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20ME403 - ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY

UNIT III FERROUS AND NON-

FERROUS METALS

Department: Mechanical Engineering

Batch/Year: 2021-22
Created by: Dr. A. Kadirvel, Mr.S.Rajesh &
Mr.C.Hemadri

Date: 26.02.2022
 1. CONTENTS

S.NO CONTENTS

1 Course Objectives

2 Pre Requisites

3 Syllabus

4 Course outcomes

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping

6 Lecture Plan

7 Activity based learning

8 Lecture Notes

9 Assignments

10 Part A Q & A

11 Part B Qs

12 Supportive online Certification courses

13 Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry

14 Assessment Schedule

15 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

16 Mini Project suggestions

 2. COURSE OBJECTIVES

Students completing this course are expected to:

Explain the principles of constitution of alloys, phase diagrams, and

Iron carbide Equilibrium Diagram.

Classify various types of Heat treatment process and its applications.

Discuss the properties and applications of Ferrous and Nonferrous

metals.

Summarize the properties of Non-metallic materials and applications.

Select the suitable materials for various Engineering applications.

 3. Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code)

20ME403 - ENGINEERING
MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY (IV SEM)

20CH202 - CHEMISTRY 20PH202 - PHYSICS FOR

FOR MECHANICAL MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING (II SEM) ENGINEERING (II SEM)

20ME206 -
FUNDAMENTALS OF
MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES (II SEM)
 4. SYLLABUS
ME8491 ENGINEERING METALLURGY LTPC
3003
OBJECTIVE:
• Students completing this course are expected to:
● Explain the principles of constitution of alloys, phase diagrams, and Iron carbide Equilibrium Diagram.
● Classify various types of Heat treatment process and its applications.
● Discuss the properties and applications of Ferrous and Nonferrous metals.
● Summarize the properties of Non-metallic materials and applications.
● Select the suitable materials for various Engineering applications.
UNIT I : CONSTITUTION OF ALLOYS AND PHASE DIAGRAMS 9
Constitution of alloys – Solid solutions, substitutional and interstitial – Gibbs phase rule– binary phase
diagrams - lever rule - Isomorphous, eutectic, eutectoid, peritectic, and peritectoid reactions, Iron – carbon
equilibrium diagram. Classification of steel and cast Iron microstructure, properties and application.
UNIT II : HEAT TREATMENT 9
Annealing – Full annealing, stress relief, recrystallization and spheroidising – normalizing, hardening and
Tempering of steel. Isothermal transformation diagrams for eutectoid steel – cooling curves superimposed on I.T.
diagram, CCT diagram – Hardenability, Jominy end quench test - Austempering, martempering – case hardening-
carburizing, Nitriding, cyaniding, carbonitriding – Flame and Induction hardening –strain hardening - Vacuum and
Plasma hardening.
UNIT III FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 9
Effect of alloying additions on steel- Properties and applications of Carbon steel, Alloy steel - stainless
and tool steels – HSLA, Maraging steels – Copper and copper alloys – Brass, Bronze and Cupronickel – Aluminium
and Al-Cu – precipitation strengthening treatment – Bearing alloys, Super Alloys, Titanium and Titanium alloys,
Alpha, Beta, Alpha – Beta Ti alloys, Ni and Nickel alloys, Monel and Mg-alloys.
UNIT IV NON-METALLIC MATERIALS 9
Polymers – types of polymer, commodity and engineering polymers – Properties and applications of various
thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers (PP, PS, PVC, PMMA, PET,PC, PA, ABS, PI, PAI, PPO, PPS, PEEK, PTFE,
Polymers – Urea and Phenol formaldehydes)- Engineering Ceramics – Properties and applications of Al2O3, SiC,
Si3N4, PSZ and SIALON – Composites - Classifications - MMC - FRP – CMC – hybrid composites Applications of
Composites.
UNIT V MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION 9
Types of fracture – Testing of materials under tension, compression and shear loads – Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers
and Rockwell), Impact test lzod and charpy, fatigue and creep failure mechanisms. Introduction to NDT
techniques such as X-ray radiography, Dye penetration test, Magnetic particle test and Ultrasonic test.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Avner, S.H., “Introduction to Physical Metallurgy”, McGraw Hill Book Company, 2017.
2. Williams D Callister, “Material Science and Engineering” Wiley India Pvt Ltd, Revised Indian 10th Edition, 2017
REFERENCES:
1. Kenneth G. Budinski and Michael K. Budinski, “Engineering Materials”, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2012.
2. Van Vlack L.H., ‘Elements of Materials Science and Engineering’, 6th Edition, AddisonWesley, 2011
3. Raghavan.V, “Materials Science and Engineering”, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 2017.
4. U.C.Jindal : Material Science and Metallurgy, "Engineering Materials and Metallurgy", First Edition, Dorling
Kindersley, 2012
5. Upadhyay. G.S. and Anish Upadhyay, “Materials Science and Engineering”, Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
6. Dieter George E., “Mechanical Metallurgy”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2014
7. J. Prasad and C. G. K. Nair, Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2nd
edition (2011).
 5. Course Outcomes

Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to

HIGHEST
CO No. CO Course Outcomes COGINITIVE
LEVEL
Explain various binary alloy systems with K2
C405.1 respective invariant reaction.
CO1
CO2 Classify various heat treatment process and its K2
C405.2
significance
CO3 Discuss various Ferrous and non-ferrous metals K2
C405.3
with its application
Summarize the various non-metallic materials with K2
C405.4
CO4 its applications
Compute the material properties by various K2
C405.5 material testing techniques
CO5
CO6 Apply the knowledge of material science on K3
C405.6
material selection for specific requirements

Knowledge level:
K1 – Remembering; K2 - Understanding; K3 – Applying; K4 –Analyzing;
K5 – Evaluating; K6 - Creating
 6. CO- PO/PSO Mapping

POs PO PO PO PO PO
COs PO1 PO 4 PO 5 PO 6 PO 7 PO 8 PO 9
2 3 10 11 12

C405.1 CO1 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
C405.2 CO2 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
C405.3 CO3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
C405.4 CO4 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
C405.5 CO5 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
C405.6 CO6 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
C405

