Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

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Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

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An empirical literature analysis of adsorbent performance for methylene

blue uptake from aqueous media
Kingsley O. Iwuozor a, b, 1, Joshua O. Ighalo c, d, *, 2, Lawal Adewale Ogunfowora e, 3,
Adewale George Adeniyi d, 4, Chinenye Adaobi Igwegbe c, **, 5
a
Department of Chemistry, University of Lagos, P.M.B. 1029, Lagos, Nigeria
b
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria
c
Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria
d
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
e
Department of Chemical Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Dr. GL Dotto Methylene blue (MB) is a heterocyclic aromatic compound used as a medication or as a synthetic dye for textiles.
Due to its ecotoxicity, researchers have been investigating its mitigation by the adsorption process. The aim of
Keywords: this review was to analyse the performance of different classes of adsorbent for MB dye uptake based on their
Adsorption maximum adsorption capacity. MB was chosen for this analysis due to the large volume of work that has been
Activated carbon
done on it over the years. Over 500 research papers published on MB adsorption (within the past 5 years were
Biochar
analysed). This was to help guide the research area on the best class adsorbents for MB uptake thereby pointing
Nanoparticle
Methylene blue the areas of biggest potential to investigators. Composites adsorbents (31%) were the most frequently studied for
MB uptake. Other popularly used types were biosorbents (16%) and activated carbon (16%). Polymers and
resins, and organic and inorganic nanoparticles were the more favoured constituents for composite adsorbent
development. For similar data indices, composite adsorbents yielded a higher adsorption capacity. This suggests
that composite adsorbents (especially with constituents of polymers, resins and nanoparticles) perform better for
MB uptake. Though polymers and resins had the highest mean, the highest median was for activated carbon.
Composite adsorbent was the second highest for mean, median and number of adsorbents above the 1000 mg/g
threshold. It was surmised from the analysis that polymers, resins and composites are the best classes of ad­
sorbents for MB uptake.

1. Introduction activities of the textile, dyeing, paper, rubber, pharmaceuticals and

Over one-third of the global available fresh water sources are utilised
in agricultural, domestic and industrial activities [1]. These lead to the
release of pollutants such as dyes, heavy metals, pharmaceutical com­
pounds and pesticides into water [2–4]. Based on the high premium
placed on the availability of clean water sources by the sustainable
development goals, research efforts on water pollution remediation have
increased [5–7]. Dyes are released into the environment due to the
cosmetic industries [8–10]. For the dyeing process, for example, up to
15% of the dyes are lost [9]. Even at low concentrations, synthetic dyes
are undesirable in the environment [8,11,12]. They have high toxicity
and possess carcinogenic and mutagenic characteristics [13,14].
Methylene blue (MB) is a heterocyclic aromatic compound with the
IUPAC name 3,7-bis (dimethylamino)-phenothiazin-5-ium chloride. The
chemical structure is shown in Fig. 1. MB is also known as methyl­
thioninium chloride and can be used as a medication for treating

* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemical Engineering, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P.M.B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: oshea.ighalo@yahoo.com, jo.ighalo@unizik.edu.ng (J.O. Ighalo), ca.igwegbe@unizik.edu.ng (C.A. Igwegbe).
1
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1161-2147.
2
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8709-100X.
3
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2104-3582.
4
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6615-5361.
5
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5766-7047.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2021.105658
Received 20 April 2021; Received in revised form 30 April 2021; Accepted 8 May 2021
Available online 16 May 2021
2213-3437/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Class C – Biochar
Class D – Clays and minerals
Class E – Polymers and resins
Class F – Nanoparticles
Class G – Composites adsorbent
Based on these classes, the literature was analysed. The performance
of each class of adsorbent was discussed as stand-alone then compari­
sons were made across various adsorbent classes to help draw important
observations and trends. The method of adsorption capacity determi­
Fig. 1. Chemical structure of methylene blue dye (N – Nitrogen, S – Sulphur).
nation and the adsorbent specific surface area (SSA) is also stated. The
key process parameters (temperature and pH) at which the optimum
values are achieved are also reported for better specificity of the results.
methemoglobinemia or as a synthetic dye for textiles. The latter is the
All analysis tables were sorted in decreasing magnitude of maximum
more widely known application. MB is a cationic because of the nitrogen
adsorption capacity and values are reported to four significant figures. It
and sulphur atoms in its structure which makes it possess a positive
was important to report the core results data within the paper so that it
charge after ionisation [15].
can serve as a reference point for other researchers for comparing their
A number of processes have been utilised for MB uptake and these
adsorbents’ performance and to know if their findings represent prog­
include photodegradation [16], electro-coagulation [17,18], ozonation
ress in the status quo.
[19,20], membrane processes [21–23] and biological processes [24,25].
Adsorption is of advantage to these processes because it can handle
3. Defining the adsorbents classes and listing empirical results
pollutants at low concentration, it is low-cost, can be regenerated and
does not leave behind chemical residues [26,27].
3.1. Class A adsorbents (biosorbents)
Within the last decade, several key papers have reviewed MB
adsorption taking various approaches. The first and most important
Biosorbents are a class of adsorbents derived from biomass and other
review on MB adsorption was by Rafatullah et al. [28]. The focus was on
bio-materials that do not undergo any thermochemical breakdown
low-cost adsorbents alone and did not cover the entire spectrum of the
before utilisation. The key feature of biosorbents is that they retain the
different adsorbent types. Though comprehensive, the review was
original composition of the source bio-material. For the case of biomass,
published over a decade ago and much work has been done since then.
the constituents start degrading at > 300 ◦ C [33]. Any biomass material
Mohammed et al. [9] reviewed MB adsorption with a focus also on
processed at a lower temperature can still be considered as a biosorbent.
low-cost adsorbents. Recently, Mashkoor and Nasar [1] reviewed MB
The plant part can be the leaves [34–36], bark [37], husk [38,39], peels
adsorption by magnetic adsorbents. Santoso et al. [29] conducted a
[40,41], flower spikes [42], seeds [43], leaves [44,45], stem [46] and
comprehensive review on MB adsorption albeit with carbon-based
living or dead cells of microorganism [47,48]. Biosorbents can also be
adsorbent.
from animal sources such as wool fibres [49], egg shells [50] and baker’s
The reason for the choice of MB in this study is the massive amount of
yeast [51]. Though biosorbents do not possess a very large surface area,
literature being churned out on the subject without any proper synthesis
the abundance of various functional groups on the material affords it the
of the available knowledge. This is unsurprising as MB is the most
capability of MB uptake by a variety of physico-chemical interaction
commonly utilised dye [9]. Trying out new adsorbent materials and new
mechanisms [52,53]. The performance of modified and unmodified
modification techniques are good but there is a need to summarise
biosorbents for the uptake of MB used in this analysis is summarised in
findings so researchers can understand where the best prospects are
Table 1 reported to four significant figures and sorted in decreasing
[30]. Understanding the best adsorbent class and their performance
order of magnitude.
relative to other adsorbent classes will help shape the direction of the
research area. This is an important gap in knowledge that needs to be
3.2. Class B adsorbents (activated carbon)
explored.
In view of this, the aim of this review is to analyse the performance of
Activated carbon (AC) is a highly porous carbonaceous material
different classes of adsorbents for MB dye uptake based on their
produced by the carbonisation and activation of biomass [120]. It can be
maximum adsorption capacity. Over five hundred (500) papers have
activated chemically by acids, alkalis and salts or activated physically by
been published on MB adsorption in the five (5) years. These will form
steam or CO2. Using chemical activation, the reagents are usually
the basis for this literature analysis.
impregnated under wet or dry conditions [121] v. At the devolatilisation
of the biomass material at high temperatures, these reagents help to
2. Methodology for literature analysis
initiate tortuous and highly porous features in the microstructure of the
residual carbon there leading to high surface areas [34,122]. Chemical
The scope of the literature considered in this study was all papers on
activation has an advantage over physical activation because it requires
the adsorption of MB from 2016 to the current time. This was done
lesser processing temperature and time [123]. The developed carbons
irrespective of the type of adsorbent used. The papers were sourced from
can be microporous (pore diameter < 2 nm), mesoporous (pore diam­
google scholar. The index for the analysis of adsorbent performance was
eter 2–50 nm) or macroporous (pore diameter > 50 nm) [124,125].
the maximum adsorption capacity. Though the maximum removal ef­
The main feature of AC is its high specific surface area (usually above
ficiency was reported, it was not the basis of the analysis. It has been
700 m2/g). Adsorption being a surface phenomenon, the large surface
explained that the removal efficiency is overly dependent on the choice
area of AC makes it suitable for the application. Commercial AC can be
of operational parameters such as the initial concentration of the
in powdered (PAC) or granulated (GAC) form [126] and both forms have
adsorbate and the dosage of the adsorbent [31,32]. This makes it un­
been used in adsorption application [127,128]. Commercial AC usually
suitable for making a comparison across different research papers. On
has a high cost hence researchers are now exploring low-cost alternative
the other hand, the maximum adsorption capacity gives a better repre­
feedstock for AC production [129]. The nature of these low-cost alter­
sentation of the adsorbents’ intrinsic potential for MB. The adsorbents
natives also affects the properties of the AC developed [130,131]. The
were classed as follows:
performance of modified and unmodified activated carbon for the up­
Class A – Biosorbents
take of MB used in this analysis is summarised in Table 2 reported to four
Class B – Activated carbon
significant figures and sorted in decreasing order of magnitude.

