rene) Beta-decay * Beta decay is a term used to describe three types of decay in which a nuclear neutron (proton) changes into a nuclear proton (neutron). The decay modes are f, 8° and electron capture (EC) * £ decay involves the change of a nuclear neutron into a proton dnd is found in nuclei with a larger than stable number of neutrons relative to protons, such as fission fragments. * During beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the same number of nucleons as the parent, but the atomic number is changed by one * Symbolically A A 2X nY¥+e A A + gX > 7AYr+e © Beta decay is not completely described by these equationsrene) Beta Decay, cont. e The emission of the electron or positron is from the nucleus e The nucleus contains protons and neutrons e The process occurs when a neutron is transformed into a proton or a proton changes into a neutron © The electron or positron is created in the process of the decay e Energy must be conservedPenne) Beta Decay — Particle Energy « The energy released in the | decay process should almost all go to kinetic energy of the Bparticle * Since the decaying nuclei all have the same rest mass, the Q value should be the same for all decays « Experiments showed a range in the amount of kinetic energy of the emitted particles « Were conservation laws violated? (a) Kinetic energyPenne) Conservation Laws Violated. How ?? Violation of Law of Conservation of Energy Violation of Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum Violation of Law of Conservation of Angular Momentumetna) The Neutrino Hypothesis To account for this “missing” energy, in 1930 Pauli proposed the existence of another particle Enrico Fermi later named this particle the neutrino > , erve > €.g. energy conservation implies that the electron should have a fixed energy. Observation tells us that the spectrum of the electron is continuous.Cemine ‘The Neutrino Hypothesis These two “problems” lead W. Pauli to postulate the existence of a particle that escaped detection: (4 December 1930, Zarich) Dear radioactive ladies and gentlemen: | have hit upon a desperate remedy to save the “exchange theorem” and the energy theorem. Namely [there is] the possibilty that there could exist in the nuclei electrically neutral Particles that | wish to call neutrons.. But | don't fee! secure enough to publish anything about this idea. | admit that my remedy may appear to have a small a priori probability because neutrons, if they exist, would probably long ago have been seen. However, only those who wager can winCemine The Neutrino Hypothesis What Pauli was saying: Electron an End point and shape of the spectrum depend on neutrino mass This method of measuring the mass, still in use, gives m,< 2.2 eV/c?rene) Beta Decay — Completed e Symbolically ax — ZAY+e°74+V aX —> 2AY+e*+Vv e vis the symbol for the neutrino e v is the symbol for the antineutrino e To summarize, in beta decay, the following pairs of particles are emitted e An electron and an antineutrino e Apositron and a neutrinorene) Beta decay and fundamental view of beta decay © e created at the instant of emission by weak interaction e Weak interaction force L carriers are W* and Z°. Masses of these particles large (81, 93 GeV/c) and forces are short range (10-3 fm) e n(udd)—>p(duu) + B+ v, Discussed in later slidesPenne) Beta Decay — Examplesrene) Why do we “need” neutrinos? 1932 n > p + e& + neutrino charge 0 +1 -1 0 —snectacl mass 93956563 938.27231 0.51099906 = Me’ MeV MeV neutrino mass < 5.1eV < m,/100000 € es = but what else? “” wom be em spin "s together carry net momentum from the nucleus Conservation of energy Conservation of angular momentumrene) Beta Decay, Final Notes ‘* The fundamental process of e° decay is a neutron changing into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino © Inf decay, AZ = +1, AN =-1, AA = * Most of the energy emitted in the decay appears in the rest and kinetic energy of the emitted electron (8 ) and the emitted anti-electron neutrino The decay energy is shared between the emitted electron and neutrino. B* decay is seen in all neutron-rich nuclei The second type of beta decay is {s* (positron) decay Ine’, the proton changes into a neutron, positron and neutrino * This can only occur within a nucleus * It cannot occur for an isolated proton since its mass is less than the mass of the neutron * In this decay, AZ = -1, AN =+1, AA =O, ie., a nuclear proton changes into a nuclear neutron with the emission of a positron, f° , and an electron neutrino, v, * Like fp: decay, in f° decay, the decay energy is shared between the residual nucleus, the emitted positron and the electron neutrino, % B* decay occurs in nuclei with larger than normal p/n ratios. It is restricted to the lighter elements 1rene) Electron Capture © The third type of beta decay is electron capture (EC) decay. In EC decay an orbital electron is captured by a nuclear proton changing it into nuclear neutron with the emission of a electron neutrino. ss naethy © An example of this type of decay is . 