1: Slight (Low) 2: Moderate (Medium) 3: Substantial (High)

PSOs
COs PSO 1 PSO 2 PSO 3

C405.1 CO1 2

C405.2 CO2 2

C405.3 CO3 2

C405.4 CO4 2

C405.5 CO5 2

C405.6 CO6 2

C405 - - 2
 UNIT III FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS

S. Propo Topic Actual Pertaini Highest Mode

No sed Lectur ng CO’s Cognitiv of
Letur e Date e Level Delive
e ry
Date
1. Effect of alloying additions on CO3 K2 Online
steel- α and β stabilisers
CO3 Online
Stainless and tool steels –
K2
HSLA, Maraging steels
Cast Iron - Grey, white, CO3 K2 Online
malleable, spheroidal and alloy
cast irons
CO3 K2 Online
Copper and copper alloys

CO3 K2 Online
Brass, Bronze and Cupronickel
Aluminium alloys and Al-Cu – CO3 K2 Online
precipitation strengthening
treatment
CO3 Online
Bearing alloys K2

CO3 K2 Online
Mg-alloys

Ni-based super alloys and CO3 K2 Online

Titanium alloys.
 7. LECTURE PLAN

UNIT III : FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS

Effect of alloying additions on steel- Properties and applications of Carbon
steel, Alloy steel - stainless and tool steels – HSLA, Maraging steels – Copper
and copper alloys – Brass, Bronze and Cupronickel – Aluminium and Al-Cu –
precipitation strengthening treatment – Bearing alloys, Super Alloys,
Titanium and Titanium alloys, Alpha, Beta, Alpha – Beta Ti alloys, Ni and
Nickel alloys, Monel and Mg-alloys.

S. No. of K Mode of
Topics CO
No. Periods Level Delivery

Effect of alloying additions on K2 CO3

1 1 PPT
steel
Properties and applications of CO3 PPT
2 1 K2
Carbon steel, Alloy steel
Stainless - tool steels – HSLA, K2 CO3
3 1 PPT
Maraging steels
K2 CO3
4 Copper and copper alloys 1 PPT

Brass, Bronze and K2 CO3 PPT

5 1
Cupronickel
Aluminium alloys and Al-Cu – K2 CO3 PPT
6 precipitation strengthening 1
treatment
CO3
7 Bearing alloys, Super Alloys, 1 K2 PPT

Titanium and Titanium alloys, K2 CO3

8 1 PPT
Alpha, Beta, Alpha – Beta Ti alloys

Ni and Nickel alloys, Monel and K2 CO3

9 1 PPT
Mg-alloys.

Proposed Number of periods : 09

Actual Number of periods :

Proposed date of completion :

Actual date of completion :

 Activity Based Learning

Cross word (Ferrous & Non ferrous metals):

 Activity Based Learning
Cross word with Answers:
UNIT – III FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS

NOTES
 FERROUS AND NON FERROUS METALS
Materials are made up of elements. Materials are anything that have weight and
occupy some space. An every increasing variety of materials is available, each
having its own characteristics, application, advantages and limitations. Materials
are classified into Ferrous and Non ferrous metals. Classification of metals is given
below.

Fig: 3.1 Classification of Metals

Ferrous Metals: The metals, which contain iron as their main constituent, are called ferrous
metals . Ferrous materials are the most important metals/alloys in the metallurgical and
mechanical industries because of their very extensive use.

Steel generally contains: 0.05-2.0 wt.% C ,

Cast irons: 2.0-4.5 wt. % C ,

Low Carbon Steel:

➢ Plain carbon steels - very low content of alloying elements and small amounts of
Mn.

➢ Most abundant grade of steel is low carbon steel – greatest quantity produced;
least expensive.

➢ Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working needed to improve the strength.

➢ Good Weldability and machinability

Medium Carbon Steel:

➢ Carbon content in the range of 0.3 – 0.6%.

➢ Can be heat treated - austenitizing, quenching and then tempering.

➢ Most often used in tempered condition – tempered martensite

➢ Medium carbon steels have low hardenability

➢ Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating capacity

➢ Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower ductility

➢ Typical applications – Railway wheels and tracks, gears,crankshafts.

High Carbon Steel:

➢ High carbon steels – Carbon content 0.6 – 1.4%

➢ High C content provides high hardness and strength. Hardest and least ductile.

➢ Used in hardened and tempered condition

➢ Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added as alloying elements to from
carbides of these metals.

➢ Used as tool and die steels owing to the high hardness and wear resistance
property.

Alloy steels: The objective in adding alloying elements to steel is to improve the
properties of steel and to introduce new properties that are not available in plain
carbon steel.
The purpose of using alloying elements are summarized as follows.

➢ To increase Hardenability.

➢ To increase strength at ordinary temperatures.

➢ To improve high temperature properties.

➢ To increase resistance to corrosion and oxidation.

➢ To increase wear resistance.

➢ To improve toughness at any minimum hardness.

➢ To improve electrical and magnetic properties.

General Effects of Alloying elements: The principal effects that result

from the addition of alloying elements to steel are classified as follows.

Solid solution Formation: Most of the alloying elements dissolve to some extent
in ferrite and form solid solutions when added to steel. An alloying element
dissolved in ferrite increases the strength and hardness of steel by solid solution
strengthening, but with little or no loss to ductility. Ex: Ni, Si, Al, Mn.

Carbide Formation: Some of the alloying elements combine with carbon and form
stable carbides. These carbides are extremely hard and they increase wear
resistance. They also increase resistance to softening at elevated temperatures and
prevent grain coarsening.

Ex: Nb, Ti, V, Mo, W, Cr.