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K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 1
Adsorption performance of MB by class A adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Highest RE qmax (mg/ pH Temp Method of qmax SSA (m2/ Ref.
% g) (◦ C) determination g)

Ultrasound pre-treated pomelo peel – 7041 – 30.0 Langmuir – [54]

Neem oil modified lignocellulose 100 2000 6.0 30.0 Langmuir – [55]
Biosorbent from sugarcane bagasse 90.4 1272 – 25.0 Sips – [56]
Biosorbent from glycerol 100 1050 7.0 25.0 Experiments 21.00 [57]
Alkali modified lignocellulose 95.0 769.0 6.0 30.0 Langmuir – [55]
Modified Biosorbent from Bamboo – 702.2 4.0 50.0 Langmuir 26.25 [58]
Sesame straw/citric acid – 650.0 8.0 25.0 Langmuir – [59]
k-Carrageenan/Sodium alginate grafted Cellulosic textile – 614.3 – 22.0 Langmuir – [60]
Piaçava fibre 75.0 579.5 10 45.0 Langmuir – [61]
Aegle marmelos leaves 99.7 500.0 – 30.0 Langmuir 110.2 [62]
Biosorbent from Elaeis guineensis leaves 88.7 500.0 6.0 53.0 Langmuir 2.590 [63]
Corncobs 99.9 490.0 6.0 40.0 Experiments – [64]
Biosorbent from Lemna major 100 488.0 5.0 30.0 Langmuir – [65]
Garlic straw 82.1 476.2 7.0 50.0 Langmuir – [66]
Artocarpus camansi peel 90.0 409.1 – 25.0 Experiments 1519 [67]
Salix babylonica leaves powder 99.4 374.9 7.0 23.0 Experiments – [68]
Modified Orange peel – 336.3 6.2 25.0 Langmuir – [69]
Agro-food organic waste 100 285.0 10 25.0 Experiments 471.9 [70]
Biosorbent from pectin – 284.1 – 30.0 Langmuir – [71]
Sesame straw/tartaric acid – 280.0 8.0 25.0 Langmuir – [59]
Olive tree pruning compost – 277.8 5.0 60.0 Langmuir – [72]
Rosemary plant biomass 52.9 270.3 – – Langmuir 1.400 [73]
Biosorbent from Pterospermum acerifolium 99.7 250.0 6.0 30.0 Langmuir – [74]
Maize silk powder 93.5 234.1 – 25.0 Langmuir 0.002 [75]
Biosorbent from Citrus limetta 98.2 227.3 9.0 25.0 Langmuir – [76]
Biosorbent from Metroxylon sagu/KOH – 212.8 – 25.0 Langmuir 549.4 [77]
Biosorbent from Abelmoschus esculentus 95.6 205.7 7.6 30.0 Experiments – [78]
NaOH activated coffee husk 93.5 199.7 7.6 – Langmuir – [79]
Walnut shell powder 93.0 196.9 6.8 50.0 Langmuir – [80]
Hylocereus undatus peels – 192.3 5.6 30.0 Langmuir – [81]
Watermelon rind – 188.7 – 30.0 Langmuir 0.357 [82]
Salvia mitiorrziza Bge roots/Na2CO3 – 178.6 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 1.560 [83]
Biosorbent from Aleurites Moluccana seeds – 178.0 6.0 55.0 Langmuir 54.56 [84]
Ungrafted cellulosic textile – 171.4 – 22.0 Experiments – [60]
Sesame straw powder – 170.0 8.0 25.0 Langmuir – [59]
Soybean hulls > 96.0 169.9 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [85]
Rice straws/citric acid – 164.2 6.0 – Langmuir 0.589 [86]
Salvia mitiorrziza Bge roots/citric acid – 161.3 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [83]
Pinus radiata cones 100 136.7 7.0 35.0 Langmuir 0.338 [87]
Olive tree pruning biomass – 129.9 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [72]
Physically activated coffee husk 92.5 129.4 7.9 – Langmuir – [79]
Biosorbent from Cucumis sativus 85.2 122.4 8.0 25.0 Experiments – [88]
Rice straws/citric acid/acrylamide – 120.8 6.0 – Langmuir 0.366 [86]
Lathyrus sativus husk + H3PO4 98.9 113.2 5.0 30.0 Langmuir 38.64 [89]
Tea waste 98.0 113.1 – 35.0 Langmuir 0.913 [90]
Coriandrum sativum seeds 98.1 107.5 – 25.0 Langmuir – [43]
Lathyrus sativus husk + H2SO4 98.7 104.3 6.0 30.0 Langmuir 23.97 [89]
Biosorbent from Eugenia uniflora – 103.6 6.5 55.0 Experiments – [91]
Biosorbent from Pinus durangensis – 102.0 10 35.0 Langmuir 0.400 [92]
Salvia mitiorrziza Bge roots 95.8 100.0 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [83]
Lathyrus sativus husk 98.0 98.33 4.0 30.0 Langmuir 3.100 [89]
Egg shells – 94.90 – 25.0 Langmuir – [50]
Biosorbent from Agrobacterium fabrum – 91.00 11 25.0 Experiments – [93]
Saw palmetto – 90.90 6.0 60.0 Langmuir – [94]
Rice straws/acrylamide – 90.50 6.0 – Langmuir 0.906 [86]
Silica coated soya waste 97.1 90.40 7.0 25.0 Experiments – [95]
Terminalia catappa shell/Nitric acid 90.6 88.62 5.0 25.0 Experiments 69.88 [96]
Oil tea shell/Trametes versicolor 84.0 85.70 6.5 25.0 Langmuir 0.778 [97]
Biosorbent from Metroxylon sagu – 83.48 – 25.0 Langmuir 246.4 [77]
Biosorbent Saccharum arundinaceum 93.0 76.92 10 30.0 Langmuir 30.49 [98]
Sugarcane bagasse 24.0 76.00 – 25.0 Langmuir 829.0 [99]
Biosorbent from cumin seeds 99.0 73.53 7.0 27.0 Langmuir – [100]
Oil tea shell/Pycnoporus sp. 89.0 72.50 6.5 25.0 Langmuir 0.807 [97]
Hazelnut shell/2-acrylamide-2-amidesulfonic acid – 68.03 5.6 30.0 Langmuir 4.445 [101]
NaOH modified Rice husk – 65.00 11 55.0 Langmuir – [39]
Oil tea shell 80.0 64.40 6.5 25.0 Langmuir 0.535 [97]
Azadirachta indica leaves – 60.61 10 – Langmuir – [102]
Pristine baker’s yeast – 60.09 6.0 35.0 Langmuir 107.0 [51]
Phragmites australis biomass 82.0 58.82 6.5 25.0 Langmuir – [103]
Rice husk (physically activated) – 56.40 11 55.0 Langmuir – [39]
Biosorbent from walnut seed 97.1 56.13 6.0 45.0 Langmuir 3.120 [104]
Biosorbent from soursop 91.6 55.40 – 25.0 Langmuir – [56]
Date palm sawdust 96.0 53.94 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 43.40 [105]
(continued on next page)

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K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 1 (continued )
Adsorbent name Highest RE qmax (mg/ pH Temp Method of qmax SSA (m2/ Ref.
% g) (◦ C) determination g)

Eucalyptus sawdust 93.0 53.47 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 42.30 [105]

MCC from oil palm fronds pulp – 52.81 – – Langmuir 5.640 [106]
Cortadera selloana flower spikes – 52.63 – 50.0 Langmuir – [42]
Sour lemon sawdust 93.0 52.35 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 41.50 [105]
Rice husk biosorbent – 52.20 11 55.0 Langmuir – [39]
Rice straw – 43.82 6.0 – Langmuir 1.286 [86]
Modified Peanut husk – 43.00 – 40.0 Langmuir – [38]
Organosolv lignin from Rice Straw – 40.02 – 20.0 Langmuir – [107]
Biosorbent from Paliurus spina-christi 82.2 37.80 – 45.0 Experiments – [108]
Biosorbent from Metroxylon sagu – 36.82 – 25.0 Langmuir 75.60 [77]
Biosorbent from coffee husk – 34.85 5.5 25.0 Langmuir 31.30 [109]
Potato leaves powder 87.0 33.30 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [110]
Avena fatua seed husk – 32.05 8.0 35.0 Langmuir – [111]
Potato stem powder 82.0 27.00 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [110]
Haloxylon recurvum plant stem – 22.93 – – Langmuir – [46]
Biosorbent from dried cactus 90.0 14.04 5.4 25.0 Langmuir – [112]
MCC from oil palm fronds 90.9 12.85 10 27.0 Langmuir 9.470 [113]
Wool fibre 85.0 12.06 6.5 25.0 Langmuir 259.0 [49]
Wool fibre/citric acid 75.0 9.670 6.5 25.0 Langmuir – [49]
MCC 93.0 4.950 – 25.0 Langmuir – [114]
Biosorbent from natural cactus 61.0 3.440 5.4 25.0 Langmuir – [112]
Shells of Anadara uropigimelana 93.6 1.000 10.4 25.0 Langmuir 2.820 [115]
Banana peels 90.0 0.124 4.0 – Langmuir – [116]
Biosorbent from Punica granatun 92.7 – 7.0 25.0 Experiments – [117]
Geopolymer from rice husk, metakaolin, palm oil ash & blast furnace 86.8 – 3.0 25.0 – 5.800 [118]
blast
Biosorbent from olive cake – – – – – – [119]

3.3. Class C adsorbents (biochar)
Biochar is the residue of biomass thermochemical processing such as
pyrolysis [211,212], air gasification [213,214], steam gasification [215,
216] and retort carbonisation [217,218]. Biochar is different from AC.
Usually, these thermochemical processes are conducted with more in­
terest being in the fluid products (liquid and gaseous species) hence the
produced char is considered a residue. Though biochar is a pyrogenic
carbon-rich material like AC, it does not possess a very high specific
surface area and unique pore properties like the latter. The char is
termed ‘biochar’ since the feedstock for the processes is biomass [219].
Char from hydrothermal carbonisation is however termed ‘hydrochar’
[220]. A major advantage of biochar utilisation as adsorbents is its
biodegradability [221]. Even if some amount of the adsorbent is unre­
covered and leaves with treated effluent, it does not bear any ecotoxi­
cological risk. This is its major advantage over polymeric adsorbents
which might not be bio-degradable and nano-particle adsorbents which
have serious ecotoxicity [222,223]. The performance of modified and
unmodified biochar for the uptake of MB used in this analysis is sum­
marised in Table 3 reported to four significant figures and sorted in
decreasing order of magnitude.
3.4. Class D adsorbents (clays and minerals)
Clays and their minerals are natural earth materials that have small
particle sizes and a porous layered structure with a large surface area
[256]. This allows for strong physical, chemical interactions with dis­
solved species such as MB in aqueous media [257]. Clays are
alumina-silicates with two building blocks: aluminium octahedron
(gibbsite sheet) and silicon–oxygen tetrahedron (Si2O5)2− [258]. The
tetrahedral sheets have tetrahedrons within them which share three in
every four oxygen atoms. The main classes of clay are kaolinite, mont­
morillonite, Illite, bentonite and chlorite [258]. Most natural clays are a
mixture of different types of these classes of clay [259]. Clays can be
modified in a variety of ways to improve their adsorption capacity for
pollutants but the most popular of them is the use of surfactants
[260–262]. Metals can also be impregnated into the clay matrix as a
means of modification. Due to the structural nature of clay, this
impregnation takes place either by pillaring [263–265] or intercalation
[264,266]. The principle of intercalation and pillaring of clays is shown
in Fig. 2 [267]. The advantage of intercalation and pillaring is that it
helps the clay to prevent swelling upon hydration thereby instilling a
permanent porosity on the material. The performance of clays and
minerals for the uptake of MB is summarised in Table 4 reported to four
significant figures and sorted in decreasing order of magnitude.
3.5. Class E adsorbents (polymers and resins)
Polymers are substances with long repeated chains of a specific
chemical unit (known as a monomer) [297]. They can either be from
natural sources or synthetic sources. Due to their ease of manipulation
by chemical modification, a broad spectrum of chemical and physical
properties can be achieved by polymers [298]. Wide range of properties
by consequence yields wide application areas. Both natural and syn­
thetic polymers have been used as adsorbents. Resins are solids or highly
viscous polymeric liquids of natural or synthetic origins [299]. Different
types of polymeric adsorbents have their advantages and limitations.
Bio-polymers like chitosan and cyclodextrin for example are easily de­
natured at high process conditions and are unsuitable for use in packed
columns due to their physical nature [300]. Polymeric adsorbents have
the major advantage of being easily tuneable to achieve selectivi­
ty/affinity for specific pollutant species using various chemical modifi­
cation techniques [300]. The major limitation is its cost. It is relatively
more expensive to synthesise than for other adsorbent classes. Further­
more, inorganic/synthetic polymeric adsorbents are not biodegradable
and if not fully recovered before effluent release can have a deleterious
effect on the environment. The performance of polymers and resins for
the uptake of MB used in this analysis is summarised in Table 5 reported
to four significant figures and sorted in decreasing order of magnitude.
3.6. Class F adsorbents (nanoparticles)
Nanoparticles are a class of materials that have sizes between 1 and
100 nm [352]. Due to their very small size, they possess large surface
areas [353]. Materials with large surface areas will always be favoured
for adsorptive applications because adsorption is a surface phenomenon.