4X+ Se> AY+v e(@) ae e The occurrence of this decay is detected by the griies X-ray (from the vacancy in the electron shell). e It is the preferred decay mode for proton-rich heavy nuclei. e In most.cases, a K-shell electron is captured, so this is often referred to as K capture aioerene) Q Values for Beta Decay e For e decay and electron capture, the Q value is Q = (M, — My)c? e For e* decay, the Q value is Q=(M,— My - 2m,)c? e The extra term, -2m,c?, is due to the fact that the atomic number of the parent decreases by one when the daughter is formed To form a neutral atom, the daughter sheds one electron If Qis negative, the decay will not occurrene) peo If Mc*(A,Z) is the rest mass energy of the parent atom and @Q is the energy released in the decay then M(A,Z)c? = M*(A,Z+1)c2 + m,c2 + O where M*(A,Z+1)c? is the rest mass energy of the positive ion produced. Now since the ionization potential energy is relatively small we can write M‘(A,Z+1)c? + m,c? ~ M(A,Z+1)c* Thus M(A,Z)c? = M(A,Z+1)c? + Q energy will be released in the decay (ie Q > 0) provided M(A,Z)c? is greater than M(A,Z+1)c2rene) emission f—decay , we wri 2X RY + Se The disintegration energy in “decay is: Q,. =[M, (A,Z)-M, (4,241)- =[M(A,Z)-Zm, -M(A,Z+1)+(Z+1)m, -m, ]c? (in terms of atomic mass) =(M(A,2)-M(A,Z+1)]c* where M, is the nuclear mass, M the atomic mass and m, the mass of electron. Q,- 29, if M(A, Z) > M(A, Z + 1) implying that B~ decay occurs only if the mass of the parent atom is greater than that of the daughter atom.airs Positron emission The charge on the nucleus is reduced and the daughter atom has an excess electron Thus M(A,Z)c? = M(A,Z-1)c? + 2m,c? + Q The 27n_c? account for the emitted positron and the excess atomic electron in the final state. In this case the decay process can only proceed (Q > 0) if M(A,Z)c? > M(A,Z-1)c2 + 2m,c2 i.e, the difference in rest mass energies must be at least 1 MeV.4G.11| CRE 2X LY+ fe =[M, (A,Z)-M, (A, Z=1)-m, =[M(A,Z)-Zm, -M(A,Z-1)+(Z-I)m,-m, ]e* =[M(A,Z)-M(A,Z-1)-2m, ay to occur. ,Oye SUE (A5Z)SM(ASZ}) #2 For eC ie. the mass of the parent dtbin js greater that thedalighter atom at least twice the electronic mass, ic. 1.02 MeV. 5Cleige fl - tron capture: ty 4% 4H Therefore, disinteg 2. = [My (AsZ) timp My A,Z-1)|c? = B, where B, is the binding energy of the electron to the orbit Ce M(A,Z)-Zm, #m, =M(A,Z=1}+(Z-1)m, M(A,Z)-M(A,Z=i)]o =B, For electron capture to occu if M(A,Z) > M(A,Z )+B, ie. the mass of the parent atom iS greater than that of the daughter atom by at least the binding energy of the electron.rene) gr ost’ Q@= K—Y-—a am, = (51-9648 — $1957 1x 931 + SMV — ;-o2 mV Qe DIT AV AH eV = 6 LMVrene) Neutrino e Properties of the neutrino Zero electrical charge Mass much smaller than the electron, probably not zero Spin of % Very weak interaction with matter and so is difficult to detect Very very Difficult to detect.eT ne) Peculiar neutrino & weak-interaction properties Lee and Yang interpretation (1957): 2 1 t . { The antineutrino is always + emitted with helicity +1 Lee and Yang formulated the 2-component neutrino theory: neutrinos > left (negative) helicity antineutrinos > right (positive) helicity Neutrinos “should” have zero mass.rene) The forces which allow a nucleus to emit beta electrons The first theory of beta decay was made in 1934 by the great Italian physicist Enrico Fermi, at a time when the existence of quarks was not suspected and the one of neutrinos only hypothetical. Since the 1970s, we know that when a nucleon change: its nature (proton or neutron), it is because one of the constituents (up or down quark) transformes itself from ‘one species into another. It is at this elementary level that weak interaction steps in mitt et & —= es +18 kev —e,- From quarks to nucleus s See 8 28 1 3 Ss