Shifting of critical Temperature: The alloying elements could lower or raise the
critical temperature of steel. Some elements like manganese and nickel lower the
critical temperature and the eutectoid occurs with less than normal carbon content.
When large amounts of alloying elements are added, the critical temperature are
further decreased. These elements enlarge the austenite region and make it as a
stable phase even at room temperature. These elements are known as austenite
stabilisers.
Some other element like Cr, W, V, Mo, Si, Ti shift the critical temperature to higher
values and these alloys reduce the austenite region. If sufficiently large quantities of
these element are added, the austenite may not appear. Moreover, a shift of this type
tends to merge the ferrite and delta region together to give a continuous ferrite from
the room temperature to the melting point. These elements are known as ferrite
stabilisers.

Lowering of critical cooling rate: The addition of alloying elements slows down the
transformation rates so that the TTT curves are displaced to the right. Hence, they
enable to reduce the critical colling rate necessary to obtain martensite.

Effect on Hardenability: Hardenability depends largely on the mode of distribution

of alloying elements. The dissolved elements in austenite and homogeneity of
austenite increase the hardenability of steel. Undissolved inclusions such as carbides
and nitrides, non metallic inclusions, inhomogeneity of austenite decrease the
hardenability of steel.

Effect on Grain growth: Some elements like chromium accelerate the rate of grain
growth. Steels containing these elements should not be overheated as it could lead to
increase in brittleness associated with coarser grains.

Elements like V, Ti, Nb, Al retard grain growth. These elements form fine carbides and
nitrides and being insoluble at high temperature act as barriers to grain growth.

Corrosion Resistance: Corrosion resistance of steels is improved by addition of

elements such as Cr, Al, Si. These elements form a thin dense and adherent oxide film
on the surface which protects the steel from corrosion.

Effects of Alloying Elements on Steel:

CARBON ( C) : Carbon is present in all steel and is the principal hardening element,
determining the level of hardness or strength attainable by quenching. It raises tensile
strength, hardness, resistance to wear and abrasion as the carbon content of steel is
increased. It lowers ductility, toughness and machinability.

MANGANESE ( Mn ): Manganese contributes to strength and hardness, but to a

lesser degree than carbon.
The amount of increase in these properties is dependent upon the carbon content.
Manganese is a deoxidizer and degasifier reacting favorably with sulfur to improve
forging ability and surface quality as it converts sulfur to manganese sulfide,
thereby, reducing the risk of hot shortness, or susceptibility to cracking and tearing,
at rolling temperatures. Manganese increases tensile strength, hardness, harden
ability, resistance to wear, and increases the rate of carbon penetration in
carburizing. It has a moderate tendency to segregate. The presence of manganese
increases the coefficient of thermal expansion but reduces both thermal and
electrical conductivity.

CHROMIUM (Cr): As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase

hardness penetration. This element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5
percent chromium or more is used in conjunction with manganese, the critical
quenching speed is reduced to the point that the steel becomes air hardening.
Chromium can also increase the toughness of steel, as well as the wear resistance.
Probably one of the most well known effects of chromium on steel is the tendency
to resist staining and corrosion. Steels with 14 percent or more chromium are
referred to as stainless steels.

NICKEL: Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the strength
of the steel. It is used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and hardenability.
Nickel also tends to help reduce distortion and cracking during the quenching phase
of heat treatment.

MOLYBDENUM: Molybdenum, when added to chromium-nickel austenitic steels,

improves resistance to pitting corrosion especially by chlorides and sulphur
chemicals. When added to low alloy steels, molybdenum improves high temperature
strengths and hardness. When added to chromium steels it greatly diminishes the
tendency of steels to decay in service or in heat treatment.
TITANIUM : The main use of titanium as an alloying element in steel is for carbide
stabilization. It combines with carbon to form titanium carbides, which are quite
stable and hard to dissolve in steel, this tends to minimize the occurrence of inter-
granular corrosion.

PHOSPHORUS : Phosphorus is usually added with sulphur to improve machinability

in low alloy steels, phosphorus, in small amounts, aids strength and corrosion
resistance. Experimental work shows that phosphorus present in austenitic stainless
steels increases strength. Phosphorus additions are known to increase the tendency
to cracking during welding.

SULPHUR: When added in small amounts sulphur improves machinability but does
not cause hot shortness. Hot shortness is reduced by the addition of manganese,
which combines with the sulphur to form manganese sulphide. As manganese
sulphide has a higher melting point than iron sulphide, which would form if
manganese were not present, the weak spots at the grain boundaries are greatly
reduced during hot working.

SILICON: Silicon is used as a deoxidizing (killing) agent in the melting of steel, as a

result, most steels contain a small percentage of silicon. Silicon contributes to
hardening of the ferritic phase in steels and for this reason silicon killed steels are
somewhat harder and stiffer than aluminum killed steels.

COBALT: Cobalt becomes highly radioactive when exposed to the intense radiation
of nuclear reactors, and as a result, any stainless steel that is in nuclear service will
have a cobalt restriction, usually approximately 0.2% maximum. This problem is
emphasized because there is residual cobalt content in the nickel used in producing
these steels.
STAINLESS STEELS:

The only material known to engineers which possesses a combination of various

properties such as: wide range of strength and hardness, high ductility and
formability, high corrosion resistance, good creep resistance, good thermal
conductivity, good machinability, high hot & cold workability and excellent surface
finish is stainless steel. Alloy steels have been developed for a specific purpose.
We shall study them as follows: They are known as stainless since they do not
corrode or rust easily in most of environment and media. Stainless steels can be
further divided into the following three types.

➢ Ferritic stainless steel

➢ Martensitic stainless steel

➢ Austentic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steel : It is that steel when properly heat treated and finished,
resists oxidation and corrosive attacks from corrosive media. Ferritic stainless steels
contain 12–18% chromium, 0.15 to 0.2% carbon besides iron and usual amounts of
manganese and silicon. The steels are stainless and relatively cheap. They are
magnetic in nature. Structure of these steels consist of ferrite phase which cannot be
hardened by heat treatment. These steels are actually iron-chromium alloys and
cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Such type of steel is utilized in manufacture of
dairy equipment food processing plants, etc.

Martensitic stainless steel: These steels contain 12–18% chromium and 0.1 to
1.8% carbon. These steels can be hardened by heat treatment but their corrosion
resistance is decreased. Steels with 12 to 14% chromium and 0.3% carbon are widely
used for table cutlery, tools and equipment. Steel with little less carbon percentage
and higher percentage of chromium are used as springs, ball bearings and
instruments under high temperature and corrective conditions.