4
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 2
Adsorption performance of MB by class B adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Highest RE% qmax (mg/g) pH Temp (◦ C) Method of qmax determination SSA (m2/g) Ref.

Commercial AC – 2648 – 25.0 Langmuir 744.0 [99]

AC from waste paper 99.7 1657 7.0 25.0 Experiments 1987 [132]
AC from Petroleum pitch – 1585 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 1430 [133]
AC from Mangosteen peel – 1193 9.0 – Experiments 1622 [134]
AC from Sugarcane bagasse 99.0 1150 – 25.0 Langmuir 829.0 [99]
AC from Eucalyptus residue – 1000 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 1545 [135]
AC from spent coffee ground 99.6 986.8 11 30.0 Sips 704.2 [136]
AC from fox nutshell 99.9 968.7 – 30.0 Experiments 2869 [137]
AC from sorghum 100 934.6 6.6 55.0 Langmuir 1430 [138]
AC from poly(vinyl alcohol) – 925.9 – 45.0 Langmuir – [139]
AC from low rank coal 841.9 8.1 30.0 Langmuir 1951 [140]
AC from Almond shell 100 833.3 8.0 – Langmuir 2054 [141]
AC from shrimp shell 100 826.4 9.0 20.0 Langmuir 560.6 [142]
Modified Sawdust Calcined @500 ◦ C – 819.7 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 748.0 [143]
AC from waste carpets 90.0 769.2 8.0 35.0 Langmuir 953.0 [144]
AC from matured tea leaf – 714.3 – 30.0 Langmuir 1169 [145]
AC from KOH activation – 709.3 5.5 – Experiments 1534 [146]
AC from Reed – 704.2 – 30.0 Experiments 1000 [147]
AC from sycamore 98.4 644.0 7.0 30.0 Dubinin-Radushkevich 2434 [148]
AC from Date press cake 98.5 613.8 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 2632 [149]
Modified Sawdust Calcined @400 ◦ C – 526.3 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 486.0 [143]
AC from Arundo donax 99.8 480.8 – 45.0 Langmuir 1784 [150]
AC from cashew shell – 476.0 7.0 – Experiments 1871 [151]
AC from loofah sponge – 455.6 – 60.0 Experiments 733.0 [152]
AC from bean dreg 99.0 434.8 10 – Langmuir 927.7 [153]
Modified Sawdust Calcined @300 ◦ C – 416.7 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 328.0 [143]
AC from Walnut shells – 400.1 7.0 45.0 Experiments 1627 [154]
AC from tomato waste – 400.0 6.3 30.0 Langmuir 787.0 [155]
AC – 400.0 – 25.00 Langmuir 254.0 [156]
AC from Ashitaba waste – 381.9 7.0 45.0 Experiments 1228 [154]
AC from Persea species 98.0 365.6 10 20.0 Experiments – [157]
Fe/ AC from Acorn shell – 357.1 – 25.0 Langmuir 870.5 [158]
AC from paper 99.9 350.0 7.0 20.0 Experiments 1670 [159]
AC from cotton – 342.9 – – Langmuir 1342 [160]
Viscose-based AC fibre felts – 325.8 6.0 30.3 Langmuir 1614 [161]
AC from Elaeagnus stone 98.4 324.7 7.0 45.0 Langmuir 1588 [162]
AC from Ceiba pentandra seed – 324.0 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [163]
AC from Acorn shell – 303.0 – 25.0 Langmuir 940.1 [158]
AC from sawdust – 303.0 – 30.0 Langmuir 2254 [164]
AC from watermelon rind – 300.0 5.6 30.0 Experiments 0.357 [165]
AC from waste – 289.8 – 50.0 Langmuir 1312 [166]
AC from Mango peel – 277.8 6.0 30.0 Langmuir – [167]
AC/ Iron/ Cerium – 264.5 40.0 Langmuir 776.2 [168]
AC from Citrullus lanatus rind 100 259.7 – 55.0 Langmuir 1156 [169]
AC from banana peel – 259.7 11 30.0 Experiments 1.730 [170]
AC From Grass waste – 258.2 10 45.0 Experiments 756.3 [171]
AC from Coconut leaf 97.6 250.0 – 30.0 Langmuir 631.6 [172]
AC from Sugar beet pulp – 250.0 – – Experiments 1029 [173]
AC from sodium carboxymethyl cellulose – 249.6 7.0 25.0 Experiments 428.0 [174]
AC from Pongamia pinnata fruit hulls – 239.4 – 50.0 Langmuir 828.3 [175]
Surfactant modified AC 96.6 232.5 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [176]
AC from Banana trunk waste 99.9 227.3 – 25.0 Langmuir 1173 [177]
AC from CO2 activation – 221.0 7.0 – Experiments 1012 [178]
Arginine modified AC 88.0 219.9 8.0 25.0 Langmuir – [179]
AC from charcoal 99.8 200.0 8.0 23.0 Langmuir-Hinshelwood 366.8 [180]
AC from pumpkin peels – 198.2 7.0 50.0 Experiments 3.600 [181]
AC from Pt Nanocomposite – 195.7 5.8 25.0 Experiments – [182]
AC – 192.3 – 40.0 Langmuir 912.0 [168]
AC from fish waste – 184.4 – 30.0 Langmuir 1867 [183]
Aluminium modified AC 98.0 181.2 – – Langmuir 863.0 [184]
Commercial AC (PAC 200) – 176.0 7.0 25.0 Experiments 961.8 [185]
AC from Posidonia oceanica leaves > 95.0 175.4 5.8 23.0 Langmuir 146.7 [186]
AC from Acacia mangium wood 97.3 159.9 – 27.0 Experiments 1161 [187]
AC from coconut wastes – 151.5 5.6 50.0 Langmuir – [188]
AC from coconut shell 95.4 149.3 6.0 30.0 Langmuir – [189]
AC from Coconut leaves – 149.3 6.0 50.0 Langmuir – [190]
AC from olive ash 97.2 149.1 – 30.0 Langmuir 289.1 [191]
AC from chitosan 99.5 143.5 11 50.0 Langmuir 318.4 [192]
AC from medlar 94.1 142.9 12 25.0 Langmuir – [193]
AC from glycerol – 139.0 7.0 25.0 Experiments 464.0 [57]
Commercial AC (Darco KB-M) – 115.0 7.0 25.0 Experiments 992.7 [185]
AC from kernel shell – 112.0 7.0 30.0 Experiments 1003 [194]
AC – 111.9 – – Langmuir 743.7 [195]
AC from Rosemary plant biomass 88.6 110.6 10 30.0 Experiments 7.100 [73]
(continued on next page)

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K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 2 (continued )
Adsorbent name Highest RE% qmax (mg/g) pH Temp (◦ C) Method of qmax determination SSA (m2/g) Ref.

Carbon fibre aerogel from cotton – 102.2 – 25.0 Langmuir 457.7 [196]
AC from corn cobs 99.9 100.0 7.0 27.0 Langmuir – [197]
AC from corncob – 82.71 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [198]
Commercial AC (Darco S-51) – 80.00 7.0 25.0 Experiments 599.5 [185]
AC from Banana trunk – 64.66 – – Experiments – [199]
AC from rice straw 99.7 62.50 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [200]
AC from Phragmites australis biomass 96.6 62.50 6.5 25.0 Langmuir – [103]
AC from sawdust 99.2 58.14 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [201]
AC from Ackee apple pods 99.9 49.99 6.2 25.0 Experiments 812.8 [202]
AC – 48.30 – 25.0 Langmuir – [203]
AC from Fiscus carica 85.0 47.62 7.8 30.0 Langmuir – [204]
AC from steel slag – 41.62 7.0 20.0 Experiments 66.65 [205]
AC from sawdust – 30.00 7.0 30.0 Experiments 468.0 [194]
AC from Coconut fibres – 21.30 3.0 – Experiments 1556 [206]
AC from textile – 17.83 6.2 60.0 Langmuir 221.5 [207]
AC from tannery leather – 15.00 7.0 30.0 Experiments 316.0 [194]
AC from waste tyre 90.0 1.050 3.0 25.0 Langmuir 396.0 [208]
AC from Banana peels 94.0 0.125 4.0 – Langmuir 30.49 [116]
AC from Groundnut shell > 99.0 – 9.0 – Experiments – [209]
AC from hydnocarpus pentandra 98.8 – 7.8 25.0 Experiments – [210]

Table 3
Adsorption performance of MB by class C adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Highest RE% qmax (mg/g) pH Temp (◦ C) Method of qmax determination SSA (m2/g) Ref.

