technology should serve to facilitate learning processes rather than being the actual
focus of learning.
Environmental competences are the things that a student will be more capable of
doing after completing an environmental learning activity. Competences are therefore
capabilities developed by the learner. Quality curricula should enable learners to
develop competencies for meeting challenges and taking up opportunities in the
rapidly changing 21st century. Some of these competencies are given in Table 4.1
below. Many of these competencies overlap and interlock – in other words, aspects
of one support aspects of another.
46
TABLE 4.1
21st century sustainability competencies
Sustainability competence Brief description

Systems thinking The ability to recognise and understand
relationships – to think of how systems are
embedded within different domains and
different scales and to deal with uncertainty
Futures/anticipatory thinking The ability to understand and evaluate multiple
(lifelong learning) futures – to create own visions for the future,
to apply the precautionary principle, to assess
the consequences of actions and to deal with
risks and changes; learning-to-learn skills,
openness and commitment to lifelong and life-
wide learning
Global thinking Ability to think as world citizens; careful
consideration of previous approaches and
the perspectives of others; acting ethically
and collaboratively to contribute to local,
regional and/or global development; ability to
work collaboratively and to seek collaborative
opportunities
Values thinking The ability to understand and reflect on the
norms and values that underlie one’s actions
and to negotiate sustainability values,
principles, goals, and targets
Strategic thinking The ability to collectively develop and
implement actions that further sustainability
at the local level and further afield
Critical thinking The ability to question norms, practices and
opinions, to reflect on own one’s values,
perceptions and actions, to take a position
and to understand the perspectives of
other stakeholders; the capacity for active
investigative thinking and inquiry; the ability to
access, analyse interpret, apply and synthesise
information; the ability to examine, interpret
and evaluate evidence, and ask relevant
questions; the ability to integrate ideas from
different disciplines or spheres into a coherent
whole and communicate that integration to
others
Integrated problem-solving The overarching ability to apply different
problem-solving frameworks to complex
sustainability problems and develop viable
solution options – integrating the previously
mentioned competencies
EED2601/147


Communication The ability to express thoughts clearly and
persuasively both orally and in writing, to
articulate opinions, communicate coherent
instructions, and motivate others through
speech; the ability to communicate in the
learner’s mother tongue and in other languages
Literacy Understanding of economic and political
forces that affect societies and 21st
century interdisciplinary themes; global
awareness; financial, economic, business
and entrepreneurial literacy; civic literacy and
health literacy, including health and wellness
awareness
Collaboration The ability to learn from others, to understand
the needs, perspectives and actions of others,
to deal with conflicts in a group and to facilitate
collaborative and participatory problem-
solving; the ability to engage in networked
collaborations either locally or at a distance
Personal The ability to reflect on one’s own role in the
global system and to continually evaluate and
further motivate one’s sustainability actions;
capacity for leadership, resourcefulness, self-
control, empathy, ethics, integrity, flexibility,
adaptability, initiative, and self-direction;
inventive thinking, risk-taking, reflection,
productivity, accountability, fulfilment of one’s
responsibilities as a worker and as a citizen;
teamwork and time management
Social and cross-cultural Ability to foster interdisciplinary cooperation
and global exchange of ideas; ability to counter
discrimination due to origin, gender or age;
ability to understand and communicate with
others; respect and tolerance; ability to listen
attentively to others; capacity for flexibility
and negotiation; global competence; ability to
cooperate with contributors in interdisciplinary
and intercultural teams; ability to interact
effectively with others (knowing when it is
important to listen and when to speak, and
how to conduct oneself in a professional
manner); ability to work effectively in diverse
teams (respecting cultural differences and
collaborating with people from a wide range
of social and cultural backgrounds); awareness
of and appreciation for differences among
individuals and communities; capacity for
openness to different ideas and values; social
skills; emotional resilience; empathy
48

Self-direction, responsibility, A good work ethic, professionalism,
accountability responsibility (application of intelligence,
creativity and knowledge for a common
good); metacognition – self-directed learning;
planning; goal-setting; monitoring one’s own
progress; adaptability; ability to set learning
goals, and plan and monitor your own learning;
ability to assess progress and
take action with results; self-efficacy
Initiative Ability to develop (create) new socio-economic
possibilities and practices and provide solutions
to complex problems
Entrepreneurial Ability to ‘think on your feet’, to observe
and evaluate opportunities and ideas that
may be new; autonomy; the ability to think
unconventionally, to imagine new scenarios
and question conventional wisdom
Resilience Flexibility, adaptability and self-reliance
Knowledge of the disciplines Ability to acquire academic and applied
(STEM) knowledge; ability to connect knowledge and
skills, learning and competence, inert and
active learning, codified and tacit knowledge
and creative and adaptive learning; a balance
between education in technical and natural
science subjects, and culture and humanities;
mastery of major schools of thought, including
science, mathematics, technology, engineering
and history
Information and communication Ability to make sense of and master (use)
technologies (ICT) digital communication and technologies
Civic and digital citizenship Civic literacy and the ability to participate
productively and responsibly online and in
virtual communities; ability to assess the
reliability and quality of information found on
the internet and to use it responsibly
The above competences can be grouped under the four pillars of education defined
by Delors et al (1996). These are: learning to know, learning to do, learning to
be and learning to live together, and they are summarised in Table 4.2 below.
TABLE 4.2
Summary of 21st century competencies and skills aligned to the pillars
of education (adapted from Scott, 2015)
Pillar of education Competencies