Austentic stainless steels: These are the most costliest among all stainless steels.
In these steels besides chromium, nickel is also added. Nickel is a very strong
austenitic stabilizer and therefore the microstructure of these steels is austenitic at
room temperature. These steels contain 12 to 21% chromium and 8 to 15% nickel
and carbon less than 0.2%. The most familiar alloy of this group is known as 18:8
stainless steel i.e. 18% chromium and 8% nickel plus other. Other elements like
carbon, manganese and silicon in very small quantities. High ductility, easy formability,
high corrosion resistance and moderate strength. Used in chemical industry and for
household and sanitary fittings.

Tool and Die Steel: Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy

steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools.

➢ Characteristics include high hardness, resistance to abrasion (excellent wear), an
ability to hold a cutting edge, resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures
(redhardness).

➢ The presence of carbides in their matrix plays the dominant role in the qualities of

tool steel. The four major alloying elements in tool steel that form carbides are:

tungsten, chromium, vanadium and molybdenum.

➢ The rate of dissolution of the different carbides into the austenite form of the iron

determines the high temperature performance of steel (slower is better, making for

a heat resistant steel).

➢ Proper heat treatment of these steels is important for adequate performance. The
manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during
water quenching.

➢ There are six groups of tool steels: water-hardening, cold-work, shock-resisting,

high-speed, hot-work, and special purpose.

Uses :Shock resisting tool steels → Intended for applications requiring

toughness and resistance to shock-loading such as hammers, chisels, punches,
and others.

Water hardening tool steels → Shallow hardened and relatively low resistance to
softening. They are suitable for woodworking tools, hand-metal cutting tools such
as taps and reamers and cutlery.

Steels for Room Temperature Use (Classified according to their quenching media)

Water hardened grades (W) → Plain carbon steels with 0.6-1.0 %C. These have
a low hardenability, i.e., martensite only to a depth of 0.5 in. V can be added
(forms V4C3)to improve the hardness and wear resistance of these steels .
Shock resistant grades (S) → Contain small amounts of Cr or Mo and are
quenched in oil. They have lower C contents (0.5%) to improve impact strength.

Oil hardened grades (O) → Small percentages of Cr and W with 0.9 %C. The
have medium hardness and are used to short run cold forming dies.

Air hardening grades (A) → Greater amounts of Cr and Mo and 1 %C. Used for
complicated shapes and thread rolling. Mo and W are relatively expensive so they
are only added in small amounts to give much improved hardenability.

High carbon, high Cr grades (D grade) → 12 %Cr and 1.5-2.25 %C are

extremely wear resistant and used for long run dies and for gauges. Chromium is a
relatively low cost addition for increasing hardenability with the excess Cr, Cr23C6 is
also formed, which improves wear resistance.

Steels for High Temperature Use :

Chromium hot working steels (H grades) → 5-7 % Cr, 0.4-1.0% V, 1.5-7.0% W,

1.5% Mo, 0.35% C. Medium hot working for Mg and Al extrusion die-casting dies.

Tungsten hot working steels (H ) → 9.5-12 % W, 3.5-12.0 % Cr, 0.35 % C. Hot

working, extrusion and forging dies for brass, nickel and steel.

Tungsten high speed steel (T) → 12-18 % W, 4.0 % Cr, 1-5 % V, 0.7-1.5 % C.
Original high speed (HS) cutting steel with excellent HT wear resistance.

Molybdenum HS steel (M) → 3.5-8.0 % Mo, 1.5-6.0 % W, 4.0 % Cr, 1-5 % V, 5

% Co, 0.8-1.5 % C. Used for 85% of US cutting steels before the advent of ceramic
cutting tools.

High Speed Steel (HSS):

➢HSS is a subset of tool steel, commonly used in tool bits and cutting tools. It is
often used in power saw blades and drill bits.

➢They are characterized by high carbon contents, sometimes up to 1.5%, and

major additions of strong carbide forming elements such as chromium,
molybdenum, tungsten and vanadium. Up to 12% Co is also included in some of the
more complex grades.
➢ It can withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper (hardness) which
allows it to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name.

➢ Other characteristics include high hardness, resistance to abrasion (excellent wear),

an ability to hold a cutting edge, resistance to deformation at elevated
temperatures (redhardness).

➢ Modulus of elasticity: 221GPa, Density : 8767 kg/m3 (↑ durability & hardness),

Thermal Conductivity: 21W/m/K

➢ HSS are mainly of two types: Tungsten based ones (T grades), Molybdenum based
ones (M grades)

Table: 3.1- Grades of High speed steel

High-strength low-alloy steel (HSLA): HSLA is a type of alloy steel that provides
better mechanical properties or greater resistance to corrosion than carbon steel.
HSLA steels vary from other steels in that they are not made to meet a specific
chemical composition but rather to specific mechanical properties. They have a
carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to retain formability and weldability. Other
alloying elements include up to 2.0% manganese and small quantities of copper,
nickel, niobium, nitrogen, vanadium, chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium,
rare earth elements, or zirconium.

Copper, titanium, vanadium, and niobium are added for strengthening purposes.
These elements are intended to alter the microstructure of carbon steels, which is
usually a ferrite-pearlite aggregate, to produce a very fine dispersion of alloy
carbides in an almost pure ferrite matrix. This eliminates the toughness-reducing
effect of a pearlitic volume fraction yet maintains and increases the material's
strength by refining the grain size, which in the case of ferrite increases yield
strength by 50% for every halving of the mean grain diameter.
Precipitation strengthening plays a minor role, too. Their yield strengths can be
anywhere between 250–590 megapascals (36,000–86,000 psi). Because of their
higher strength and toughness HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power
to form, as compared to carbon steels. Copper, silicon, nickel, chromium, and
phosphorus are added to increase corrosion resistance. Zirconium, calcium, and rare
earth elements are added for sulfide- inclusion shape control which increases
formability.