Polyaminocarboxylated hydrochar from bamboo 97.0 1249 – 50.0 Langmuir – [224]

Hydrochar from bamboo – 1212 – 50.0 Langmuir 28.19 [225]
Carbonised bamboo leaves + citric acid 99.9 725.0 7.5 32.0 Langmuir 393.3 [226]
Biochar from Camellia oleifera seed shell 94.0 541.4 – 25.0 Langmuir 1882 [227]
Biochar from Gelidiella acerosa – 535.4 – 50.0 Langmuir 926.4 [228]
Activated Ceiba pentandra seed – 469.4 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [163]
KOH modified Biochar from EFB – 435.0 10 50.0 Langmuir 2114 [229]
Biochar from coffee husk 99.7 418.8 7.0 30.0 Langmuir – [230]
Biochar from Empty fruit bunch – 400.0 10 50.0 Langmuir 1036 [229]
Modified biochar from Eichornia crassipes 99.5 395.0 10 30.0 Experiments 57.08 [231]
Lacosperma secundiflorum hydrochar 96.0 359.0 7.0 30.0 Langmuir 1135 [232]
Ball milled sugarcane bagasse biochar – 354.0 7.5 20.0 Langmuir 10.80 [233]
Biochar from Ramie residues 96.3 257.3 25.0 Langmuir – [234]
Woody Biochar – 256.4 – 30.0 Langmuir – [235]
Sheep manure biochar 97.1 238.3 – – Langmuir 160.5 [236]
Mesoporous AC coconut shell based hydrochar – 200.0 7.0 30.0 Langmuir 876.1 [237]
Biochar from bamboo 80.0 184.1 5.0 25.0 Langmuir 298.6 [238]
Biochar from vermicompost – 174.2 7.0 – Langmuir 24.33 [239]
Biochar from oxidised weeds – 161.3 7.4 50.0 Langmuir 5.138 [240]
Solid waste of beer industry – 161.0 6.5 25.0 Langmuir 80.50 [241]
Rabbit faeces biochar 98.0 151.3 – – Experiments 21.14 [236]
Biochar from Cortadera selloana flower spikes – 133.3 – 50.0 Langmuir – [42]
Wet-torrefied Chlorella sp. microalgal biochar 89.8 129.6 – – Langmuir 2.658 [242]
Biochar from Eucalyptus sheathiana bark 90.0 104.2 11.3 35.0 Langmuir 73.00 [243]
Pig manure biochar 96.2 101.6 – – Experiments 13.36 [236]
Biochar from Oak wood 98.2 97.55 7.0 50.0 Langmuir 245.7 [244]
Biochar from wheat straw/Magnetic field 98.0 62.50 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [245]
Biochar from wheat straw 81.6 46.60 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [245]
Biochar from corn cob 96.0 46.28 12 25.0 Langmuir – [246]
Biochar from date seed – 42.57 3.7 25.0 Langmuir 104.2 [247]
Biochar from weeds – 39.68 7.4 50.0 Langmuir 40.46 [240]
Biochar from reed – 37.18 8.0 25.0 Sips 37.50 [248]
Biochar from municipal waste 99.9 33.30 6.5 30.0 Experiments – [249]
Biochar from Pulp and paper sludge 97.0 33.00 12 – Langmuir 174.0 [250,248,250,248]
Sewage sludge-derived biochar 100 29.85 – 45.0 Langmuir 25.00 [251]
Graphene-like carbon from sugar 99.5 20.00 8.0 – Experiments 674.6 [252]
Biochar from Oil palm shell – 20.00 – – Experiments 410.0 [253]
Sewage sludge/Tea waste biochar 100 19.38 – 45.0 Langmuir – [254]
Ball-milling biochar – 18.30 – – Langmuir 277.4 [195]
Unmilled sugarcane bagasse biochar – 17.20 7.5 20.0 Langmuir – [233]
Pig manure biochar microparticles – 16.30 – 25.0 Langmuir – [203]
Biochar from Casuarina equisetifolia – 4.970 – 40.0 Experiments – [255]
Pine wood biochar microparticles – 3.990 – 25.0 Langmuir – [203]
Cardboard biochar microparticles – 1.660 – 25.0 Langmuir – [203]

Nanoparticles can be synthesised from organic and inorganic sources [358–360], and others [361–364]. For chemical vapour deposition, the
using a variety of techniques which include chemical vapour deposition nanoparticles are synthesised by chemical reactions in the gaseous phase
[354], precipitation [355], sol-gel [356,357], hydrothermal synthesis in the vicinity of a heated surface [365]. Precipitation is the most

6
K.O. Iwuozor et al.
Fig. 2. The principle of intercalation and pillaring of clays [267].
popular synthesis method as the nanoparticles are synthesised as pre­
cipitates from solutions [366]. Micro-emulsions can also be used. These
are thermodynamically stable isotropic dispersals of two ordinarily
immiscible water and oil phases in the presence of a surfactant [366].
The major drawback in the use of nanoparticles is their ecotoxicity if not
properly recovered from solution and released into the environment. In
recent times nanoparticles are now also been synthesised from green
sources from plant parts [363,367–369]. The performance of nano­
particles for the uptake of MB used in this analysis is summarised in
Table 6 reported to four significant figures and sorted in decreasing
order of magnitude.
3.7. Class G adsorbents (composites adsorbent)
In recent times, researchers have now increasingly investigated ways
to merge various classes of adsorbents to achieve better performance,
increased affinity for specific adsorbate or some other purpose. These
are referred to as composite adsorbents. A composite is a material with
two or more chemically and/or physically dissimilar components com­
bined to possess unique properties or characteristics for a specific
application [423,424]. Based on this, these types of adsorbent were
assigned a unique class in the analysis as they can possess properties
different from their parent constituents. A wide variety of composites
adsorbents have been developed for MB adsorption and their composi­
tions have cut across all classes of adsorbents. The performance of
composites adsorbent for the uptake of MB used in this analysis is
summarised in Table 7 reported to four significant figures and sorted in
7
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658
decreasing order of magnitude.
4. Comparing the different adsorbent classes
In this section, the performance of the different classes of adsorbent
was compared in terms of their adsorption capacity. Fig. 3 compares the
volume of research output of the different adsorbents classes. Compos­
ites adsorbents (31%), are the most frequently studied for MB uptake.
Other popularly used types are biosorbents (16%) and activated carbon
(16%). The popularity of biosorbents is due to their ease of preparation.
No special thermochemical processing is required. In most cases,
chemical modification is not used. The parent bio-materials is simply
ground, washed dried and used for the adsorption studies. This ease of
preparation makes it comparatively low-cost. The choice of activated
carbon could be due to its perceived suitability for adsorption the
adsorption process. Adsorption is a surface phenomenon hence high
surface area materials will always be deemed suitable. However, this
analysis will conform if it comparatively performs better than others.
Though composite adsorbents are the most popularly used, they are
made up of class A-F adsorbents. Fig. 4 presents a summary of the choice
of constituent for composite adsorbent development for MB uptake.
Polymers and resins (E) and organic and inorganic nanoparticles (F) are
favoured for composite adsorbent development. The popularity of
polymers and resins in this domain is their suitability in holding other
types of materials within their masses to form a compositionally het­
erogeneous by physically homogenous material. Nanoparticles are also
frequently employed because their small sizes allow them to penetrate
the matrix of another phase and be immobilised therein.
An analysis of the results in terms of the adsorption capacity is shown
in Table 8 and Fig. 5. The length of the line plots shows the relative size
of the research data published. The longest data line is for class G fol­
lowed by classes A and B. This is consistent with the observation in
Fig. 3. Fig. 5 reveals that for similar data indices, composite adsorbents
(G) are likelier to yield a higher adsorption capacity. This is followed by
E, B and F. The gives a better representation of the performance based on
overall data. The results for G in Table 8 might not always be highest due
to the negative bias of the large data size of G. This observation from
Fig. 5 reveals that composite adsorbents (especially with constituents of
polymers, resins and nanoparticles) are the best class of adsorbents for
MB uptake.
From Table 8, polymers and resins have the highest mean adsorption
capacity for MB uptake based on data from the last 5 years. This fol­
lowed by composites (G) and the lowest is biochar (C). The low per­
formance of biochar is not surprising. This is because they are usually
not produced with the intention of adsorbent utilisation. They are sim­
ply a residue from thermochemical processes. This means process pa­
rameters are usually not tailored or tuned (and are difficult to) for the
optimisation of favoured adsorptive properties. Though the mean gives a
good summary of the data, it does not show the skewness of the results
obtained to a particular trend. Though polymers and resins (F) had the
highest mean, the highest median was for activated carbon (B). This
shows that activated carbon had more elements within the data with
generally high adsorption capacity for MB. This study also considered
the number of adsorbents above the 1000 mg/g threshold. This
threshold shows the adsorbents that can remove more than their weight
of pollutants from the aqueous phase. Polymers and resins were once
again the highest in this domain with 21.5% of those tested having a
capacity > 1000 mg/g. This followed by G (11.2%).
From this analysis, it can be surmised that polymers, resins and
composites are the best classes of adsorbents for MB uptake. The higher
performance of G could be due to its flexibility as it allows the re­
searchers to tune/tailor specific properties of the material to target some
peculiarities of MB and improve its affinity/selectivity in the aqueous
phase. The high performance of polymers and resins could be due to a
variety of reasons. MB is a polycyclic aromatic compound. For most
polymeric materials, the material affords multiple types of chemical
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 4
Adsorption performance of MB by class D adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Highest RE% qmax (mg/g) pH Temp (◦ C) Method of qmax determination SSA (m2/g) Ref.

Modified montmorillonite – 781.3 8.0 45.0 Langmuir 6.504 [262]

Coal fly ash from mesoporous SiO2 – 323.6 10 25.0 Langmuir 497.0 [268]
Natural clay 98.2 322.6 – 50.0 Langmuir 76.97 [269,267]
Natural clay – 279.9 – 40.0 Langmuir 76.97 [270]
Activated red mud – 274.0 7.0 25.0 Experiments 381.0 [271]
Iraqi red kaolin clay 99.8 240.4 8.0 30.0 Langmuir 35.60 [272]
Red mud – 232.2 7.0 25.0 Experiments 207.0 [271]
Modified vermiculite – 207.0 – 24.0 Experiments – [273]
Turkish green clay – 195.7 9.0 25.0 Experiments 167.2 [274]
Modified palygorskite 93.8 187.6 – – Experiments – [275]
Bentonite – 175.7 – 30.0 Langmuir 92.30 [276]
Bentonite clay – 175.0 – – Langmuir – [277]
Modified diatomaceous earth 99.2 164.3 8.0 25.0 Dubinin-Radushkevich 195.0 [278]
Bentonite/EDTA – 161.0 – 30.0 Experiments – [279]
Mesoporous silica – 150.7 7.1 – Langmuir 364.0 [280]
Chemical-modified Diatomite 96.5 127.0 12 25.0 Experiments – [281]
Birnessite 99.1 113.0 9.0 40.0 Langmuir 211.3 [282]
Kaolin + HCl + NaOH 100 111.0 11.2 18.5 Experiments 45.00 [283]
Kaolinite/H2SO4 90.0 101.5 7.0 – Langmuir 179.6 [284]
Clay – 100.0 7.0 20.0 Langmuir 128.0 [285]
Clay – 100.0 – 25.0 Experiments – [286]
Amine-functionalised silica – 91.10 – 30.0 Langmuir – [287]
Palygorskite – 89.32 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [288]
Kaolinite 72.0 78.10 7.0 – Langmuir 13.60 [284]
Diatomite 65.0 72.00 12 25.0 Experiments – [281]
Modified pumice 98.7 69.00 8.9 33.2 Experiments – [289]
Meso-silica – 65.70 7.0 – Langmuir 1077 [290]
Montmorillonite 64.43 20 Langmuir 187.3 [291]
Serpentine 94.6 58.48 10 77.0 Langmuir 43.60 [292]
Palygorskite 99.3 57.47 – 25.0 Langmuir – [293]
Na2SiO3⋅5H2O/Fe2(SO4)3 80.5 53.79 9.0 – Freundlich 334.4 [294]
Kaolin 98.0 52.76 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 21.27 [295]
Na2SiO3⋅5H2O/NiSO4⋅7H2O 77.9 48.70 9.0 – Freundlich 211.7 [294]
Kaolin + HCl – 47.39 – – Langmuir 191.0 [283]
Kaolin – 46.94 – – Langmuir 14.00 [283]
Na2SiO3⋅5H2O/Cr2(SO4)3 70.5 41.41 9.0 – Freundlich 119.6 [294]
Fly ash-based Geopolymer 99.6 39.84 – 70.0 Experiments – [296]
Na2SiO3⋅5H2O/ZnSO4⋅7H2O 68.8 36.51 9.0 – Freundlich 19.73 [294]
Kaolin + Thermal treatment – 0.860 – – Langmuir 16.00 [283]

