ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2017-19 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
(0460)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Fertility rate: The average number of children a

female is
expected to have in their lifetime
1. Population and Settlement High death rates in LEDCs:
Poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics
Poor sanitation/hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places
1.1. Population Dynamics Poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases
Limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation
Keywords:
HIV/AIDS
Under-population: when country has declined too
Natural disasters/drought/flood
much that it can’t support its economic system
Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases
Overpopulation: too much population of an area:
Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g.
overcrowding, depletion of resources
smoking/diet
Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for
Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s
every 1000 people
homes
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000
Low birth rates in MEDCs:
people
Availability of contraception/family planning/abortions
Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death
Educated in contraception/family planning
rate
Can afford contraception/family planning/abortions
Reasons for population explosion:
Traditionally small families
Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals,
Expense of bringing up children (high standard of
doctors, new drugs and scientific inventions
living)
Improved sanitation and water supply
Many women have careers/women are educated
Improvements in food production (quality & quantity)
Origin and impact of HIV/AIDS:
Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc.
HIV-1 – arose in Central Africa
Decrease in child mortality
HIV-2 – arose in West Africa
Problems of overpopulation and underpopulation:
HIV mostly occurs in women
When women give birth, they infect the child as well
Overpopulation Underpopulation
resulting
in low death rate for infants
Unemployment Shortage of workers Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan
Pressure on healthcare and generation
Less people paying taxes
education Due to the countries being poor, there is a lack of
Schools, hospitals & services state
welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of
Shortage of housing close down due to lack of education
customers Population policies:
Traffic congestion Less innovation/development Some countries have population policies to either
decrease or increase their population
Inflation (excess demand) Hard to defend country
Shortage of food and water Have to attract migrants Decrease population:
Noise, air & water pollution
China’s One Child Policy
Diseases spread quicker
Started in 1979
Country’s fertility rate was 5.7
Reasons for contrasting rates of natural population
Would be fined up to 3000 if a family had a second
change:
child
Population size is related to the amount of resources
available
e.g. water, wood and minerals Can have second child only
Carrying Capacity: number of people the environment Evaluation
if….
can
support without there being negative effects to
First child died in 2008 Fertility rate dropped from
the population
earthquake 5.7 in 1960 to 1.5 in 2010
Optimum Population: amount of people that a
region/country
can ecologically support, usually less High dependency ratio - lack
than carrying capacity First child has disability of working population to
Population Density: number of people living in a given support old dependents

area
(km2)
Living in rural area Narrowing gender imbalance
Population Distribution: how a population is spread Multiple births (twins, triplets Forced abortions often
out
around a country or an area etc), gets to keep all children happened
Factors that contribute to population size:
Migration: movement of people (or animals) from one Increase population:
country
or region to another
Birth rates Germany’s Pro Natal population policy
Death rates Fertility rate 1.38 in 2012

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Youth unable to support ageing population Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their
destination
Encourage by… Evaluation
Free education Not very effective Push factors Pull factors
More immigration Fertility rate 1.54 in 2021 Unemployment More job opportunities
Rewards are given but no War Better salary
Paid maternity leave
punishment Pollution and congestion Better schools and hospitals
Paid parental leave Bad weather Peaceful and safe
No tax for families who have Friends and family may
High crime rates
more than one child already live there
Poor education and
Citizenship
1.2. Migration healthcare
Poor housing Higher standard of living
Keywords: Famine Closer to relatives
Migration: Movement of people from one place to
another Impacts of Migration:
Immigrants: People who arrives at a country to live
there permanently COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
Emigrants: People who leaves the country to live in Home country for migrants; country they were living in
another country permanently before moving
Net migration: Number of immigrants minus number Advantages Disadvantages
of emigrants Labour force reduced -
Types of migration:
Less pressure on healthcare
reduced output
Internal migration: When people move to a different Brain drain: more
place within the country Decline in birth rate skillful/educated labour leave
Eg - California, US to Texas, US country - fewer innovations
International migration: When people move from a
Migrants bring back new
country to another; involving the crossing of a Division of families
skills
country’s border
Eg - Malaysia to Korea Money is sent back Left with elderly population -
Temporary migration: When people stay in an area for (remittances) less income
a limited amount of time Creates more job
Eg: Seasonal migrants opportunities: reduces
Permanent migration: When people move and never unemployment
return home Less pressure on education
Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are Increased quality of
forced to move education and healthcare
Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their
Decrease traffic congestion
home and their country, may be due to a natural disaster,
and air pollution - less cars
war, religious or political persecution
Persecution: When someone is attacked for what they
COUNTRY OF DESTINATION
believe in e.g. their religion or political belief
Where migrants are moving to
Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge (residency) in a
foreign country because their life is in danger in their Advantages Disadvantages
home country Overcomes labour shortage Competition for jobs
Voluntary migration: When people choose to move More pressure on healthcare
Dirty unskilled jobs done
Employment: People may move to another country in and education
search of better jobs and better pay, or for new business Brings expertise to country:
opportunities Japanese moves to Australia Traffic congestion - air and
Education: Young adults from developing countries to set up Japanese restaurant noise pollution
typically choose to move away from their home country - authentic
to study abroad for a better future
Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for
Healthcare: Elderly and medically challenged individuals
innovations immigrants
may opt to travel and then stay for access to better
medical facilities Cultural diversity
Reasons for population migration: Will work long hours for low
Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from salary
their home country
MIGRANTS THEMSELVES

