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STAT 2020-2021 Module 1.grand Final
STAT 2020-2021 Module 1.grand Final
Statement of Vision
Northeastern Mindanao
STATISTICS & Academy has greatly envisioned to
transform the students into
PROBABILITY exemplary citizens and leaders by
providing them with physical, mental
and social and spiritual trainings.
Statement of Mission
Statement of Philosophy
to our Statistics & Probability class! Enjoy as we learn together. Have fun!
Introduction:
Life is full of uncertainties and surprises. Decision making is very important skill that we should
possess nowadays. Every day, we face many situations that need an immediate and sensible decision.
If you decide whether or not to take a certain college degree, you should consider many factors. Or you
want to know if whether or not to buy a certain product after knowing the history of the company
that manufactured it. These events and situations in real life can be better decided only with careful
choices-choices that can be made with precise anticipation of chances.
Probability is the body of knowledge that focuses on activities that involve predicting chances and
quantifying the randomness of events. In this unit, we will provide you with modules that will allow
you to appreciate the importance of probability.
Random Variables
A random event, like drawing a face card in a standard deck, always gives a random
outcome. Most of the time, when a random event is taken under consideration, the focus is
not on the outcome itself but on several factors that may affect the outcome. For example,
in the same event of drawing a face card in a standard deck of cards, you are more
interested in the number of times a face card appears after 10 draws instead of the actual
outcome of getting the card. This is because you know that the outcome in each trial
changes, considering you have 52 different cards. This situation illustrates the concept of a
random variable.
A random variable, is also called a stochastic variable, is a rule that assigns a numerical
value or characteristic to an outcome of an experiment. It is essentially a variable, usually
denoted as X or any capital letter of the alphabet, because its value is not constant – it
assumes different values due to chance. For example, a die is rolled five times and a random
variable X is assigned as the number of times a “6” appears. The random variable X can take
on the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 as the outcome may vary from trial to trial.
Generally, there are two categories of random variables: discrete and continuous random
variables. A discrete random variable takes on countable number of distinct values, which
are whole numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … while a continuous random variable assumes
an infinite number of possible values including the decimals between two counting
numbers. For a quick comparison, the values of a discrete random variable are basically
“counts” and those of a continuous random variable are “measurements.”
3
Definition of Terms
A random variable, which is usually written using a capital letter, is a variable that
assigns a numerical value to each outcome of a random event. It can be classified as discrete
or continuous depending on whether the value is obtained by counting or by measurement.
Range Space is the set of all values possible for a given random variable.
a. Discrete Random: A fair coin is tossed thirty times and the number of times X that a tail appears is a discrete
random variable since its possible values may be determined by counting, i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 30.
Note: A coin has two sides, the head and the tail. When you toss a coin, the result may be a head or a tail.. If it
is a head, hence the X=0 (0 means when the coin is tossed the outcome is Head not a tail}. The value of X= 0,
1,2,3,..30 are the possible values of tails.
b. Continuous random variable: A machine is run and the recorded time it starts to experience a glitch
illustrates a continuous random variable since the value of the variable may be assigned using measurement,
eg. Y= 1.3, 2.22; not exac.
As mentioned earlier, a random variable may take in different values depending on the outcome of
each trial. Now, the set of all values possible for a given random variable is called the range space.
Example 2: When two fair coins are tossed and the random variable X is defined as the number of heads that
appear. Find the range space.
Solution:
Let us review our tree diagram:
In the range space, 2 indicates that there are two heads; 1 means 1 head, 0 means no head. There should be no
repetition of outcomes in the range space. There are two 1’s but we only write only 1 in the range space.
Hence, the range space= {0, 1, 2}. in tossing two fair coins. Do not forget to write your brace { }.
Example 3: When two fair coins are tossed and the random variable X is defined as the number of tails that
appear. Find the range space.
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
range space= {0, 1, 2} Based on the tree diagram the range space is shown at
the left side. 0 means no tail or (H,H), 1 means 1 tail or
(H,T), (T,H)(no repetition is allowed in the range
space), and 2 means (T,T).
Identifying the range space allows you to find the possible values of a random variable. The value of a
random variable X at a specific outcome x, is usually denoted by X(xi)
Example 4: A pair of dice is thrown and the random variable Y is defined such that Y gives the sum of
the two numbers that appear. Determine the following:
a) Range space c. Y (4, 6)
b) Y (3, 2) d. Y (1, 3)
4
Solution:
Second Die
F 1 2 3 4 5 6
I 1 (1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)
R
S
2 (2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)
T 3 (3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)
4 (4,1) (1,2) (4,3) (4,4) (5,5) (6,6)
D
I 5 (5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)
e 6 (6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
Solution/s Explanation/s
(3,2) The outcome (3,2) means 3 is the outcome of
the first die and 2 is the outcome of the
second die
a) Range space = { 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}. Take note: Y is defined such that Y gives the
sum of the two numbers that appear.