interactions that could facilitate MB uptake. If the adsorbent has ben­
zene rings, then uptake can be facilitated by π-π interactions (8–10 kJ/
mol). The presence of electronegative heteroatoms like Nitrogen and
sulphur on the MB structure (see Fig. 1) could facilitate hydrogen bonds
(4–40 kJ/mol) with the hydrogen on the polymers or resins. Other
physical interactions like ion – dipole (5–60 kJ/mol), dipole – dipole
(0.5–15 kJ/mol), ion – induced dipole (0.4–4 kJ/mol), dipole – induced
dipole (0.4–4 kJ/mol) and dispersion (4–40 kJ/mol) interactions are
also possible. Based on the nature of the polymer, it could possess an
energetically homogenous or heterogeneous surface. These will affect
the nature of bond energy and the energetically heterogeneous surface
might allow stronger chemical interactions first followed by weaker
interactions on the successive layers of the multilayer. Hence covalent
(200–800 kJ/mol) and ionic (40–400 kJ/mol) interactions or complexes
could form the first layer of uptake before successive layers by physical
mechanisms.
5. Discussions on the mechanism of MB adsorption
In this section, the mechanism of MB adsorption is elaborated. The
discussion will proceed with a focus on the MB molecule and how the
nature of the adsorbent will influence the mechanism of uptake. Elec­
trostatic interaction between the adsorbent and MB depends on the so­
lution pH. The acid dissociation constant of MB is 3.14 [580]. This is the
pH value above which the dye will exist in its cationic (positively
charged) form in solution. In the pH regime > 3.14, the possibility of
electrostatic attraction with a negatively charged adsorbent surface or
repulsion against a positively charged surface is significant. The net
surface charge of the adsorbent (to determine if it will be attractive or
repulsive) depends on its isoelectric point [581]. The isoelectric point
(or the point of zero charge) is the pH value at which the adsorbent will
have a net zero surface charge. At pH values greater than this, the
adsorbent has a net negative surface charge thereby facilitating uptake
by electrostatic attraction. This is why optimum pH for MB uptake can
sometimes go as high as 10–11. However, the isoelectric point is
dependent on the nature of the adsorbent material hence pH effects is
usually not similar for all adsorbents.
π-π interactions are induced by the stacking effect of electron-rich
regions of the benzene ring on the adsorbent with those on the adsor­
bate. This is possible for MB because it has three benzene rings, albeit
with two carbons substituted at the ‘para’ positions of the middle ring
(see Fig. 6). Adsorbents from clays, minerals and some types of poly­
meric materials might not be able to interact with MB by this mecha­
nism. Biochar and activated carbons with high aromaticity will favour
uptake by the mechanism. The aromaticity of the biochar is usually
elucidated by lower values of the H/C atomic ratio [582]. The H/C
values very close to 1 indicate high aromaticity as benzene has a H/C
ratio of 1. The presence of electronegative heteroatoms like nitrogen and
sulphur on the MB structure could also facilitate hydrogen bonds. This is
possible when the adsorbent surface possesses functional groups with
hydrogen atoms (Fig. 6). Hence, it can be surmised that electrostatic
attraction, π-π interactions and hydrogen bonds are the most important
chemical mechanisms of MB adsorption [583].
It is very difficult to notice the hydrophobic effect during MB uptake
due to its very high solubility. MB as a solubility of 43,600 mg/L at 25 ◦ C
[580]. Only compounds with lower solubility get this advantage during

8
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 5
Adsorption performance of MB by class E adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Highest RE qmax (mg/ pH Temp Method of qmax SSA (m2/ Ref.
% g) (◦ C) determination g)

Calcium alginate 84.6 3506 6.9 15.0 Langmuir – [21]

(B12H2−12 ) organic polymer – 3250 3.0 25.0 Langmuir – [301]
Starch-based hydrogel 95.2 2967 9.0 35.0 Langmuir – [302]
Poly(acrylic acid)-based hydrogel – 2895 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [303]
Modified calcium alginate 97.3 2358 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 13.56 [304]
Aminocarboxylate/maleic resin 99.4 2101 7.0 25.0 Experiments 3.560 [305]
Modified cellulose 97.7 1734 9.0 40.0 Langmuir – [306]
Al(III)-MOF 100 1666 6.4 25.0 Langmuir 976.0 [307]
Modified chitosan – 1579 6.0 25.0 Langmuir – [308]
Alginate from seaweed – 1317 4.0 25.0 Langmuir – [309]
Calcium alginate 78.0 1282 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [238]
WOx 1188 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 82.51 [310]
Fe3O4@SiO2 based organic polymers – 1153 – – Experiments 327.0 [311]
Alginate 75.5 1144 – 22.0 Langmuir – [312]
Waste tyre rubber 99.0 834.0 10 – Experiments – [313]
CMC/dimethyl diallylammonium chloride 98.6 709.2 10 25.0 Langmuir 0.265 [314]
Modified Chitin sorbent 79.8 568.0 – – Experiments – [315]
Sulfonated lignin-based hydrogels – 540.5 – 20.0 Experiments – [316]
Sodium alginate/NaH2PO4/Attapulgite 90.0 411.0 – 55.0 Experiments – [317]
Carboxymethyl cellulose – 333.3 7.0 – Langmuir – [318]
Poly (Acrylonitrile-co-Acrylic acid), Thiourea – 308.6 9.0 25.0 Langmuir 26.31 [319]
Modified chitosan 100 294.4 8.0 30.0 Langmuir 115.6 [320]
Graphene-melamine sponge – 286.5 – 25.0 Langmuir – [321,
319]
Acid cation exchanger – 262.0 8.5 35.0 Langmuir – [322]
Sulphonic groups functionalised Mxenes 59.9 221.2 2.0 85.0 Langmuir – [323]
Cellulose from Carex meyeriana 98.8 217.4 – 30.0 Langmuir – [324]
Sodium alginate 60.0 193.8 – 25.0 Langmuir – [317]
Polyaniline – 192.3 – – Langmuir – [325]
Macrogel polyvinyl alcohol 94.2 181.8 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 613.8 [326]
Polydopamine microspheres 98.4 161.3 – 25.0 Langmuir 13.00 [327]
Sodium alginate/PVA 45.0 157.2 – 25.0 Langmuir – [317]
Xanthan grafted acrylic acid 92.8 149.3 10 25.0 Langmuir – [328]
Cd(II) based MOF 94.3 149.0 – – Experiments – [329]
Hydroxyapatite-sodium alginate – 142.8 – 25.0 Langmuir 3.390 [330]
Poly(N-isopropyl acrylamide-co-itaconic acid) hydrogels 100 130.0 11 25.0 Experiments – [331]
Sodium alginate/NaH2PO4 38.0 126.5 – 25.0 Langmuir – [317]
Polyvinyl alcohol 61.3 123.3 6.0 – Langmuir – [332]
5-sulfosalicyclic modified lignin 99.8 101.4 5.8 45.0 Langmuir – [333]
Hemicellulose hydrogel – 95.60 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [334]
Chitin – 92.59 – – Langmuir – [315]
Methacrylic acid/methyl methacrylate/SiO2 – 91.32 9.0 45.0 Langmuir – [335]
Zr(IV)-MOF 80.9 91.00 9.0 25.0 Langmuir 906.0 [336]
Poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide-co-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) 60.0 88.45 – 25.0 Langmuir – [337]
hydrogel
Hydroxyapatite – 77.51 – 25.0 Langmuir 20.52 [330]
(Fe3O4/Polyacrylic acid)-MOF – 73.80 9.0 45.0 Langmuir 95.35 [338]
Modified silica aerogel – 65.74 – – Langmuir 880.5 [339]
Methacrylic acid/2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate/SiO2 – 56.63 9.0 45.0 Langmuir – [335]
Hydrophilic hydroxyl-group silica – 47.21 – – Langmuir 628.5 [339]
Ash geopolymer 94.3 45.81 10.5 – Langmuir – [340]
WO3 100. 35.95 – 45.0 Langmuir 87.00 [341]
Methacrylic acid/ethylene glycol dimethacrylate – 30.00 7.0 25.0 Experiments 961.8 [185]
Zeolite from Kaolin from Kalabsha, Egypt 90.5 21.41 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 502.2 [342]
Poly(4,4′ -diaminodiphenylmethane) 92.0 21.20 – 25.0 Experiments – [343]
Polypyrrole 97.0 19.96 – 28.0 Langmuir – [344]
Polyaniline 96.0 19.67 – 28.0 Langmuir – [344]
Polyzwitterionic resins 80.0 14.90 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [345]
Zeolite from Kaolin of Dehessa, Egypt 79.5 13.49 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 364.2 [342]
Zeolite from Kaolin of Saint Catherine, Egypt 69.1 11.13 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 398.7 [342]
Polypyrrole-coated cotton textile 96.0 6.830 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [346]
Zeolite/HCl 98.8 2.113 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 21.40 [347]
Zeolite/NaOH 52.2 1.089 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 6.500 [347]
Modified cellulose 89.2 – 6.0 25.0 Experiments – [348]
Chabazite > 85.0 – 5.0 25.0 Experiments – [349]
Clinoptilolite 67.0 – 9.0 25.0 – – [350]
Surface of a quartz cuvette 3.30 – 7.0 – Experiments – [351]

9
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 6
Adsorption performance of MB by class F adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Highest RE% qmax (mg/g) pH Temp (◦ C) Method of qmax determination SSA (m2/g) Ref.