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Advantages Disadvantages Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age
More job opportunities Culture shock and sex structure of the country

Better salary & access to

Racism
wider variety of good
Better access to education &
Language barriers
healthcare
Safer & peaceful; can start a Different culture may be
family difficult to integrate
Separated from friends and
Higher pay
family
Higher standard of living Higher cost of living
Send remittances to family Not used to weather
back home conditions
Visa
Difficulty in finding houses to
stay

Problems of having too many Old Dependents:

1.3. Population Structure More pensions to be paid
More pressure on public transportation: many old
Keywords: dependents do not drive
Ageing population: Old dependents (people above 60 More pressure on healthcare
years old) Not enough labour force
Dependent population: People who don’t work; Difficult to evacuate old dependents during natural
retired and young children disasters
Why do LEDCs have more young dependents than
The Demographic Transition Model: MEDCs?
LEDCs cannot afford contraception
LEDCs have no education on family
planning/contraception
Children wanted as labour in LEDCs
Cost of living higher in MEDCs
Implications of Young Dependents:

Too few Too Many

Closure of child related Child care needed so parents
services; fewer jobs can work
Less consumers and Taxes for public schools from
taxpayers in the future government
An increase in the age of the
Increased dependency ratio
population
Birth rates fall below
Creation of teaching and
minimum because the
nursing jobs
population declines
Pressure on healthcare and
Less labour in future
Stage 1: high birth rates; high death rates; short life education
expectancy; less dependency (since there are few old
people and children must work anyway)
Stage 2: high birth rates; fall in death rates; slightly longer
1.4. Population Density & Distribution
life expectancy; more dependency due to more elderly
Keywords:
Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining g death rate; longer
Population density: number of people per unit of area
life expectancy; more dependency
(typically per kilometer square)
Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest
Sparsely populated: an area with low population
dependency ratio; longest life expectancy
density
Stage 5: When proportion of old dependents is increasing
Densely populated: an area with high population
Occurs because life expectancy increases, but also
density
because birth rates start to fall
Factors influencing:
typically happens in very developed countries

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Sparse Population Dense Population Nodal points: where routes converge

Physical Mountainous areas - Flat relief - easier to Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge
Factors inaccessible build Aspect: settlements often on sunny side of a valley
Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain
Extreme climates Favourable climates
Rivers - easy access Hierarchy of settlements:
High risk of flooding
and trading
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops
Locations with
No or few natural
frequent natural
disasters
disasters
Availability of natural
resources for industry
and manufacturing
Economic No economic Many job
factors opportunities opportunities
No infrastructure Good infrastructures
Many transport routes
No transport routes
to travel easily
Social
High crime rates Low crime rates
factors Determining order of importance:
Political Government Reliable and stable The population size
factors corruption government The range and number of services
Poor public services The sphere of influence
such as healthcare Good public services Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel
and education from to
access a service.
Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g.
Civil war
supermarket. Services have a threshold population,
which helps
explain why bigger settlements have more
1.5. Settlements & Service Provision services.
Range: This usually refers to the number of different
services e.g.

a school, a post office, etc.

Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people

required for
a service to be offered and remain open.
High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy
An isolated, Buildings are less
frequently. They tend to be more expensive and
Buildings are people will normally
compare quality and price before
building or a group strung along a line
grouped together, purchasing e.g. a car
of two or three of communication,
initially for defence, Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy
buildings, for example a main
or a common every day.
They don't usually cost much money and
separated from the road, a river valley,
resource. people would not normally
travel far to buy them e.g.
next by 2 or 3 km. or canal
bread and milk
Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement Functions of settlements:
is
located – the actual piece of land Rural Areas: tend to have a lot less functions than
Situation: describes settlement in relation to other urban
areas. The main purpose of settlements in rural
settlements
and physical features around it – this areas is
normally agriculture & low-order services.
determines whether the
situation will grow into a large This is because rural
areas have less people, poorer
city or remain a small town or
village transport, poorer communication,
less technology, &
Factors influencing settlements: the land is better used for other purposes.
Wet point site: this has a good water supply Urban Areas: tend to have a lot more functions
Dry point site: this has less risk of flooding ranging from
shopping functions, to educational
functions, to transport
functions, to administrative
Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay etc.
Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with functions and residential
functions; more middle and
steep sided
and commanding views high order services.
Fuel supply: for heating and cooking Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban area
Food supplies: land suitable for farming into the
rural-urban fringe; provides mostly middle –
order services

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Problems of urban growth in urban areas:

1.6. Urban Settlements
For People For Environment
Urban settlements tend to have several land uses
Overcrowded Loss of vegetation
The Central Business District Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats
Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains
The CBD:
Centre point of the city and has highest land prices Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers
Most accessible point in the city Difficulties of waste/litter Death of fish/other species
High-rise buildings and skyscrapers Traffic congestion Pollution of ground water
Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services, and Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution
other
professional services Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up
Land uses:
Poor quality of life
Leisure and recreation - may include open land
Residential - High/multi-story buildings. Food shortage
Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and
airports 1.7. Urbanisation
Business and commerce - offices, shops, and banks
Industry - factories, warehouses, and small Urban Growth in Rural Areas
production centers
The CBD is in the centre because it is: Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth
A central location for road/railways to converge for several
reasons:
The most accessible location for workers Better transport links e.g. road, rail, river
Accessible to most people for shops and businesses Better trading prospects
Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack of Nearby natural resources e.g. fuel
space Better job prospects
Better schools and hospitals
Residential Areas Better supply of electricity, gas and water
Varied entertainment
Old inner-city area:
Typically found next to CBD Rural-Urban Migration
Has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern
Suburbia: Movement of people from countryside towards cities
Urban sprawl and owning cars led to construction of Rural-urban migration is main cause of urbanisation
well-planned
and spacious houses It is caused by several push & pull factors:
Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden
Typically, detached or semidetached Push factors from rural area Pull factors from urban areas
Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues No/poorly paid jobs More jobs
Land prices cheaper than in CBD and inner city Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare
Demand can make some areas expensive
Agricultural products have
Outer-city estate: Good transport/comms
low prices
Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing
People relocated here when inner city was being Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
redeveloped Lack of entertainment Better entertainment
Rural-urban fringe: Better quality & quantity of
This is found at the edge of a town or city Poor housing quality
houses
Mixture of land uses e.g. housing, golf courses, Drought/famine
allotments,
businesses, parks and airports.
Shortage of resources
Industrial Areas Poor transport/comms.

Factories were built: Reducing negative impacts of

urbanisation
As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space
Next to canals and railways to transport materials Greenbelts: area of land around urban areas that is
Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste protected
from development
disposal Greenfield Sites: sites that are barred from being built on
Next to land where lots of workers could live by
government policies

Urban Growth in Urban Areas Advantages Disadvantages

Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation, due to building Land never used – not Conflicts with other land
in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation polluted users

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CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460)

Advantages Disadvantages Features of earthquakes Effects of earthquakes

Often near rural-urban fringe The government now Subduction zone: occurs at
so good transport links protects many sites destructive margin, one plate Corpses: human & animal
Public protests for building goes under the other
Less congestion
on greenfield site Accessibility difficult
Room to expand Building damaged/destroyed
Tsunami can follow
Brownfield Sites: increasing building on brownfield sites Reconstruction costs
allows
less pressure to be put on rural areas
Reduce impacts of earthquakes:
Advantages Disadvantages
Site polluted – expensive to Prediction Preparation
Often cheap to buy
clean Measure earth tremors, Build earthquake-proof
Near the CBD No room to expand pressure, and release of gas buildings
May not be in desirable shape Use maps and facts to find
Closer to transport routes Train emergency services
or location pattern in time/location
Unusual animal behaviour Set up warning system
Urban Wedges: urban growth allowed to take place in
Seismometer Create evacuation plan
wedges
ensuring some green areas protected throughout
city Richter scale Emergency food supply
Housing density: increasing housing density means less Prepare earthquake kit
land will
be destroyed
Earthquake proof buildings:
Characteristics of Squatter
Settlements Automated weights on roof to reduce movement
Rubber shock-absorbers between foundations
Squatter settlement: a rural residential area which has
Foundation sunk deep into bedrock avoiding clay
developed without legal claims or permission to build on
Automatic shutters come down over the windows
the land
Interlocking steel frames which can sway during earth
Extremely high home density
movements
Extremely high population density
Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs Volcanoes
No electricity A vent in the earth's surface where magma, gas or ash
No running water or sewage escapes onto the earth's surface or into the atmosphere
Diseases spread easily
Strong smell of human waste Diagram of volcano:
No infrastructure or privacy

2. The Natural Environment

2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Earthquakes
A series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust

How earthquakes happen:

Tension released from inside crust
Plates get stuck
Pressure builds up
How do volcanoes form?
Pressure released
Magma rises through cracks of the Earth’s crust
Features of earthquakes Effects of earthquakes Pressure builds up (inside Earth)
Pressure released → plate movement
Focus: point of earthquake Large number of deaths
Magma explodes to surface causing eruption
Epicenter: point directly Lava cools and forms new crust
above the focus, on the Fires breaking out Over time, rock builds up and volcano formed
ground
Seismic waves Water pipes burst Impacts/hazard of Why do people live near
Water contamination, volcanoes volcanoes?
Shaking ground
diseases Pyroclastic flows Fertile soil for crops

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Impacts/hazard of Why do people live near

volcanoes volcanoes?
Tourism (tour guides,
Lava flow
restaurants)
Ash clouds Scientific research
Landslides Mining
Deaths Geothermal energy
Agriculture affected
Lahars

Causes of eruptions:
Earthquakes:
At constructive margin: plates move away from each
Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean
other; magma rises to fill the gap;
Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from
Stretch across southern Europe and Asia
friction and heat from mantle; newly formed magma
Volcanoes:
is lighter so it rises to surface
Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean (known as the
Stages of volcanoes:
Ring of Fire)
Active: has erupted recently
Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean
Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future
Some in southern Europe, the Caribbean & east Africa
Extinct: unlikely to ever erupt again; no magma inside
Types of volcanoes: Plate Boundaries
Diagram Description

Collision: occur when two

continental plates move
towards each other.