Meaning we will add the two numbers like
(1,1) means 2; (1,2) means 3, and so on and
so forth. Hence, your range space is the set of
all possible sums.
b) Y(3,2) It is defined as the sum of two numbers.
Y = 3+2=5
c) Y(4,6) It is defined as the sum of two numbers.
Y= 4+6= 10
d) Y(1,3) It is defined as the sum of two numbers.
Y= 1+3= 4
Example 5: Consider the random event of tossing four coins and the variable X gives the number of heads that
appear. Construct a probability distribution table.
Solution:
There are 16 possible outcomes. You may use a tree diagram or a table as shown below.
Solution/s Explanation/s
Our range space is: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Step 1: We let X as the variable that gives the number
of heads that appear. (note: 0 means no head or
(TTTT), 1 means (HTHH), etc.)
Step 2: Compute for the probability of X.
After you are done finding its probability, you construct a probability distribution table as shown below.
This table is called a probability distribution which is also known as probability mass function.
A probability distribution, also known as probability mass function, is a table that gives a list
of probability values along with their associated value in the range of a discrete random variable.
Note from the previous probability mass function that the following properties are
observed given that p, are the individual probabilities for each value (xi) of the random
variable:
1. Each probability value ranges from 0 to 1, in symbols, 0 ≤ pi ≤ 1.
2. The sum of all the individual probabilities in the distribution is equal to 1: thus,
p1 + p2 + p3 + … + pn = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑝I = 1.
Also, note that like any other statistical distribution, a probability mass function may be
graphed using a histogram in which the horizontal axis represents the values of the random
variable X and the vertical axis gives the corresponding probabilities, P(X). For example,
below is the related histogram of the random variable X (showing a head after tossing four
coins).
Hence, in example 5 the sum of all the individual probabilities in the distribution is equal to 1 as shown
below.
0.0625 + 0.25 + 0.375 + 0.25 + 0.0625 = 1
Below is the histogram of the random variable X (showing a head after tossing four coins).
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4
Number of Heads
6
Example 6: A card is drawn from a deck of 20 cards (i.e., all the cards numbered 1 to 5 in a standard deck) and
the random variable W gives the number on the card. Construct the probability mass function and
its corresponding histogram.
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
range space= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5). Where n(S)= 20. After finding the range space and n(s) , solve for the
𝑛(𝐸) individual probability. Use formula: Let W the random
P(E) =
𝑛(𝑆)
variable
4 1
P(W = 1) = = = 0.2 P(W=1) means how many 1’s in the deck of cards.
20 5
There are four. See the table below.
1 2 3 4 5
4 1 1 2 3 4 5 P(W=2) means how many 2’s. There are four 2’s.
P(W = 2) = = = 1 2 3 4 5
20 5
= 0.2 1 2 3 4 5
4 1
P(W = 3) = = = 0.2 P(W=3) means how many 3’s. There are four 3’s.
20 5
P(W = 4) =
4
=
1
= 0.2 P(W=4) means how many 4’s. There are four 4’s.
20 5
4 1
P(W = 5) = = = 0.2 P(W=5) means how many 5’s. There are four 5’s.
20 5
The probability distribution table or probability mass function is shown below. Where the range space is on the
first row and the probability or P(W) is on the second row.
The histogram of the random variable W(gives the number of the cards) is shown below.
0.2
Probability
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5
Number of Heads
Assessment 1.1:
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Example 7: Find the mean of the probability distribution involving the random variable X that gives the
Number of heads that appear after tossing four coins. Refer to example 5:
Example 8: The probabilities that a printer produces 0, 1, 2, and 3 misprints are 42%, 28%, 18%, and 12%,
respectively. Construct a probability mass function and then compute the mean value of the
random variable.
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
The probability distribution table or probability mass function and its corresponding values are shown
below. The number of misprints (X) is written on the first row and the probability P(X) is on the second
row. To change percent to decimal, move two decimal places to the left.
Number of Misprints (X) 0 1 2 3
Probability P(X) 0.42 0.28 0.18 0.12
𝜇 = ∑4𝑖=1 𝑥 i𝑝(𝑥 i) = 𝑥 1𝑝(𝑥1) + 𝑥 2𝑝(𝑥 2) + 𝑥 3𝑝(𝑥3) + To solve for the mean, we use the formula at the left
𝑥 4𝑝(𝑥 4) side. 𝑥 1𝑝(𝑥1) means; 𝑥 1=0 and p(x1) = 0.42. Then, find
the product. And so on & so forth.