Sulphonated graphene oxide – 2500 – 25.0 Langmuir – [370]

Graphene Oxide 98.6 2273 11.5 – Langmuir – [371]
γ-Alumina NPs 98.0 2210 9.0 60.0 Experiments 112.9 [372]
Mesoporous carbon 99.0 1666 – 45.0 Langmuir 885.0 [373]
Modified graphene 86.5 1429 5.0 45.0 Langmuir – [374]
Tris-Urea hydrogel – 1261 – – Experiments – [375]
Porphyrin-Calcium MOF – 952.0 – – Langmuir – [376]
Porphyrin-Magnesium MOF – 862.0 – – Langmuir – [376]
Si NPs 90.0 679.9 6.0 25.0 Sips 71.97 [377]
CNTs – 609.0 – – Experiments 205.0 [378]
Modified electrolytic manganese 97.3 599.0 12 20.0 Experiments 37.80 [379]
Amino functionalised Zr-based MOFs 88.9 571.5 9.0 45.0 Langmuir 953.7 [380]
Nanogel polyvinyl alcohol 95.0 416.6 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 1047 [326]
Sulfonic acid modified MIL-101 – 374.0 – 35.0 Langmuir – [381]
UiO-66 MOF – 370.4 5.5 25.0 Langmuir 1276 [382]
Porphyrin-Barium MOF – 306.0 – – Langmuir – [376]
Porphyrin-Strontium MOF – 301.0 – – Langmuir – [376]
Functionalised MWCNTs – 260.7 – 25.0 Langmuir – [383]
Magnetite NPs – 227.0 11 30.0 Experiments 170.0 [384]
Graphene oxide – 216.7 9.0 25.0 Langmuir – [385]
Modified MWCNTs – 200.0 6.0 25.0 Langmuir – [386]
Modified Ti3AlC2 – 189.0 9.0 25.0 Experiments – [387]
TiO2/Al/Si – 163.0 – 25.0 Experiments 241.0 [388]
γ-Fe2O3 NPs – 155.2 – 25.0 Langmuir – [383]
Modified MnO 99.8 154.0 9.0 25.0 Experiments 38.70 [389]
Reduced graphene oxide – 144.9 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [390]
Hydrogen titanate nanotubes/HPO2− 4 100 139.0 10 – Experiments 345.0 [391]
Mesoporous carbon nanofibers – 137.3 7.0 45.0 Langmuir 392.3 [392]
Graphene oxide – 135.1 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [390]
Cu NP from Cynomorium coccineum – 125.0 6.0 22.0 Langmuir – [393]
Ho-CaWO4 NPs 71.2 103.1 2.0 – Langmuir – [394]
Charcoal 53.0 100.0 8.0 23.0 Langmuir-Hinshelwood 251.8 [180]
CoFe1.9Mo0.1O4 NPs 95.4 98.40 7.0 25.0 Experiments – [395]
Modified graphene oxide hydrogel 100 92.30 7.0 25.0 Experiments – [396]
Silica microspheres/Polydopamine NPs 99.0 83.80 10 – Experiments 544.3 [397]
Fe-Mn binary oxide NPs 98.1 80.13 7.0 25.0 Experiments 67.50 [398]
Fig leaves assisted magnetite NPs 77.9 61.72 – – Langmuir – [399]
Modified carbon nitride – 57.87 10 45.1 Langmuir 27.00 [400]
WO3 NPs 99.7 57.76 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 9.940 [401]
Modified Nanodiamond 86.0 47.62 – 25.0 Experiments – [402]
Cress seed mucilage assisted magnetic NPs – 44.61 3.0 25.0 Langmuir – [403]
Carboxyl-functionalised magnetic NPs – 43.15 10 25.0 Experiments – [404]
CNT – 40.00 – 25.0 Langmuir 239.0 [156]
Manganous(II) based MOF – 33.80 – – Experiments 5.089 [405]
MWCNTs 92.8 33.40 – 22.0 Langmuir 86.60 [312]
Modified CNTs – 26.00 6.0 25.0 Experiments – [406]
Azolla assisted magnetite NPs 79.2 25.00 – – Langmuir – [399]
Nano-clay Magadiite 98.6 20.00 6.0 50.0 Experiments 39.00 [407]
NaNbO3 99.3 17.50 7.0 25.0 Experiments 14.49 [408]
Fe3O4-TiO2 NPs/methyltrimethoxysilane 96.0 11.57 9.0 25.0 Langmuir – [409]
Modified TiO2 93.3 9.800 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 195.0 [410]
MgO NPs – 9.270 7.0 – Langmuir – [411]
Iron-benzene dicarboxylic acid MOF 94.7 8.650 – – Langmuir 46.02 [412]
Titanate nanotube 96.0 8.187 7.0 – Langmuir 156.4 [413]
Nickel/Carbon NPs – 7.415 – – Langmuir 43.00 [414]
α-Chitin NPs from Penaeus monodon shell 95.0 6.900 6.0 25.0 Langmuir – [415]
Modified PbS 85.8 5.590 6.0 31.0 Langmuir – [416]
Fe3O4-TiO2 NPs – 1.880 9.0 25.0 Langmuir – [409]
Modified Aluminium Zeolite 100 – – 25.0 Experiments – [417]
Graphene Oxide 97.0 – – 27.0 – – [418]
Titanate nanotubes 65.0 – – 20.0 – 230.0 [419]
Fe3O4 – – – – – – [420]
SiO2 – – – 30.0 Langmuir 144.8 [421]
ZnO – – – 25.0 – – [422]

10
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 7
Adsorption performance of MB by class G adsorbents.
Adsorbent name Adsorbent Highest RE qmax (mg/ pH Temp Method of qmax SSA (m2/ Ref.
class % g) (◦ C) determination g)

Chitosan/biosorbent from rice husk G(E-A) 98.0 4955 6.0 33.0 Langmuir – [425]
Modified sodium alginate/TiO2 G(E-F) 100 2257 – 25.0 Langmuir – [426]
Starch/Rice husk ash G(A-B) 96.9 2225 6.0 33.0 Langmuir – [427]
β-cyclodextrin/chitosan/graphene oxide G(D-E) – 2180 12 55.0 Langmuir 17.60 [428]
Chitosan-g-poly(acrylic acid)/nanocellulose G(E-F) 98.0 2037 6.0 25.0 Langmuir – [429]
Bentonite/alginate G(D-E) – 2024 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 31.80 [430]
Gelatin/alginate G(E-E) – 1937 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 14.90 [431]
Chitosan/congo red G(E-E) 99.7 1457 6.5 25.0 Experiments – [432]
Gum ghatti/Ti2O G(E-F) 98.0 1451 7.0 45.0 Langmuir 1.120 [433]
Graphene oxide/Fe3O4 G(F-F) 99.6 1429 9.0 – Langmuir 84.60 [434]
Zeolite/AC G(E-B) 83.0 1398 – 25.0 Langmuir 378.0 [435]
Alginate/Bentonite G(E-D) 96.3 1309 6.5 25.0 Langmuir 11.00 [436]
Chitin/ZSM-5 zeolite G(E-E) 86.6 1217 – 55 Langmuir – [437]
Biochar from bamboo/calcium alginate G(C-E) 91.0 1211 5.0 25.0 Langmuir 298.0 [238]
Graphene oxide/lignin G(F-E) 99.3 1210 7.0 40.0 Langmuir 41.50 [438]
MWCNTs/alginate G(F-E) 91.0 1189 – 22.0 Langmuir 86.60 [312]
Chitosan/graphene oxide/lignosulfonate G(E-F-E) 99.0 1080 7.0 50.0 Langmuir – [439]
Amino-iron/Graphene oxide G(E-F) – 1047 12 25.0 Langmuir – [440]
Cellulose/lignin from Nerium oleander G(E-E) 96.0 1000 6.0 55.0 Langmuir – [441]
Cellulose/lignin from Populus tremula G(E-E) – 1000 6.0 55.0 Langmuir – [441]
Graphene oxide/ Nickel G(E-F) 94.6 946.1 8.3 45 Experiments – [442]
Magnetic alginate/ MWCNTs G(E-F) 99.5 905.5 – 25.0 Langmuir – [443]
Maghemite/Alginate/MWCNTs G(E-F) – 905.5 – 25.0 Langmuir – [383]
Biochar from banana peel/ FeSO4 G(C-D) – 862.0 6.0 40.0 Langmuir – [444]
Reduced graphene oxide/TiO2 G(F-F) – 847.5 10.8 55.0 Langmuir – [445]
Graphene oxide/MgO G(E-F) 92.0 833.0 11 – Langmuir – [411]
Xanthan grafted acrylic/graphene oxide G(E-F) 99.5 793.7 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [446]
Hectorite/alginate G(D-E) 99.0 785.5 12 25.0 Langmuir 205.0 [447]
Polyvinyl alcohol/sodium alginate/graphene oxide G(E-E-F) – 759.3 – 25.0 Experiments 19.70 [448]
Polyamine/graphene oxide G(E-F) 99.0 740.7 5.9 45.0 Langmuir – [449]
Graphene Oxide/Hydrogel G(F-E) – 714.3 7.0 – Langmuir 33.00 [450]
Halloysite/Fe3O4 G(D-F) – 714.3 10 45.0 Langmuir – [451]
Tannic acid/graphene G(E-F) – 714.0 – 25.0 Langmuir 196.0 [452]
SDS/ZnFe2O4 G(E-F) – 699.3 12 15.0 Experiments 55.20 [453]
SiO2 – Polydopamine-cysteamine hydrochloride G(E-E) – 688.9 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [454]
Commercial AC/AgCl G(B-F) 96.0 666.7 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 99.40 [455]
Graphene oxide/ĸ-carrageenan G(E-A) – 658.4 5.2 25.0 Langmuir – [456]
Agar/Graphene oxide aerogel G(E-E) – 578.0 6.0 40.0 Langmuir – [457]
Cellulose/polyurethane G(A-E) 97.0 554.8 – – Langmuir – [458]
WOx/Carbon nanowires G(E-F) 550.7 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 82.50 [310]
Montmorillonite Nanosheets/Chitosan G(E-F) – 538.0 – 45.0 Langmuir – [459]
Fe3O4/SiO2/chitosan/graphene oxide G(F-F-E-F) – 529.1 10 – Langmuir – [460]
CMC/ Dextran sulphate G(E-E) 98.0 526.3 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [461]
Cellulose/SiO2 G(E-F) – 526.0 7.0 – Langmuir – [462]
Xanthan grafted acrylic acid/MWCNT G(E-F) 99.6 521.0 6.0 30.0 Langmuir – [463]
Magnetic biosorbent/SiO2 G(A-D) 99.0 516.9 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 276.0 [464]
Biochar/SDS G(C-F) – 503.0 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 85.60 [465]
Ball-milling biochar/Fe3O4 G(C-F) – 500.5 – – Langmuir 90.60 [195]
Cyanobacteria/Polypropylene G(A-E) – 490.0 – – Experiments 2811 [466]
MoS2 nanosheets/graphene G(E-F) – 485.4 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 4.300 [467]
Cellulose/Graphene oxide fibres G(E-E) – 480.8 6.0 45.0 Langmuir – [468]
Reduced graphene oxide/TiO2 G(F-F) – 467.6 10.8 55.0 Langmuir – [445]
Fe3O4 NPs/Sodium alginate/AC G(C-D-F) 89.5 465.1 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 183.6 [469]
AC from coconut/CuO G(B-F) 99.3 464.2 9.0 45.0 Sips 262.3 [470]
Fe3O4/polyglycerol G(F-E) – 458.7 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [471]
Polyaniline/TiO2 G(E-F) 99.0 458.1 – 25.0 Experiments 11.89 [472]
Modified carbon quantum dots/silica G(F-F) 97.0 454.5 7.0 40.0 Langmuir – [473]
Cellulose/soy protein G(E-E) – 454.0 8.0 – Langmuir – [474]
Sodium alginate/γ- Fe2O3 G(E-F) – 438.6 – 25.0 Langmuir – [383]
Polyacrylamide/graphene oxide G(E-F) – 429.2 8.0 40.0 Langmuir – [475]
Magnesium silicate/AC G(F-B) – 418.4 5.3 45.0 Langmuir 55.86 [476]
Corn straw core/graphene oxide G(A-D) – 414.0 12 25.0 Experiments – [477]
Layered double hydroxide (MgAl)/Biochar G(D-C) 95.0 406.5 12 40.0 Langmuir 46.43 [478]
Tannin from persimmon/graphene oxide G(E-F) 98.0 404.9 8.0 50.0 Langmuir 8.110 [479]
AC/Cu G(B-F) – 373.0 7.0 50.0 Langmuir 1534 [480]
Montmorillonite/MnO2 nanosheets G(D-F) 97.7 363.6 2.0 – Langmuir 63.64 [481]
Graphene oxide/chitosan/Cu-MOF G(F-E-F) 96.0 357.2 7.0 – Langmuir 947.3 [482]
Magnetic alginate/Rice husk G(A-E) 89.0 344.0 – – Langmuir – [483]
Graphene oxide/MgO G(D-F) – 333.0 11 – Langmuir – [411]
Fe2O3/MOF G(G-E) 94.6 325.6 8.9 45.0 Langmuir 197.8 [484]
Fe2O3/graphene oxide coated corn straw/citric acid G(A-E-F) – 315.5 12 25.0 Experiments 50.74 [485]
Fe2O3/graphene oxide G(E-F) – 306.5 9.0 25.0 Langmuir – [385]
Ball-milling biochar/Fe3O4/AC G(B-C-F) 100 304.2 – – Langmuir 75.40 [195]
(continued on next page)