Applications: They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges, roller coasters and
other structures that are designed to handle large amounts of stress or need a good
strength-to-weight ratio. HSLA steel cross sections and structures are usually 20 to
30% lighter than a carbon steel with the same strength.

Maraging steel: Maraging steels (a portmanteau of "martensitic" and "aging") are

steels (iron alloys) that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness
without losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting edge. Aging
refers to the extended heat-treatment process. These steels are a special class of
low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that derive their strength not from carbon, but
from precipitation of intermetallic compounds. The principal alloying element is 15 to
25 wt.% nickel. Secondary alloying elements, which include cobalt, molybdenum,
and titanium, are added to produce intermetallic precipitates.

The common, non-stainless grades contain 17–19 wt.% nickel, 8–12 wt.% cobalt, 3–
5 wt.% molybdenum, and 0.2–1.6 wt.% titanium. Addition of chromium produces
stainless grades resistant to corrosion. This also indirectly increases hardenability as
they require less nickel: high- chromium, high-nickel steels are generally austenitic
and unable to transform to martensite when heat treated, while lower-nickel steels
can transform to martensite.

Applications: These steels used in Aero space components such as rocket motor
cases, flexible drive shafts for helicopters, pressure vessels, cold forming dies.
Cast irons: Carbon 2.1- 4.5 wt% and Si (normally 1-3 wt%).

Lower melting point (about 300 °C lower than pure iron) due to presence of eutectic point at
1153 °C and 4.2 wt% C.

Low shrinkage and good fluidity and casting ability.

Types of cast iron: Grey, white, nodular, malleable and compacted graphite.
Grey Cast Iron:

➢Grey cast iron contains graphite in the form of flakes. Named after its grey fractured
surface. C:3.0 – 4.0 wt%, Si: 1.0 – 3.0 %

➢Microstructure: graphite flakes in a ferrite or pearlite matrix

➢Weak & brittle in tension (the graphite flake tips act as stress concentration sites).
Stronger in compression.

➢Excellent damping capacity, wear resistance.

➢Microstructure modification by varying silicon content and cooling rate

➢Casting shrinkage is low

Applications: Machine tool structure(bed, frame and details)

Gas or water pipe for underground purpose,
Cylinder blocks and head for I.C engine
Brake drums, clutch plates, Manhole covers.
Fig: 3.2 Grey cast iron, Graphite
flakes (black), ferrite (white portion)

White Cast Iron: White cast iron –1.8 – 3.6 % C, 0.5 – 2.0 % Si, 0.2 – 0.8 % Mn, 0.18% P
0.10 % s. Most of the carbon is in the form of cementite. Named after its white fracture
surface.

➢Results from faster cooling. Contains pearlite + cementite, not graphite. Thickness
variation may result in nonuniform microstructure from variable cooling

➢Very hard and brittle

➢Used as intermediate to produce malleable cast iron.

➢ The result is a material with lots of iron carbide , Fe3C. Iron carbide is a Extremely
hard and brittle.

➢ Thus, white cast iron possesses excellent abrasive

wear resistance.

➢ White cast iron under normal circumstances is

brittle and Not easily machined.

Fig: 3.3 White cast iron, carbide
Applications: Balls for Grinding mills,
areas (white) in fine pearlite(dark)
Liners for cement mixtures, Drawing dies, areas

extrusion nozzles.

Malleable Cast Iron: Malleable cast iron –2– 3 % C, 0.6 – 1.3 % Si, 0.2 – 0.6 % Mn,
0.15% P, 0.10 % S .

➢ Obtained by heat treating white iron for a prolonged period that causes decomposition
of cementite into graphite.

➢ Heat treatment : Two stages – Isothermal holding at 950 C and then holding at 720 C.

➢ Graphite forms in the form of rosettes in a ferrite or pearlite matrix.

➢ Reasonable strength and improved ductility (malleable)

➢ Good shock resistance

➢ Good machinability
Applications: Power trains, frames, suspensions and
wheels, crank shaft, Steering components, transmission
and differential parts, connecting rods,
Fig: 3.4 Malleable iron- Ferrite
Railway components , Electrical line hardware
matrix, temper carbon

Compact Graphite Iron (CGI):

➢ CGI graphite occurs as blunt flakes or with a worm-like shape (vermicular). Carbon: 3.1
– 4.0 wt%, Silicon: 1.7 – 3.0 wt %. Microstructure and properties are between gray and
ductile iron.

➢ Alloying addition may be needed to minimize the sharp edges and formation of
spheroidal graphite. Matrix varies with alloy additions or heat treatment
➢ As castable as grey iron, but has a higher tensile strength and some ductility.

➢ Relatively high thermal conductivity, good resistance to thermal shock, lower

oxidation at elevated temperatures.

Applications: Gear pumps, Fluid and air cylinders,

Ingot moulds, engine block and cylinder heads.

Fig:3.5 C.G. Iron

Nodular Cast Iron: It contains 3.2 – 4.2 % C, 1.1 – 3.5 % Si, 0.3 – 0.8 % Mn
0.08 % P, 0.2 % S.
➢ Unlike long flakes as in gray cast, graphite appears as rounded particles, or
nodule or spheroids in nodular cast iron.
➢ Soft annealed grades of nodular cast iron can be turns at very high feeds and
speed.
➢ Ductile cast iron possesses very good machinability

➢ The spheroidizing element when added to melt element Sulphur and oxygen
which change solidification characteristics and possibility account for the
nodulization.

➢ It possesses damping capacity intermediate between cast iron and steel.

➢ It possesses excellent cast ability and wear resistance

Applications: Paper industry machinery.

Internal combustion engine.

Power transmission equipment.