𝜇 = (0 × 0.42) + (1 × 0.28) + ( (2 × 0.18) + (3 × 0.12) Simplify.
𝜇 = 0 + 0.28 + 0.36 + 0.36 The mean value of the variable is 1. Thus, the average
number of misprints the printer can produce
𝝁= 1 is 1 (or one bond paper if you are printing bond
papers).
8
Example 9: Find the mean (𝜇) of the following probability distribution table.
(X) 2 4 6 8
P(X) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
𝜇 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥 i𝑝(𝑥 i) To solve for the mean ( 𝜇), we use the formula:
𝜇 = (2 × 0.25) + (4 × 0.25) + ( (6 × 0.25) + (8 × 0.25 Which means x1=2 and p(x1)=0.25. And so on and so
𝜇 = 0.5 + 1 + 1.5 + 2 forth. Find the sum.
𝜇= 5
Solve for the mean of the following probability distribution table below and observe the result.
Example 10: Find the mean (𝜇) of the following probability distribution table
(X) 2 4 6 8
P(X) 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.4
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
𝜇 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥 i𝑝(𝑥i) To solve for the mean ( 𝜇), we use the formula
𝜇 = (2 × 0.4) + (4 × 0.1) + ( (6 × 0.1) + (8 × 0.4) Which means x1=2 and p(x1)=0.4. And X2=4 and
p(x2)=0.1; so on and so forth.
𝜇 = 0.8 + 0.4 + 0.6 + 3.2 Find the product and simplify. Hence,
𝜇= 5
𝜇
The two distributions have the same mean with the same values for the variable. However, the
distribution of the probabilities is completely different. The variance and the standard deviation can help
you describe how different these two distributions are. The variance of a probability distribution depends on the
squared deviations from the mean of each value of the random variable multiplied by their corresponding
probabilities. The standard deviation, then, is determined by getting the square root of the variance.
The following steps will simplify the process of computing the variance and standard
Deviation.
1. Compute the mean value of the random variable.
2. Subtract each value from the mean and square the differences.
3. Multiply the squared differences by the corresponding probabilities.
4. Add all the products. This gives the variance of the probability distribution.
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Example 11: Compute the variance and standard deviation of the two probability distributions (example 9 &
10) with the same 𝜇 of 5 presented earlier. Interpret the values.
Solutions:
Solution/s Explanation/s
𝛿 2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 (𝑥 i − 𝜇)2 𝑝(𝑥 i) To solve for the variance we use the formula:
Given: xi = 2,4,6, and 8 X -first row in the table; 𝑝(𝑥i) = the values in the
𝜇=5 second row
Find: (x − 𝜇) and (x − 𝜇)2
x 2 4 6 8 (x1 − 𝜇)= 2 - 5 = -3; Write the result in the table, see
p(x) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 (x2 − 𝜇) = 4 - 5= -1 arrow
(x − 𝜇) -3 -1 1 3 (x3 − 𝜇)= 6 – 5 = 1
(x − 𝜇) 2 (x4 − 𝜇)= 8 – 5 = 3
Next: Find (x − 𝜇)2 Write the product in (x − 𝜇)2 in row four(see arrow)
x 2 4 6 8 (x1 − 𝜇)2 = (-3)2= 9 Write the result in the 4th row.
p(x) 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 (x2 − 𝜇)2 = (-1)2 = 1
(x − 𝜇) -3 -1 1 3 (x3 − 𝜇)2= (1)2 = 1
(x − 𝜇)2 9 1 1 9 (x4 − 𝜇)= (3)2 = 9
𝛿 2 = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 (𝑥 i − 𝜇)2 𝑝(𝑥i) Solve for the variance using the formula:
𝛿 2 = 9(0.25) + 1(0.25) + 1(0.25) + 9(0.25) Which means: (x1 − 𝜇)2 = 9; p(x1)= 0.25. (x2 − 𝜇)2 = 1;
p(x2)= 0.25; so on & so forth. Find the sum.
𝛿2 = 5 The Variance.
𝛿 = √5 = 2.24 The standard deviation is 2.24
We will find the standard deviation of the given distribution below knowing that the two distribution has the
same mean.