11
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 7 (continued )
Adsorbent name Adsorbent Highest RE qmax (mg/ pH Temp Method of qmax SSA (m2/ Ref.
class % g) (◦ C) determination g)

Ball-milling biochar/AC G(B-C) – 298.7 – – Langmuir 544.9 [195]

AC from Mangosteen peel/alginate G(B-E) 98.9 287.4 9.5 25.0 Langmuir 1622 [486]
Zeolite AC G(A-E) – 285.7 – 50.0 Langmuir 615.4 [487]
Soy protein isolate/deacetylated konjac G(A-E) 98.8 272.4 6.0 25.0 Langmuir – [488]
glucomannan
Alginate/Fe2O3 G(E-F) 100 272.0 10.6 20.0 Langmuir – [489]
Rarasaponin modified bentonite G(A-D) – 258.6 – 60.0 Langmuir – [276]
Nanocellulose/alginate G(F-E) – 255.5 7.0 25.0 Experiments – [490]
Magnetic polyvinyl alcohol/laponite G(F-E-D) – 251.0 5.5 25.0 Langmuir – [491]
AC from charcoal/TiO2 G(B-F) 99.0 250.0 8.0 23.0 Langmuir-Hinshelwood 165.7 [180]
Cellulose/lignin from Pergularia tomentosa G(E-E) – 250.0 6.0 55.0 Langmuir – [441]
Graphene/Fe3O4/chitosan G(F-F-E) 98.0 249.3 9.0 – Langmuir 48.04 [492]
Open cell polyurethane foam/Polydopamine/AC G(E-E-B) – 245.0 – 25.00 Langmuir – [156]
ZnS/AC G(B-F) 98.2 243.9 7.0 – Langmuir – [493]
Ionic liquids/Magnetic chitosan/Graphene oxide G(E-F) – 243.3 12 30.0 Langmuir 342.2 [494]
Fe3O4/sawdust carbon/EDTA G(A-F) 99.7 227.3 7.0 27.0 Langmuir 14.00 [495]
Fe3O4/Fe based MIL-100 MOF G(E-F) – 221.0 – 25.0 Langmuir 730.0 [496]
Modified yeast/Fe3O4 G(A-F) – 216.5 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 94.97 [497]
β-cyclodextrin/AC hydrogels G(A-B) 94.5 208.3 11 50.0 Langmuir 188.6 [498]
MWCNT/Tannin G(A-F) – 202.9 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [499]
Oil palm ash zeolite/Chitosan G(A-E) – 199.2 – 50.0 Langmuir 82.96 [500]
Pine biomass/magnetite G(A-D) – 195.0 12 80.0 Experiments 54.80 [501]
Nigella sativa seed/MnO2 G(A-G) 98.3 185.2 7.0 45.0 Langmuir – [502]
Commercial AC/BiOCl G(B-F) 99.1 181.8 6.0 25.0 Langmuir 12.42 [503]
Alginate/clay G(E-D) 95.0 181.8 – 40.0 Langmuir – [504]
AC/clay from pomace oil G(B-D) 96.2 178.7 9.0 30.0 Langmuir 355.1 [505]
Pectin/ Chlorella vulgaris/ magnetite G(A-E-F) – 175.6 – – Langmuir – [506]
PVA/CMC/Graphene oxide/Bentonite G(D-E-E) – 172.4 – 30.0 Langmuir – [507]
PVA/ CMC/Bentonite G(E-E) – 163.9 – 30.0 Langmuir – [507]
AC from palm/Fe3O4 G(B-F) – 163.3 7.0 – Langmuir 731.5 [508]
Nano-Fe3O4/Pristine baker’s yeast G(A-F) – 153.7 6.0 35.0 Langmuir 165.7 [51]
Hemicellulose hydrogel/Clay G(D-E) – 148.8 5.0 25.0 Langmuir – [334]
Graphene Oxide/AC G(B-E) 99.0 147.0 7.0 – Langmuir – [509]
Granular AC/Fe G(B-F) 94.0 142.9 6.5 60.0 Langmuir 450.0 [510]
Tannic acid/Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Sodium alginate G(A-E) – 140.0 9.0 30.0 Experiments – [511]
hydrogel
TiO2/Polyvinyl alcohol G(E-F) 97.1 138.9 – 30.0 Langmuir 475.0 [512]
Pineapple peel cellulose/Sepia ink G(A-E) – 138.2 – – Experiments – [513]
AC from cellulose/montmorillonite G(B-D) – 138.1 – 25.0 Langmuir 41.80 [514]
Polyvinyl alcohol/chitosan/sodium alginate/ G(E-E-E-D) 99.6 137.2 8.0 30.0 Langmuir – [515]
montmorillonite
Polypyrrole/commercial Al2O3 G(D-E) – 134.8 – 25.0 Langmuir 328.7 [516]
Graphene/Palygorskite/TiO2 G(D-E-F) 100 134.6 – 40.0 Langmuir 60.00 [517]
Chitosan/ĸ-carrageenan G(E-A) – 130.4 5.5 26.0 Langmuir – [518]
Fe3O4@Ag/SiO2 G(F-F-F) 99.6 128.5 7.0 25.0 Langmuir – [519]
MnO/AC G(F-B) – 124.1 – 25.0 Langmuir 294.7 [520]
Chitosan/ĸ-carrageenan/Fe3O4 G(E-A-F) – 123.1 5.5 26.0 Langmuir – [518]
Fe3O4/Graphene oxide G(E-F) 98.9 120.1 – 60.0 Experiments – [521]
Magnetic γ-Fe2O3/SiO2 G(G-E) – 116.1 7.0 25.0 Experiments 74.35 [522]
Magnetic Cu-Zeolite/Graphene oxide G(E-F) – 115.3 45.0 Langmuir 46.69 [523]
Silica aerogel/Ni/C/N G(D-E) 80.0 115.0 – 30.0 Experiments 336.0 [524]
AC/Cellulose from sisal fibre G(A-E) 92.0 110.4 6.9 35.0 Langmuir 1165 [525]
Yeast/Fe3O4 G(A-F) – 108.0 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 114.8 [497]
Fe3O4/Montmorillonite G(D-F) 99.5 106.4 7.3 20 Langmuir 147.9 [291]
Guava leaves/Fe2O3 G(A-F) 99.0 105.8 7.0 45.0 Langmuir – [526]
Polypyrrole/commercial SiO2 G(D-E) – 104.7 – 25.0 Langmuir 56.61 [516]
Alginate/perlite G(E-E) – 104.1 6.0 25.0 Langmuir – [527]
Hemin/Graphene hydrogel G(A-E) 99.4 99.20 – 25.0 Langmuir 297.8 [528]
Montmorillonite/NiFe layered double hydroxides G(D-F) 98.8 99.18 – 25.0 Langmuir 133.2 [529]
nanoflakes
Poly(sodium p-styrenesulfonate hydrate)/kaolin G(D-E) – 96.79 – 30.0 Langmuir – [530]
Heteropoly acids/graphene oxide G(E-F) – 96.15 6.0 – Langmuir – [531]
Polypyrrole/synthesised Fe3O4 G(D-E) – 92.08 – 25.0 Langmuir 65.57 [516]
Polypyrrole/synthesised SiO2 G(D-E) – 91.86 – 25.0 Langmuir 46.77 [516]
PVA/ CMC/graphene oxide G(E-E) – 89.29 – 30.0 Langmuir – [507]
CuO/meso-silica nano G(D-F) 96.4 87.80 7.0 – Langmuir 1166 [290]
NZVI/Modified zeolite G(E-F) – 86.70 7.0 – Langmuir 182.0 [532]
PVA/ CMC G(E-E) – 83.33 – 30.0 Langmuir – [507]
Graphene oxide/CoFe2O4 G(E-F) 80.3 80.60 10 – Langmuir – [533]
Polypyrrole/synthesised Al2O3 G(D-E) – 79.37 – 25.0 Langmuir 41.71 [516]
Cellulose/Graphene oxide G(E-F) 99.0 78.49 6.0 – Langmuir 136.3 [534]
β-cyclodextrin/Fe3O4 NPs G(A-F) – 78.40 8.0 25.0 Langmuir – [535]
Graphene oxide/NiFe2O4 G(E-F) 87.7 78.10 7.9 – Langmuir – [533]
Polyaniline/ZrO2 G(E-F) – 77.51 – – Langmuir – [325]
(continued on next page)

12
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Table 7 (continued )
Adsorbent name Adsorbent Highest RE qmax (mg/ pH Temp Method of qmax SSA (m2/ Ref.
class % g) (◦ C) determination g)