Example: Indo-Australian and

the Eurasian Plate
Low viscosity (runny lava) -
Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
basaltic lava
Low in height, gentle sloping High in height, steep sided
Constructive: occur when two
sides with wide base volcanic cones
plates move away from each
Low silica content (covers High silica content (covers other.
long distance) short distance)
Frequent eruptions but low in Infrequent but high
magnitude magnitude Example: North American
High temperature Low temperature and Eurasian Plate
Low gas content High gas content
Little build up pressure Enormous build up pressure Conservative: occur when
two plates slide past each
Distribution of Earthquakes and
Volcanoes other.
Where earthquakes occur and volcanoes form is
governed by plate
tectonics Example: North American
Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is Plate and the Pacific Plate
constantly
being destroyed and replaced
Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is
permanent
Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the Destructive: occur when
mantle oceanic plate is subducted by
‎a continental plate.‎

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Diagram Description
Example: pacific plate and
the Eurasian plate

Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains

Constructive Gentle Gentle No
Destructive Violent Violent Yes Bed: The bottom of the river channel
Bank: The sides of the river channel
Collision None Violent Yes
A river has two banks
Conservative None Violent No Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed of
2.2. Rivers a river
Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving;
The Hydrological Cycle different speeds arise at different parts of the river
Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact
with river
Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that
a river
flows. The flow of the river is often described as
channel flow.
Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the
Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river middle
of the river channel, where there is least friction
Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage
Erosion
basin,
marking the boundary between two drainage
basins Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and
Source: the beginning or start of a river break
into smaller pieces; occurs at higher part of river
Confluence: the point at which two rivers or streams join Hydraulic action: the sheer force of the river dislodges
Tributary: a stream/smaller river which joins a larger particles from its banks and bed
stream or
river Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the river banks
Mouth: point where river comes to end, usually when and bed
like sand-paper; occurs at low part of river
entering sea Solution: acid in rivers dissolve rocks; occurs at any part
of
river
River Processes

Transportation

Traction: rolling stones along the bed

Saltation: small particles bounce along bed in a leapfrog
motion
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the
water
flow
Solution: minerals dissolve in the water

Drainage basins act as a system with:

Inputs: precipitation
Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff,
throughflow & groundwater flow
Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
storage &
groundwater storage
Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or Deposition
evapotranspiration
When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins
Characteristics of rivers depositing the heaviest particles
Happens when there is less water or where the current
slows down
Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small
particles
are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting

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River Profiles Dams:

Built across a river to control the amount of discharge
Long profile: Water is held back by the dam in a reservoir
Released in a controlled way to control flooding
Is expensive to build, can affect farmers & cause
erosion
downstream
Afforestation:
Trees planted near to the river
Greater interception of rainwater
Lower river discharge
Relatively low-cost option, enhances environmental
quality of
the drainage basin
Cross profile: River engineering:
Channel widened/deepened to carry more water
Course Long Profile Cross Profile Channel straightened so water travels faster
Course altered to divert floodwater away from homes
Upper Steeply sloping Steep sided v- Alterations may lead to a greater risk of flooding
towards the lower shaped valley, thin downstream,
as the water is carried there faster
sections of the river channel, deep Managed flooding: Allow river to flood naturally in places,
river in places to
prevent flooding in other areas
V-shaped valley Planning:
Middle remains with a Authorities & government introduce policies to
Shallow slopes control urban
development near/on floodplain
wider valley floor,
towards the mouth reducing risk of flooding &
damage to property
river begins to
of the river Enforcing regulations may be difficult in LEDCs
meander, channel
is wider & deeper
Wide, shallow 2.3. Coasts
valley, with large
Lower Almost at sea level,
flood plains & Coasts are formed by the sea and wind working together
gently sloping to its
meanders; channel in 3 key
tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
mouth
is wide deep &
smooth sided Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats
Sports/recreation Hurricanes
png) Groundwater recharge Coastal storms
FLOODS Habitat for fish Tsunamis
Causes of flooding: Transport (shipping goods) Landslides
No vegetation Tourism Flooding
Deforestation Job opportunities Coastal erosion
Urbanisation
Poor drainage Coastal Management
Steep slopes Hard Engineering:
Rock type (impermeable rocks does not absorb water) Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages
Wet soil (over saturation)
Reduce
Why do people live near erosion and Very expensive
Impacts prevents and big,
rivers? Coastlines/foot
Sea wall flooding; requires
Water supply (drinking, of cliffs
People can be killed Curved constant
washing)
structure maintenance
Homes destroyed Fishing industry breaks waves
Spread of water borne Increases
Transportation for trading
diseases distance
Shortage of clean water and between
Tourism Certain
food waves and
In front of area sections of
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil coasts →
Groynes facing coastal coast may be
Businesses destroyed Powerplants (dams) Waves lose
erosion more exposed
energy →
Sports/recreation to erosion
Reduces
impacts of
Flood Management Techniques waves

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Name Located at Advantages Disadvantages Name Description Advantages Disadvantages