Learning to know Content knowledge
Inter-disciplinarity
EED2601/149

Pillar of education Competencies

Learning to do Critical thinking
Analytical thinking
Problem-solving
Communication and collaboration
Creativity and innovation
Information, communication and technology (ICT)
literacy
Learning to be Social and cross-cultural skills
Personal responsibility, self-regulation and initiative
Sense-making skills
Meta-cognitive skills
Entrepreneurial skills
Resilience (flexibility, adaptability and self-reliance)
Learning to live together Learning to learn habits of lifelong learning
Intercultural and social competence (seeking value
and diversity)
Teamwork and interconnectedness
Civic and digital citizenship
Global, inter- and cross-cultural competence
ACTIVITY 4.3
On the discussion forum platform:
Explain how the above competencies relate to the key characteristics of EE

discussed earlier in unit 1.
4.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we explored innovative approaches in EE relevant for a globalised and
multicultural world. We discussed the application of indigenous knowledges in
environmental education processes. We also explored key 21st century competences
for environmental learners in this era.
50
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52

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3.2.2 Some guiding criteria for choosing EE methods 30

LEARNING UNIT 4: I NNOVATIVE APPROACHES IN THE

At the end of this learning unit you must be able to:

• Discuss the history and origins of environmental education as a movement

1.1 THE HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

1.1.1 From nature/outdoor studies to conservation education to

1.1.1.1 The holistic environment

Source: O’Donoghue & Janse van Rensburg (1995:8)

The growing concern about environmental issues and international awareness of

1.1.1.2 Definition of environmental education

Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying

This definition is however considered to have a behavioural emphasis.

(1) It must be inter-, trans- and multi-disciplinary: it should be taught across

(11) It must be life-long learning: environmental education is not reactive, but

1.1.1.3 Principles of environmental education

Environmental education should:

2. be a continuous lifelong process, beginning at the preschool level and

1. Education is the right of all; we are all learners and educators.

9. Environmental education must recover, recognize, respect, reflect and

1.1.2 From environmental education to education for sustainable

The main dimensions of sustainability are environmental, social and economic,

1.1.2.1 Models of sustainable development

(Source: IUCN, 2006)

(Source: Stenberg, 2011: 42)

(Source: Lozano, 2008)

1.1.2.2 Sustainability indicators

Ecological Economic Social

Ecological Economic Social

1.1.2.3 Debates concerning education for sustainable development (ESD)

The most often quoted definition of sustainable development appears in the

Those holding an alternative view of sustainable development argue by contrast that

1.1.3 From millennium development goals to the united nations

1.1.3.1 The Millennium Development Goals

The Eight Millennium Development Goals were:

1.1.3.2 The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

1.1.3.3 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms everywhere

Education for sustainable development (ESD) is explicitly recognised in the SDGs

1.2 THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES IN THE

1.2.1 Environmental issues

Land (Soil) Pollution

1.2.1.2 Biodiversity Loss

Biodiversity loss is increasing in South Africa due to human socio-economic activities,

1.2.1.3 Climate Change

1.2.1.4 Food Insecurity

1.2.1.5 Water Scarcity

1.2.1.6 Disease Epidemics

1.2.1.7 Population Growth

The current population of South Africa is approximately 56 million (Statistics South

1.2.1.9 Rapid Urbanisation

1.2.1.10 Growing Energy Needs

in South Africa is increasing with population growth, rapid urbanization and

1.3 TIMELINE OF KEY HISTORIC INTERNATIONAL EVENTS

Year Event and summary

Year Event and summary

Year Event and summary

Year Event and summary

AND LEARNING NEEDS AND CONTEXTS

At the end of this learning unit you must be able to:

• Explain the diversity of learning styles

3.2.2 Some guiding criteria for choosing EE methods 30

LEARNING UNIT 4: I NNOVATIVE APPROACHES IN THE