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
Given: xi = 2,4,6, and 8 X -first row in the table; 𝑝(𝑥i) = the values in the
𝜇=5 second row
(x1 − 𝜇)= 2 - 5 = -3
x 2 4 6 8 (x2 − 𝜇) = 4 - 5= -1
p(x) 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.4 (x3 − 𝜇)= 6 – 5 = 1
(x − 𝜇) -3 -1 1 3 (x4 − 𝜇)= 8 – 5 = 3
(x − 𝜇)2 Write the results in the third row, see arrow. Next, fill
up the 4th row.
x 2 4 6 8 (x1 − 𝜇)2 = (-3)2= 9 Write the result in the 4th row.
p(x) 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.4 (x2 − 𝜇)2 = (-1)2 = 1
(x − 𝜇) -3 -1 1 3 (x3 − 𝜇)2= (1)2 = 1
(x − 𝜇) 2 9 1 1 9 (x4 − 𝜇)= (3)2 = 9
2 𝑛 2
𝛿 = ∑𝑖=1 (𝑥 i − 𝜇) 𝑝(𝑥 i) Solve for the variance using the formula:
𝛿 2 = 9(0.4) + 1(0.1) + 1(0.1) + 9(0.4) Which means: (x1 − 𝜇)2 = 9; p(x1)= 0.4. (x2 − 𝜇)2 = 1;
p(x2)= 0.1; so on & so forth. Find the sum.
𝜹𝟐 = 7.4 The variance
𝜹 = √𝟕. 𝟒 = 2.72 The standard deviation
Observe the first standard deviation is 𝜹 = 2.24 while the second distribution is 𝜹= 2.72.. The second
probability distribution is more spread than the first though both distribution has the same mean.
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Assessment 1.2:
Sometimes, you want to find out how choosing a random event will benefit you in the
long run. Suppose you join a raffle event that will cost you a ticket worth Php 200 for a chance
to win a grand prize of Php 10 000. You know that there are 500 tickets sold for the event and
you want to find out the amount of money that will pay you off for buying one of the tickets.
This situation will be best understood and decided if you know the concept of expected value.
Expected Value
Suppose that a random variable X assume i number of possible values 𝑥 1, 𝑥 2, 𝑥 3,… 𝑥 i
and the corresponding probability of each value is given by p(𝑥), then the expected value for X,
denoted as E(X), is equal to the mean value of the probability distribution. Thus,
To illustrate this concept, assume that the random variable X gives the payoff from buying the ticket. There
can only be two values for the payoff: if you win, the payoff will be Php 9 800 (it is not Php 10,000 due to
Php200 worth of ticket) and if you lose, the payoff will be – Php200. You know that the probability of winning
𝑛(𝐸)
is P(E) = where n(E) = 1. Which means only 1 ticket holder wins. And n(S)=500 since
𝑛(𝑆)
there were 500 tickets sold. Hence, the probability of
winning is,
𝑛(𝐸) 1
P(E) = =
𝑛(𝑆) 500
To find the expected payoff from joining the raffle, multiply each possible payoff value by their
corresponding probabilities and add all the products. We use the formula
𝐸(𝑋) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥 i𝑝(𝑥 i).
1 499
E(X) = (9 800)( ) + (–200) ( )
500 500
The expected payoff for each ticket is –180, a negative number, which means that each of the 500 raffle
tickets is expected to have an average loss of Php 180 in the long run.
The expected value of a random variable, also known as expectation or payoff value, is the mean of the
probability distribution of the given random variable.
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Example 11: A card is drawn at random from a deck of cards consisting of cards numbered 1 through 5. A
player wins Php 100 if the number on the card is even and loses Php 100 if the number on the
card is odd. What is the expected value of his winnings?
Solution:
Solution/s Explanation/s
The cards are numbered
1 2 3 4 5
Even cards (winning): 2 and 4 Odd cards (losing): 1,3,and 5.
𝑛(𝐸) 2 The probability of winning is: with n(E)=2 (even cards)
P(E) = ==
𝑛(𝑆) 5
and n(S)=5, is the number of cards from a deck. Hence,
the probability of winning is:
𝑛(𝐸) 3 The probability of losing is: with n(E)=3 (odd cards) and
P(E) = ==
𝑛(𝑆) 5
n(S)=5, is the number of cards from a deck
(X) 100 – 100 At the left is the complete probability distribution
2 3 table.
P(X)
5 5
Use the formula for expected value:
𝑛
𝐸(𝑋) = ∑𝑖=1 𝑥 i𝑝(𝑥 i).
2 3 2 3
E(X) = (100)( ) + (–100) ( ) Substitute x1=100 and p(x1)= ; x2=(-100) and p(x2)= .
5 5 5 5
E(X) = 40 – 60
E(X) = –20 Simplify.
Hence, The expected value is –20. Thus, the player is expected to lose an average of Php 20 in the game.
Assessment 1.3:
As there are many problems in the real world, especially those that involve unplanned events,
may be modeled and solved by assigning a random variable and using probability, so with the
solutions of our problems depend upon the distance of our knees to the floor.
References:
Canlapan, R. and Campena, F. 2016. Diwa Senior High School Series: Statistics and Probability. Makati
City, Philippines. University Press First Asia.
Creative commons.org
Online Math learning
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft excel 2004 Prentice-Hall.