Reduces Widen beach
impact of Planting dead and reduces
Not as Beach Effectiveness
waves on cliff, trees in sand wave energy,
effective as stabilisation is uncertain
Gabions Base of cliff prevents cliff to stabilise lowers profile
other coastal
from being of beach
defences
undercut;
cheap Erosion at Coasts
Absorbs
energy of Corrasion: large waves hurl beach material at the cliff
waves, Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
prevents cliffs Attrition: waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate
from being Hydraulic action: force of waves compresses air in cliffs
Slanted barrier
eroded; Transportation – Longshore Drift
Revetments against waves Expensive
Rippled
at base of cliff
surfaces helps Waves approach coast at an angle
dissipate wave Swash moves up the beach at an angle
energy; No Backwash drains straight back down the beach
need much Gradually moving material along beach in zig-zag motion
maintenance
Visual
Rocks and Absorbs wave
pollution,
stones put energy,
Rip-raps susceptible to
against base of protects cliffs
being moved
cliff behind
by the sea
Effective, Visual
breaks pollution,
Breakwaters Near coasts
incoming easily
water destroyed
Prevents storm Deposition
Tidal
Side of coasts surges, very Expensive
barriers
effective Components of a wave:
Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
Soft Engineering: Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
Name Description Advantages Disadvantages
TYPES OF WAVES
Increases
Constructive Destructive
distance
between Low wave height High wave height
Sand/shingle Beach gradient is gentle Beach gradient is steep
Beach waves and Effectiveness
added to the
nourishment cliffs → Waves is uncertain Spill forward gently Plunge forward
beach
lose energy → Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
Less erosive Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
power material strong backwash
Tourism Backwash is weak Erodes beaches
Good barrier affected as
Deposits material
Land Protect and against coastal dunes marked
management rebuild dunes flooding and out of bounds Builds up beaches
erosion to general
public Constructive:
Break up
waves and
reduce speed
and power of
waves → Effectiveness
Marshland
Limits area is uncertain
which waves
can reach →
Prevents
flooding Destructive:

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Cliffs & Wave-cut platforms

Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff

A wave-cut notch is formed
Cliff is undercut & collapses
Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff

Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily

Headlands are usually formed since they are made of
resistant rock
and so is eroded more difficultly

Spits

Spits form when the coastline changes direction

Longshore drift carries material in same direction
Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit
End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind

Sand Dunes

Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches

Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-
water mark &
carry it landward by saltation
Caves, Arches & Stacks
If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy &
A band of weaker rock extends through a headland deposits sand
in the lee of the obstacle
Erosion produces caves on both sides of headland Eventually a dune is formed
More erosion produces an arch through the headland Plants grow on it which stabilizes it & traps more sand
Eventually the roof is weak & collapses forming a stack
Mangrove Swamps

Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in

saline coastal
habitats in the tropics and subtropics
Provide a habitat and protection for many fish & other
sea animals,
especially when young
They slow water flow encouraging any sediment to be
deposited,
keeping sea water clear
Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and
tsunamis
They are a source of food and material
Conditions required for formation of mangrove swamps:

Beaches

In bays, the waves diverge outwards

The wave energy is dissipated creating a low energy
environment
hence deposition to form beaches

Bays and Headlands

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Protip: important to know how weather instruments look like

and brief knowledge of how to use
Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the
same
amount of water & so comparisons can be made

Coral Reef

Coral reefs support a great diversity of life

Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons &
coralline
algae
Conditions required for growth of coral reef:
Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
Plentiful supply of plankton
Lack of strong current

Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:

2.4. Weather Funnel (A) to collect the water.
Container to collect water which may be graduated
Weather: Emptied once every 24hrs
The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere, Rain is measured in millimetres.
including
changes in temp., rainfall and humidity Sunk into ground, but not level so splashes or surface
Can vary from day to day and from place to place water
can’t get in
Protip: important to know features of the Stevenson’s screen Anemometer: Measures wind speed
Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers

Painted white to reflect sun with double lid for insulation

Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to
prevent light getting in
Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground
On short grass for same amount of reflection

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are

blown around
by the wind the revolutions are counted &
converted into m/s, km/h
or knots

Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of

sunshine at a
given location

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Burns a timeline
Traces sun shine not the hours of daylight
The glass ball focusses the light
This burns a line onto the card Dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer and it
measures actual air
temperature
Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. temp. over 24hr
Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with a fine cloth
period
which is
connected to a reservoir of water.
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so
it reads a
few degrees lower than air temp.
Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read

Barometer: Measures air pressure

**Protip**Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021
Geography paper 4)

Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains

alcohol
As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index and when
it cools, mercury contracts and index is
left in place at highest
temp
As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with
An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber
it; but
as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it at
As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts &
lowest temp
expands
Both indexes read from bottom once every 24hrs
Levers conduct this movement to a spindle which moves
Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to calculate pointer on the
dial which records the air pressure in
humidity of air mmHg

Wind vane: Records wind direction

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Hot Desert Climate Graph

The fletching is blown by the wind so that the arrow head

points
into the wind.
Mounted on a high places (rooftops)
Make sure no trees are blocking

2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation

Weather Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics:
Describes condition of atmosphere eg sunny, hot,
Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature
windy Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and
Climate
cooler
summers
This is the average conditions over a longer period of Prevailing winds: seasonal difference in heating between
time,
usually a few years
land
and sea affects temperature of prevailing wind.
Warm prevailing wind
= rise in temperature
Equatorial Hot Desert
Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures
Between 5° and 30° in
coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer
Close to the
Location north and south of Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
equator
the equator 100m)
Mean temp. of
≈25°C ≈30°C Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem
hottest month
Mean temp. of Distribution:
≈25°C >18°C
coldest month
Annual temp. range <5°C <5°C
Rainfall amount >200mm <250mm
Same
Rainfall distribution throughout Irregular
year
Wind Low Strong
Cloud Heavy Almost none
Humidity High Low
Pressure Low High