Biochar from reed/Tannic acid G(C-E) – 77.35 8.0 25.0 Sips 37.50 [248]
Red mud/sucrose based carbon G(A-D) – 76.92 11 – Langmuir 105.1 [536]
Polyamide/vermiculite G(D-E) 99.0 76.42 10 – Langmuir 12.30 [537]
Dextrin-g-poly m-phenylenediamine/ Graphene G(E-E) > 98.0 76.33 8.0 25.0 Langmuir – [538]
oxide
Fe/bentonite G(F-D) – 74.07 6.0 50.0 Langmuir 305.4 [539]
Polyacrylonitrile based AC nanofibers G(B-E) 85.0 72.46 – – Langmuir – [540]
AC from coconut leaves/FeCl3 G(B-F) 74.9 66.00 5.6 30.0 Langmuir – [541]
Poly(trimesoyl chloride-melamine)/Palygorskite G(D-E) 100 64.50 – 25.0 Langmuir 45.00 [542]
Modified Fe3O4/SiO2 G(F-F) – 63.99 11 25.0 Langmuir – [543]
AC/ Fe3O4 G(B-F) – 62.80 10.8 – Experiments – [544]
Lignin/silica G(A-E) 99.0 59.88 – 25 Langmuir 74.00 [545]
Nigella sativa/Fe2O3/SnO2 G(A-F-F) 98.0 58.82 7.0 27.0 Langmuir – [546]
Zn-MOF/Fe3O4/SiO2 G(F-F-F) 99.0 58.67 – – Langmuir – [547]
BiOBr/Bi2MoO6 G(F-F) 99.5 58.01 2.0 30.0 Experiments 55.57 [548]
Tannin/Cellulose G(E-E) 95.0 57.54 8.0 30.0 Langmuir – [549]
Sodium alginate/Almond peanut oil G(A-E) 90.0 57.14 6.0 45.0 Langmuir – [550]
Zeolite/ Nickel ferrite/Sodium Alginate G(A-E) – 54.05 5.0 25.0 Experiments 219.1 [551]
Fe3O4 modified Clinoptilolite G(F-E) 99.9 52.00 9.0 25.0 Langmuir – [350]
Fe2O3 NPs/Biochar from paper sludge G(C-F) 99.0 50.00 12 – Langmuir 15.30 [250,
248]
Cornstalk-based hydrogel G(A-D) 99.7 49.01 – 30.0 Experiments – [552]
Fe3O4/poly(cyclotriphosphazene-co-4,4′ - G(F-E) – 47.89 7.0 35.0 Langmuir 80.55 [553]
sulfonyldiphenol)
Biosorbent from cotton/MnOx G(A-F) 96.0 46.30 6.9 25.0 Langmuir – [554]
Biochar from mango peel/Fe2O3 G(C-F) 95.0 46.30 7.0 – Langmuir 831.5 [555]
Magadiite/chitosan G(E-E) – 45.25 4.5 30.0 Langmuir – [556]
Magnetic clinoptilolite/chitosan/EDTA G(E-F) 99.4 44.44 5.5 31.0 Langmuir – [557]
Graphene oxide/MnFe2O4 G(E-F) 60.1 42.20 10 – Langmuir – [533]
Chitosan/sepiolite G(E-D) – 40.99 9.0 30.0 Langmuir 45.46 [558]
Polydopamine/graphene oxide/kaolin G(D-E) 97.3 39.66 – – Langmuir 35.35 [559]
Activated lignin-chitosan pellets G(E-E) 87.7 36.25 7.0 20.0 Langmuir 80.77 [560]
Bentonite/zeolite G(D-E) 94.0 36.23 5.0 – Langmuir 512.0 [561]
Polyurethane foam/Polydopamine/CNT G(E-E-F) – 32.00 – 25.00 Langmuir – [156]
Lignin/chitosan G(E-E) – 30.25 – – Experiments – [562]
Graphene oxide/chitosan/Fe3O4 G(F-E-F) 100 30.10 10.5 – Langmuir – [563]
Polydopamine/kaolin G(D-E) 84.3 28.41 – – Langmuir 8.620 [559]
Graphene oxide/Kaolin G(D-E) 92.0 28.01 7.0 – Langmuir 24.92 [564]
Graphene oxide/TiO2 G(F-F) 100 26.30 6.8 25.0 Langmuir 239.2 [565]
TiO2/Carbon G(F-F) – 25.73 6.0 55.0 Langmuir 67.22 [566]
Shrimp waste chitosan/Zeolite G(A-E) 84.9 24.51 9.0 – Langmuir – [567]
NZVI/ZSM-5 zeolite G(E-F) – 20.68 7.0 – Langmuir 116.0 [532]
Polyaniline/ZnO/Seaweed G(E-F-A) 92.0 20.55 7.0 25.0 Langmuir 30.68 [568]
Fe3O4/Chitosan G(F-E) – 20.41 12 – Langmuir – [569]
Cellulose/ZnO/biochar from bamboo G(E-F-C) 80.7 17.01 – – Langmuir – [570]
CMC/k-carrageenan/activated montmorillonite G(D-A) 92.0 12.25 6.0 30.0 Experiments – [571]
Membrane from Electrospun nanofibers/ZnO NPs G(E-E-F) – 11.64 – 45 Langmuir – [572]
Membrane from Electrospun nanofibers G(E-E) – 10.22 – 45 Langmuir – [572]
Polyurethane foam/Polydopamine G(E-E) – 10.00 – 25.00 Langmuir – [156]
Modified MWCNTs/polyacrylonitrile G(F-E) 80.0 9.580 10 25.0 Scatchard – [573]
Porous PVA/Zn-Fe-Mn oxide G(E-F) – 7.750 – – Langmuir – [574]
Co-Zn/ Fe2O3 G(F-F) – 3.400 – – Langmuir – [575]
Graphene/alginate beads G(E-F) – 2.300 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 37.60 [576]
Graphene/alginate beads G(E-F) – 1.800 8.0 25.0 Langmuir 3.400 [576]
Modified Zn-MOF/graphene oxide G(F-F) 97.0 – – 30.0 – – [577]
Alginate/pandan G(E-A) 61.0 – 5.0 27.0 – – [578]
Clay/polyethylene G(D-E) – – 9.0 55.0 – 154.7 [579]

their removal. The lessened solubility makes the molecules more hy­
drophobic and gives them more affinity for the solid phase (the adsor­
bent material). This makes it easier for the adsorbate to overcome the
mass transfer limitation at the solid-liquid interphase. Depending on the
nature and functionality of the adsorbent, complexes can be formed with
MB to facilitate its uptake. These discussions reveal that the nature of the
adsorbent material is one of the most important criteria that determine
MB adsorptive interactions and its eventual uptake capacity. This there
justifies the need for an empirical investigation such as this to help
analyse the literature and identify the best adsorbent class.
6. Future perspectives
The analysis presented in this study has led to some important
findings. In this section, we discuss the wider implications of these
findings for researchers on MB adsorption and the positive consequences
on sustainable water resource management and environmental protec­
tion. Having observed that polymers, resins and composites adsorbents
(majorly with polymeric constituents) have especially high capacities
for MB uptake, the onus is now on the environmental engineering
research community to focus their effort on these adsorbents classes and
develop even better adsorbent materials for the current application.
Adsorbents can be improved in a variety of ways besides their
adsorption capacity. It is important to improve its affinity (sometimes

13
K.O. Iwuozor et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658

Fig. 3. The volume of research output for each adsorbent class (in the past 5 years).

Fig. 4. Frequency of constituent classes utilised in composite adsorbents (in the past 5 years).

Table 8
Analysis of research data (The ranking of each descriptor is stated in the
parenthesis next to the numerical value. Ranking was done in decreasing order).
Class Name Mean Median % with qmax
(mg/g) (mg/g) > 1000 mg/g

A Biosorbents 267.9 102.0 (5th) 4.0% (6th)

(5th)
B Activated carbon 382.2 250.0 (1st) 6.3% (4th)
(3rd)
C Biochar 255.8 133.3 (4th) 4.5% (5th)
(7th)
D Clays and mineral 257.7 100.0 (7th) 0.0% (7th)
(6th)
E Polymers and 553.2 149.0 (3rd) 21.5% (1st)
resins (1st)
F Nanoparticles 324.4 100.0 (7th) 9.4% (3rd)
(4th) Fig. 5. Comparing adsorption capacity against data index for MB uptake (A –
G Composite 406.9 181.8 (2nd) 11.2% (2nd)
Biosorbents, B – Activated carbon, C – Biochar, D – Clays and minerals, E –
adsorbents (2nd)
Polymers and resins, F – Nanoparticles, G – Composites adsorbent).

14
K.O. Iwuozor et al.
Fig. 6. The key mechanisms of MB uptake by adsorption [583].
termed selectivity) so that MB can compete favourably with other spe­
cies in aqueous media. Real adsorbent applications usually encounter a
multi-component aqueous phase [584,585]. These intricacies are usu­
ally not captured by batch adsorption experiments (and by consequence
the adsorption capacity values) where standard MB solutions are syn­
thesised. There might be some adsorbate species that could hamper MB
uptake and drastically reduce its uptake capacity [586]. This is why
investigations on more selective and higher affinity adsorbent for MB is
required.
For industrial applications, packed columns can be used for
adsorption purposes [587,588]. They are also used as a final treatment
phase for polluted water before environmental release [589,590]. The
MB desorption from these high-performance adsorbents (polymers,
resins and composites) should be an important consideration aside from
the adsorption capacity. Good regeneration ability suggests that it can
be used efficiently in these columns.
7. Conclusion
In this study, the performance of various classes of adsorbent for the
removal of MB from aqueous media was analysed. Several important
conclusions were drawn from the study. Composites adsorbents (31%),
are the most frequently studied for MB uptake. Other popularly used
types are biosorbents (16%) and activated carbon (16%). Though
composites are the most utilised, polymers and resins (E), and organic
and inorganic nanoparticles (F) are the more favoured constituents for
composite adsorbent development. For similar data indices, composite
adsorbents are likelier to yield a higher adsorption capacity. This sug­
gests that composite adsorbents (especially with constituents of poly­
mers, resins and nanoparticles) are the best class of adsorbents for MB
uptake. Though polymers and resins (F) had the highest mean, the
highest median was for activated carbon (B). Composite adsorbents
were the second highest for mean, median and number of adsorbents
above the 1000 mg/g threshold. It was surmised that polymers, resins
and composites are the best classes of adsorbents for MB uptake. The
higher performance of composites was due to its flexibility as it allows
the researchers to tune/tailor specific properties of the material to target
some peculiarities of MB and improve its affinity/selectivity in the
aqueous phase. The high performance of polymers and resins is due to its
nature of being able to remove MB by a variety of low and high energy
15
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 9 (2021) 105658
physico-chemical interactions based on the nature of the parent
polymer.
Compliance with ethical standards
This article does not contain any studies involving human or animal
subjects.
Funding
There was no external funding for the study.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Kingsley O. Iwuozor: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodol­
ogy, Writing - review & editing, Validation. Joshua O. Ighalo:
Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing - original draft,
Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Validation, Project adminis­
tration. Lawal Adewale Ogunfowora: Data curation. Writing - review
& editing, Validation. Adewale George Adeniyi: Writing - review &
editing, Validation. Chinenye Adaobi Igwegbe: Writing - review &
editing, Validation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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