Farm implements and tractor

Fig :3.6 Nodular cast iron showing

graphite nodule surrounded by ferrite
 Non Ferrous Alloys:

Fig:3.7 Classifications of Non ferrous metals

Copper and Copper Alloys: Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu

(from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile
metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of
pure copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is used as a conductor of heat and
electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of various metal alloys, such
as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware and
coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature
measurement.
Brass: Brasses contain zinc as the principle alloying element. brasses are sub
divided in to three groups;
➢ Cu-Zn alloys
➢ Cu-Pb-Zn alloys or leaded brasses
➢ Cu-Zn-Sn alloys or tin brasses

Brasses are high resistance to corrosion and it is easily machinable. It also act as
good bearing material. Zinc in the brass increases the ductility along with strength.
Brass possesses greater strength than copper , however it has a lower thermal and
electrical conductivity.
Types of brass
(1) Alfa brass: Contains upto 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working.

(2) Alfa-Beta brass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for hot working.
The tensile strength and ductility of brass both increase with increase in content of Zn
upto 30% zinc. With further increase in zinc content beyond 30%, the tensile strength
continues to increase upto 45% of Zn, but ductility of brasses drops significantly. β-
phase is less ductile than α-phase but it is harder and stronger.

1) Gliding metal: 5% to Zn (balance copper) and posses shades of colour from the
red of a brassy yellow. Gliding metal is used for making coins, medals, tokens, fuse
caps etc

(2) cartridge brass: 70% Copper and 30% zinc. In the fully annealed condition it has
strength of over 300N/mm2 caps of electric lamp bulbs, door furniture etc. This brass,

harden when deformed in the cold. An annealing temperature of about 6000C is

satisfactory in the most cases.

(3) Admiralty brass : Cu 71%, Zn 28% and Sn 1%. used for the tubes and other
parts of condenser cooled by fresh water and for many other purpose.

Bronze: An alloy of copper and elements other than nickel or zinc. bronze is basically
an alloy of copper and tin.

➢ It possesses superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance than brass.

➢ It is comparatively hard .

➢It can be rolled into wire, rod, and sheets

Types of bronze

1) Phosphor bronze: The most important copper-tin alloys are those which have been
deoxidized with phosphorus during the refining process and hence are known as
phosphor bronze.

2) Aluminium bronze : 89% Cu, 7% Al, and 3.5% Sn. It possess the following
properties, good strength, high corrosion resistance, good heat resistance,

good cold working properties etc

Gun metal: Gun metal contains 2% zinc, 10% tin and 88% copper. It is a very
famous composition. Sometimes very small amount of lead is also added to improve
castability and machinability. The presence of zinc improve its fluidity. This bronze is
used for bearing bushes, glands, pump valves and boiler fittings, etc.

3)Silicon bronze : 1-4% si,0.5-1.0% iron, 0.25-1.25% Mn, and balance amount of
copper. When lead added as 0.05% improves machinability. It possess high strength
and toughness as that of mild steel and corrosion resistance as that of copper.

Muntz Metal:The composition of this alloy is 60 percent copper and 40 per cent
zinc. Sometimes a small quantity of lead is also added. This alloy is stronger, harder
and more ductile than normal brass. While hot working between 700°C to 750, it
responds excellently for process but does not respond to cold working. This alloy is
utilized for a wide variety of small components of machines, bolts, rods, tubes,
electrical equipment as well as ordinance works.

Cupronickel: Cupronickel (also referred to as "cupernickel" or copper-nickel alloy)

refers to a group of copper nickel alloys that are used in saltwater environments due
to their corrosion resistant properties.

The most common cupronickel alloys are:

90/10 Cupro- nickel (copper-nickel- iron)

70/30 Cupro- nickel (copper-nickel- iron)

These alloys have good working properties, are readily weldable and considered
insensitive to stress corrosion. Cupronickel is also resistant to biofouling, crevice
corrosion, stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement. Slight differences
in corrosion resistance and strength generally determine which alloy grade is used
for a particular application. Cupronickel has been made and used for over a
thousand years. Cupronickel was also used to make Greek coins.

Aluminum and Al Alloys: An aluminum alloy is a chemical composition where

other elements are added to pure aluminum in order to enhance its properties,
primarily to increase its strength.
These other elements include iron, silicon, copper, magnesium, manganese and zinc at
levels that combined may make up as much as 15 percent of the alloy by weight. Alloys
are assigned a four-digit number, in which the first digit identifies a general class, or
series, characterized by its main alloying elements.

➢ Aluminum alloys are classified into two categories – Cast and Wrought alloys.

➢ Wrought alloys can be either heat-treatable or non-heat treatable.

➢ Alloys are designated by a 4 digit number. Wrought – the 1st digit indicates the major
alloying element. Cast – The last digit after the decimal indicates product from(
casting - 0 or ingot -1)

Fig:3.8 Classifications of Al Alloys

1xxx Series: (Pure Al): The 1xxx series alloys are comprised of aluminum 99 percent
or higher purity. This series has excellent corrosion resistance, excellent workability, as
well as high thermal and electrical conductivity. This is why the 1xxx series is commonly
used for transmission, or power grid, lines that connect the national grids across the
United States. Common alloy designations in this series are 1350, for electrical
applications, and 1100, for food packaging trays.

2xxx Series: (Al-Cu Alloys): Heat treatable, High strengths at room and elevated
temperatures. Increase strength and hardness. Representative alloys in this series are
2014, 2017, 2024, 2219,2195. Typical ultimate tensile strength range 27-62 ksi. These
alloys are used for Aircraft and transport applications.

3xxx Series: (Al-Mn Alloys): High formability, corrosion resistance, joinability, medium
strength. Increase yield and tensile strength. Typical ultimate tensile strength range 16-
41 ksi. Representative alloys in this series are 3003, 3004, 3005. Heat transfer,
packaging, roofing-siding applications.
Heat-Treatable Alloys

Some alloys are strengthened by solution heat-treating and then quenching, or rapid
cooling. Heat treating takes the solid, alloyed metal and heats it to a specific point . The
alloy elements, called solute, are homogeneously distributed with the aluminum putting
them in a solid solution. The metal is subsequently quenched, or rapidly cooled, which
freezes the solute atoms in place. The solute atoms consequently combine into a finely
distributed precipitate. This occurs at room temperature which is called natural aging or in
a low temperature furnace operation which is called artificial aging.
Duralumin:

A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5% manganese, 0.5% magnesium

and a trace of iron with remainder as aluminium is known as duralumnin. It possesses high
strength comparable with mild steel and low specific gravity. However, its corrosion
resistance is much lower as compared with pure aluminium. The strength of this alloy
increases significantly when heat treated and allowed to age for 3 to 4 weeks it will be
hardened. The phenomenon is termed age hardening. To improve upon the corrosion
resistance of it, a thin film of aluminium is rolled on the duralumin sheets. These sheets are
known as Alclad by trade name and are widely used in aircraft industry.