Equatorial Climate Graph Vegetation & Adaptation:

Emergent: tall trees up to 50m, few lower branches,

grows above
others to get full sunlight
Canopy: trees 20-40m forming a continuous canopy, few
lower
branches, makes up 50% of vegetation
Shrub: low shrubs & saplings, plants that adapt because
they are
extremely close to the forest floor

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Lianas: use large trees as support to reach sunlight Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
Fan Palms: wide leaved plants that capture as much Air is dry because:
sunlight &
rainfall as possible Most of the moisture has precipitated over equator
Humus Layer: decaying biological matter; rainforest soil Air travelling to desert travels over land, not the sea
fertility is dependent on this No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to
Buttress Roots: very long roots that support tall trees & high levels
of incoming radiation from the sun
suck
up maximum amount of nutrients in poor soil Causes day-time temps. to be very high
Drip tip leaves: leaves that let rainfall travel over them & Lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to escape
drip to the ground, causing less damage by excess water Causes night-time temps to be low
Annual temperature range is very low
Wildlife & Adaptation: Daily temperature range is very high
Home to many mammals Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests
Tigers in SE Asia
Jaguars in Central & South America Causes:
Leopards in Africa Population growth
Sloths Economic growth
Primates Mining
Lemurs Road building
Home to birds, amphibians, reptiles & insects too Agriculture
Animals adapt in differently to survive e.g. camouflage Urbanisation
Exploitation of land by TNCs
Climate: Effects:
Are close to the equator so they have very similar
Global
climates all year
around Local environment People
environment
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C
Death of local
Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly Loss of vegetation Melting ice
tribes people
Days start of warm & then temp. and humidity build up
Hot air rises causing low pressure Global
More carbon
Causes floods warming/increase
dioxide
Hot Desert Ecosystem temperatures
Distribution: Threatens species
Rising sea levels Less oxygen
with extinction
Changes in climate Reduction of
Loss of habitat patterns eg materials available
drought to build buildings
Reduction of food Loss of species
supply such as polar bears
Soil erosion
Food chain
disrupted

Vegetation & Animal Adaptations:

Vegetation Animal 3. Economic Development
Camel have humps to store
Seeds remain dormant
water 3.1. Development
Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce
transpiration heat Main Indicators
Thorns to protect from Shelter in underground to Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of total
predators avoid heat population
Long roots to search for Only comes out at night to Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of
water hunt total population
Thick stem to store water Gross National Product (GNP): total value of goods
and services produced annually
Light colours to reflect
GNP per Capita: wealth of a country averaged per
sunlight
person
Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants
Climate:
under 1, per 1000 live births per year
Life expectancy: the average age people live to
Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places

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Human Development Index (HDI): measures and Majority in primary sector:

compares international development Lack of machinery available in farming, forestry and
Adult literacy rate: the percentage of adults that can mining
read and write Farming very important because most eat what they
Sectors of the industry: grow
Few in secondary sector:
Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Lack of factories because machinery is too expensive
High tech MNCS manufacture instead
Collecting Provides
Manufacturing and Tertiary may be larger than secondary:
Definition natural services
goods research Most informal work is in the tertiary sector
resources to people
based jobs Growth of jobs in tourism
carpenters, medical
An NIC e.g. Brazil
farming, food researchers,
lawyers,
Examples fishing, production, scientists,
teachers
mining car computer
manufacturers design

Comparing nations:

An MEDC e.g. UK

While Brazil’s economic base is developing, there are still

a large
number of people employed in primary industries
such as farming.
There are a large proportion of people employed in
tertiary
industries.
One reason may be growth of Brazil as a tourist
destination.
Low proportion in primary sector: Also, there have been significant improvements in the
provision of
health care, education and transport
Mechanizations of jobs in primary
Primary resources exhausted
Globalisation
Resources are now imported
Numbers falling in secondary sector: Process in which the world is becoming increasingly
Mechanization - as machines are taking over jobs in interconnected
factories Causes of globalisation:
Tertiary sector is main growth area: Improvements in transportation
Most work in hospitals, schools, offices & financial Freedom of trade
services Improvements of communications
Greater demand for leisure services as people have Labour availability and skills
more free time and become wealthier Impacts of globalisation:
More jobs become available in the tertiary sector
Positive Negative
An LEDC e.g. Ghana
Local businesses may close
Provides jobs and skills
down
Countries may lose control of
Culture diversity
important decisions
Wider choice of goods and Usually operates in richer
services for locals countries
Governments of different
countries can work together
to tackle global issues

TNCs (Transnational Corporation)

Companies that operate in more than 1 country

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Advantages Disadvantages Human Causes Physical Causes