Cast Alloys:

Al-Si Alloys: These alloys are most widely used casting alloys due to their excellent fluidity
and casting characteristics. These alloys contain silicon between 4 and 13%. These alloys
used in Automobile castings, Food handling equipment and pump parts in chemical and dye
industries.

Al-Mg Alloys: These alloys are used where corrosion resistance is important.

Al, 4.5 %-Mg, 0.5%-Mn: This alloy highly resists corrosion, machines well and takes
high polish. It is a superior alloy in marine environment.

Al, 10% Mg: It is heat treatable cast alloy. It has high strength and good impact
resistance combined with high corrosion resistance.

Al-Zn Alloys: This alloy contains Al, 5.5 % Zn, 0.6% Mg, 0.5% Cr, 0.2% Ti. It has high
mechanical properties, fair casting characteristics, good machinability.

It is used for Aircraft fittings and radio equipments.

Bearing Alloys : Bearing alloys, are any bearing that is using a metal alloy as its
running surface, either lubricated by fluids/greases or running on smooth surfaces. For
example, the big-end shells or crankshaft bearing shells in an internal combustion
engine (amongst other devices) use all sorts of metal alloys in their structure.

Properties of Bearing materials: A bearing material should:

➢ Possess low coefficient of friction.

➢ Provide hard, wear resistant surface with a tough core.

➢ Have high compressive strength.

➢ Have high fatigue strength.

➢ Be able to bear shocks and vibrations.

➢ Possess high thermal conductivity to dissipate heat generated due to friction

between the bearing and the rotating shaft.

➢ Possess adequate plasticity under bearing load.

➢ Possess adequate strength at high temperatures.

➢ Be such that it can be easily fabricated.

Bearing Alloys:

➢ Lead or tin based alloys (Babbitt metals)

➢ Cadmium-based alloys

➢ Aluminium based alloys

➢ Copper based alloys

➢ Silver-based alloys
Lead or tin based alloys (Babbitt metals):

➢ The high tin alloys with more than 80% tin and little or no lead.

➢ The high lead alloys with about 80% lead and 1—12% tin.

➢ The alloys with intermediate percentages of tin and lead.

Table 3.3 Composition and Application of Bearing Alloys

➢ Lead base alloys are softer and brittle than the tin base alloys.

➢ Lead base alloys are cheaper than tin base alloys.

➢ Tin base alloys have a low coefficient of friction as compared to lead base alloys.

➢ Lead base alloys are suitable for light and medium loads, whereas tin base alloys
are preferred for higher loads and speeds.

➢ Good ability to embed dirt

➢ Good conformability to journal

➢ Good corrosion resistance

➢ Very good seizure resistance, etc.

Cadmium-based alloys: cd 97%, Ni 2%, Ag, Cu and zn are added in small

percentage. These bearing alloys have a structure consisting of a soft matrix
containing harder crystals of intermetallic compounds. These alloys aren't very
popular because of high price of cadmium. These bearing alloy possess greater
compressive strength than tin bearing alloys
Cadmium-based alloys possess: low coefficient of friction, high fatigue strength, high
load carrying capacity, low wear, good seizure resistance, fair ability to embed dirt,
and poor corrosion resistance (using ordinary lubricants).

Aluminium based alloys: Chemical composition Al-91.5%, Sn-6%,Cu-1%, Ni-1%.

Small amount of silicon is used along with these. The microstructure consist of NiAl
and CuAl2 in the matrix of aluminium solid solution.

These alloys posses

a)excellent corrosion resistance

(b) fair conformability to journal

(c) good ability to embed dirt

(d) good seizure resistance

These alloys find applications as bearings in diesel engines and tractors.

Copper based alloys: Chemical composition Cu -80-85%, Sn-10-15%, Pb-10%.

The term bronze covers a large number of copper alloys with varying percentages of
Sn, Zn and Pb.

Bronze is one of the oldest known bearing materials.

Bronze,

(a) is easily worked

(b) has good corrosion resistance

(c) is reasonably hard

Tin bronze (10 to 14% tin, remainder copper) is used in the machine and engine
industry for bearing bushes made from thin- walled drawn tubes.

Copper-based alloys are employed for making bearings required to resist heavier
pressures such as in railways.
Magnesium and Alloys: - Lightest among commonly used metals (1.7
g/cm3). Melting point is 650 C and it has HCP structure.

➢ Is very reactive and readily combustible in air. Can be used as igniter or

Firestarter.

➢ Thermal conductivity is less than Al while their CTE is almost same.

➢ Pure Mg has adequate atmospheric resistance and moderate strength.

➢ Properties of Mg can be improved substantially by alloying.

➢ Favorable atomic size - Can be alloyed with many elements. Most widely used
alloying elements are Al, Zn, Mn and Zr.

➢ Mg Alloys – Cast, Wrought

➢ Wrought alloys are available in rod, bar, sheet, plate, forgings and extrusions.

Mg alloys: Impact and dent resistant, have good damping capacity - effective for
high-speed applications.

➢ Due to its light weight, superior machinability and ease of casting

➢ Mg and its alloys are used in many applications:–

➢ Auto parts, sporting goods, power tools, aerospace equipment.

➢ Fixtures, electronic gadgets, and material handling equipment.

➢ Automotive applications include gearboxes, valve covers.

➢ wheels, clutch housings, and brake pedal brackets.