Working conditions may be Natural disasters can destroy
Create job opportunities Deforestation of woodland,
harsh large areas of agricultural
damages integrity of soil as
Improved education and Damage to environment - land and kill or injure
well as its source of nutrients.
skillls factories create air pollution farmers.
Increased economy Profits going overseas If soil is infertile because the
Invest in infrastructures, Natural resources being over Farming and industrial bedrock contains few
healthcare or education exploited pollution can both degrade minerals it can be hard to
land and reduce crop yields cultivate land and lead to low
Higher position jobs awarded
yields.
to foreigners instead of locals
Corruption of government
,
Effects:
Hunger
3.2. Food Production Susceptible to infectious diseases
Impair physical and mental development
Agricultural Systems Reduce labour productivity
Physical Measures to increase output:
HumanInputs Process Outputs
Inputs
Things that GM Crops and Farming
Natural things The events
are built or Things that Genetically modified crops are crops that have their
that are found that take place
made by are produced genes altered
to improve quality and/or quantity
on a farm or on a farm to
humans and on a farm that
added to a turn inputs
added on to a are often sold Advantages Disadvantages
farm into ouputs
farm
Uniform in shape – easy to
Labor/rent Soil Rearing Profits Natural species may die
transport/appeal consumers
Machinery Precipitation Shearing Meat products Growing season shorter Taste often not as good
Building Temp. Ploughing Wool Lead to development of
Length of Drought resistant – less water super weeds – stronger than
Animal feed Fertilizing Milk
Season GM
Fertilizers Alluvium Weeding Waste No one knows long term
Higher yields
Pesticide Floods Irrigating Crops effect on humans
Market
Relief Cultivating Pollution Monoculture
demand
Government Growing of only one type of crop
Drainage Harvesting Erosion
controls Cash crops: crops grown in large plantations for selling
Seeds Slaughtering and
making a profit
Planting
Advantages Disadvantages
Food Shortages & Famine Become more efficient If demand falls, no profit
Profitable Less variety
When demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to
Can have high yields Bad season, no profit
undernourishment
Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's Easily controllable Labor becomes deskilled
health and eventually
lead to starvation Low training required Only source of income

Human Causes Physical Causes Green Revolution

Increasing population; supply Too hot or cool temperatures
cannot keep up with demand can kill crops and animals. The introduction of modern western style farming
techniques in LEDCs
during the late 1960's and 1970's.
Overgrazing reduces integrity
Shortage of rainfall kills most High Yield Varieties:
of soil and can cause topsoil
crops or require irrigation Developed to try and end food shortages by
erosion and soil degradation.
increasing yields.
Overcultivating causes soil Too much rainfall can flood & Were first developed by cross pollinating different
degradation, using up and kill crops or wash away varieties
not giving nutrients recovery topsoil reducing soils fertility This is now being done through genetic modification
time leading to low yield
Successes Failures

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Successes Failures tourists

Hiv did increase food
Required fertilisers & Growth of Tourism
production and made
pesticides polluted water
countries more self-sufficient Greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay
Food prices began to fall The HYV were more prone to Greater mobility: increased cars + more aircraft
making; affordable for poor disease and drought Improved accessibility & transport facilities:
Shorter growing season, More water had to be Better roads
more crops could be grown diverted to growing crops Larger airports, online reservation, package holidays
Many poorer farmers More leisure time:
The yields were more reliable couldn’t afford to buy Longer vacations
Shorter working hours; people work from home
expensive HYV
More elderly
Different crops were grown Mechanisation led to
Changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirement
adding variety to local diet unemployment
Increase in recreational activities
There were surpluses so Advertising holiday destinations: TV + Internet
crops could be traded Many natural varieties lost
commercially Factors that Change Tourist Patterns
Countries & farmers became
Farmers became wealthier Transport & accessibility: access to various means of
dependent on foreigners
transportation e.g. trains, cars, planes, ships
Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
3.3. Industry Weather: climate is important e.g. cold place for ski trip
Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
Input: resources, can be physical e.g. ore or human e.g.
labour Amenities: variety of recreational, historical, leisure
Processes: turning raw materials into usable things e.g. facilities & sites offered
steelmaking; turning usable things into other things e.g.
TOURISM
assembling
cars
Advantages Disadvantages
Outputs: product + profit or loss + waste materials
Types of Industry: To create job opportunities More congestion
Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically Money can be used for
Damage to landscape
used by
consumers e.g. toys development
Processing: turns raw materials into other materials Attract foreign investment
used in
manufacturing e.g. metal production
Noise/air pollution
(TNCs)
Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to put Cultural exchange Shortage of supplies
together a finished product e.g. electronics
Improve health care and
Hi-Tech: specialised industries that mostly do Inflation affecting locals
education
research but
often have small sections dedicated to
each of the 3 normal
types of industry Roads built or improve Seasonal unemployment
Airports improve Social/cultural problems
Factors influencing location of an
Industry Electricity/water supply Racism may happen between
Physical Human improve locals and tourists
Power/energy: industry
should be near source of raw Labour: quantity/quality Managing Tourism
materials
Natural routes: river Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities &
valleys/flat land is good for Markets: size & location are
sustainable e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding
transport Sustainable tourism: tourist activities that are socially,
environmentally & economically sustainable
Transport: cost increases
How?
Site/land: availability/price when items are bulky, fragile,
Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money
perishable
raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of
Government policies parks
Leisure facilities Ban hunting/fishing
Capital Fence prohibited or protected areas
Put up signs such as “no littering”
Impose fines on littering or breaking any rules
3.4. Tourism Vehicles prohibited in certain areas
Create paths for people to walk on
Tourism: the occupation of providing information,
accommodation,
transportation and other services to

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3.5. Energy Benefits Drawbacks

Plenty of radioactive supply Risk of nuclear plants as
Non-renewable resources: as fuel terrorist targets
Are finite Very low amounts of Nuclear technology can be
Fossil fuels were produced by photosynthesis greenhouse gases made used to make WMDs
Takes millions of years for them to form Reduces dependency on Risky to transport material &
Examples: coal, oil, gas fossil fuel countries expensive
Fossil fuels used mainly by MEDCs
Nuclear waste stored safely Risk of nuclear radiation
Uranium for nuclear energy
underground related to cancer
Fuel-wood is a non-commercial source of energy in Electric supply altered easily Uranium mining dangerous
MEDCs but
important in LEDCs based on demand and polluting
Remains radioactive for long
Advantages Disadvantages time & expensive
Cost of production high,
Lasts 300yrs, now become produces lot of GH gases,
Coal more efficient, needed to dangerous, open cast =
3.6. Water
make coke visual pollution, costly to
Uses of Water
transport, acid rain
Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil Agriculture: to water plants
More efficient than coal,
spills, releases greenhouse Industrial:
easier to transport,
Oil gases, prices fluctuate, Heated to make steam to turn turbines
diversity of uses, petro-
refineries use lot of space, Cooling down reactors
chemicals
acid rain Domestic:
Releases methane, Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking
Cleanest of fossil fuels,
explosive, prices fluctuate, Recreational e.g. swimming, sports
Gas cheaper than oil, easy to
acid rain, greenhouse Environmental: preserving water in a dam
distribute
gases.
Evolution of Global Water Use
Renewable resources:
Are continuous
Are, by definition, sustainable
Types:
Geothermal
Wind
Solar
Water Use in Different Economies
Bio fuel
Hydroelectric LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK
Tidal
Wave

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Reduce dependence upon Difficult to produce required
fossil fuels energy quantity
Alleviate the world’s energy Energy produced much less
crisis than fossil fuels
Development of alternative Unreliable supply of constant
energy energy
Some countries lack the
No pollution
conditions for these Methods of Water Supply
Cost of technology high
Source lasts forever
compared to fossil fuel Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete
Reservoirs: artificial lake that develops behind a dam
NUCLEAR POWER Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water
Benefits Drawbacks Desalination:
Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
Technology for nuclear power
Risk of nuclear accidents Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi-
exists
permeable
membrane to remove salt
Sewage Treatment:

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Removal of contaminants from waste water & Soil erosion:

household sewage Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is
Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to washed away by rain because no tree roots to retain it
remove all
the contaminants and make safe In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers
& pollutes drinking water
Causes of Water Shortages Global warming:
Occurs due to too much greenhouse gases
Population Growth: increased pressure on water sources
Greenhouse effect:
as
world's population grows
When infrared radiation passes through atmosphere,
Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries
& some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by
Demand: as development increases globally so does
greenhouse gas molecules
amount of
water needed
This warms the surface & lower atmosphere
Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that
Effects:
waste is
often pumped directly into water sources
Melting poles = rising sea levels = increase in storms
Climate Change: global warming may be releasing
Change in the distribution of precipitation
freshwater from
glaciers & ice shelves, but much of it is
Plants and wildlife might not have time to adjust
running directly into
oceans; inaccessible
Lower crop yields in Africa, Asia & Latin America
Political: water sources are often shared; some people
More people at risk from insect/water-borne diseases
control
large percentages of the shared resource, leading
Greenhouses gases are:
to shortages for
others
CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood
Mismanagement: water is used inappropriately causing
Methane from decomposing organic matter & waste
water
shortages
CFCs from aerosols, air conditioners, & refrigerators
Impact of Water Shortages Nitrogen Oxides from car exhausts & power stations
Air pollution:
Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-
period containing substances causes oxygen starvation
Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage Sulphur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes
Conflict arise when sharing a limited supply of water respiratory problems and acid rain
People may be forced to relocate due to famine/drought Nitrogen oxides: N2 & O2 from air combine due to
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of diseases heat (furnace/engine); same effect as sulphur dioxide
Eutrophication due to run-off Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous
Dirty water/eutrophication causes loss of biodiversity system
Eutrophication: Water Pollution:
Run-off from farms containing fertiliser causes excess Chemicals in fertilizers cause eutrophication
growth of
algae in water Oil spilling into the sea
Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light Acid rain; destroys lakes and kills animals/plants
Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die Health hazards for humans
Damages limestone buildings and sculptures
Solutions to Water Shortages
Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field
Noise pollution:
Desalination: governments should invest more in
desalination
plants Vehicles
Machinery in industries and farms
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
Noisy humans
policies
regarding disposal and reuse of waste water
Conservation: Visual pollution:
all man-made things are ugly compared to unspoiled
Half flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation nature
Collecting rainwater to use on garden Desertification:
Overgrazing
Using appropriate plants for the climate
Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers Soil erosion
Global climate getting warmer - gets drier due to less
Water Charities:
Building wells to access groundwater rain
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution Deforestation - less roots of trees to hold soil together
Sustainable development: Economic development
Teaching appropriate farming techniques
Low cost schemes to filter and clean water without destroying natural resources
Management:
Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to redistribute
water & water the land Population policies
Sustainable tourism
Use of renewable energy
3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic Afforestation
Development Resource conservation: Meeting needs of present without
affecting needs for the future

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Ways of conservation: Restrict the use of resource

3 Rs: reduce, reuse, recycle Use more public transport
Renewable energy Government can raise tax on petrol prices
Use energy efficient products

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GEOGRAPHY (0460)

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