 Fig:3.9 Properties and Applications of Mg Alloys

Ni based super alloy: A superalloy is a metallic alloy which can be used at high
temperatures, often in excess of 0.7 of the absolute melting temperature. Creep and
oxidation resistance are the prime design criteria. Superalloys can be based on iron,
cobalt or nickel, the latter being best suited for aeroengine applications. The
essential solutes in nickel based superalloys are aluminium and/or titanium, with a
total concentration which is typically less than 10 atomic percent

A listing of some of the super alloys, with information on their composition and
some of the uses is provided here.

Inconel Alloy 600 (76Ni-15Cr-8Fe) is a standard material of construction for

nuclear reactors, also used in the chemical industry in heaters, stills, evaporator
tubes and condensers.

Nimonic alloy 75 (80/20 nickel-chromium alloy) with additions of titanium

and carbon) used in gas turbine engineering, furnace components and heat-
treatment equipment
Alloy 601: Lower nickel (61%) content with aluminium and silicon additions for
improved oxidation and nitriding resistance. chemical processing, pollution control,
aerospace, and power generation.

Alloy X750: Aluminium and titanium additions for age hardening. Used in gas
turbines, rocket engines, nuclear reactors, pressure vessels, tooling, and aircraft
structures.
Alloy 718: (55Ni-21Cr-5Nb-3Mo). Niobium addition to overcome cracking problems
during welding. Used in aircraft and land-based gas turbine engines and cryogenic
tankage

Titanium alloys: Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium
and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and
toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have
extraordinary corrosion resistance and the ability to withstand extreme
temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials and processing limit
their use to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, medical devices, highly
stressed components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some
premium sports equipment and consumer electronics. Although "commercially pure"
titanium has acceptable mechanical properties and has been used for orthopedic and
dental implants, for most applications titanium is alloyed with small amounts of
aluminium and vanadium, typically 6% and 4% respectively, by weight. This mixture
has a solid solubility which varies dramatically with temperature, allowing it to
undergo precipitation strengthening. This heat treatment process is carried out after
the alloy has been worked into its final shape but before it is put to use, allowing
much easier fabrication of a high strength product.

Ti -6Al-4V (Grade 5)

Ti-6AL-4V is the most commonly used of the titanium alloys. It is therefore

commonly referred to as the titanium alloy. It is believed to be used in half of the
usage of titanium around the world.
These desirable properties make Ti-6AL-4V a popular choice in several industries
including medical, marine, aerospace and chemical processing. Ti 6AL-4V is commonly
used to make:Aircraft turbines, Engine components, Aircraft structural components,
Aerospace fasteners, High-performance automatic parts
Ti 6AL-4V ELI (Grade 23):

Ti 6 AL-4V ELI is commonly referred to surgical titanium because of its use in surgery.
Controlled interstitial element levels are designated ELI (extra low interstitials), Hence
the designation Ti 6Al-4V ELI. It is a more pure version of Grade 5 (Ti 6AL-4V) titanium
alloy. It can be easily molded, and cut into small strands, coils, and wires. It has the
same strength, and high corrosion resistance as Ti 6AL-4V. It is also light-weight and is
highly tolerant to damage by other alloys. Its use is highly desirable in the medical and
dental fields for uses in complex surgical procedures not only because of these
properties but also because of the unique surgical properties Ti 6AL-4V ELI has superior
biocompatibility making it easy to graft in and attach to bone all the while being
accepted by the human body.

Precipitation Hardening: In designing alloys for strength an approach after taken is to

develop an alloy with a structure that consists of particles dispersed in a ductile matrix.
Such a dispersion can be obtained by choosing an alloy that is single phase at elevated
temperatures but on cooling will precipitate another phased in the matrix, when alloy is
strengthened by this thermal treatment, it is called precipitation strengthening or
hardening.

Precipitation strengthening consists of three main steps.

1. Solution treatment

2. Quenching

3. Aging

SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT:

To take advantage of precipitation hardening reaction, it is necessary first to produce a

solid solution. The process by which this is accomplished is called solution heat treating
and its objective is to take into solid solution the maximum practical

amounts of soluble hardening elements in the alloy.

The processes consist of soaking the alloy at a temperature sufficiently high and for
time long enough to achieve a nearly homogenous solid solution.

Fig:3.10 Precipitation Hardening

QUENCHING: Quenching is in many ways the most critical step in the sequence of
heat treating operations. The objective of quenching is to preserve the solid solution
formed at the solution heat treating temperature by rapidly cooling to some lower
temperature usually near room temperature.

In most cases, the solid solution formed during solution heat treatment must be
quenched rapidly enough to produce the supersaturated solution at room
temperature the optimum condition for precipitation hardening. Quenching rapidly
cools the solution and frees the atoms in solution. In more technical terms, the
quenching cools the material so fast that the atoms of the alloying elements do not
have time to diffuse out of the solution. Most frequently parts are quenched by
immersion in cold water .

AGING OR AGE HARDENING: Aging is the process where the solute particles
diffuse out of solution and into clusters that distort and strengthen the material.
After solution and quenching, hardening is achieved either at room temperature or
with a precipitation heat treatment. In some alloys, sufficient precipitation occurs is
a few days at room temperature to yield stable products with properties that are
adequate for many applications.
These alloys sometimes are precipitation heat treated to provide increased strength
and hardness in wrought or cast products. other alloys with and hardness reaction at
room temperature are always precipitation heat treated before use precipitation heat
treatments generally are low temperature, long term processes and temperatures
range from 1115oC to 190oC times vary from 5 to 48 hours. The precipitation
hardening process for a copper aluminium alloy is shown figure , it is a phase
diagram which is very useful tool for understanding and controlling polyphone
structures. The phase present as the temperature and over all composition of the
alloy are varied.
 Assignment-III

S. Question K CO
No Le
vel
1. Match the materials listed in column I with their common K2 CO3
application II and jusitfy. (Gate -2020)

Group I Group II
P. Grey Iron 1. Cladding for Uranium fuel in
nuclear reactor
Q. Ductile Iron 2. Base structure of Heavy
machines
R. Zirconium Alloy 3. Valves and pump bodies
S. Beryllium-Copper alloy 4. Jet aircraft landing gear bearings

2 The carbide that is primarily responsible for intergranular K2 CO3

corrosion in austenitic stainless steel is __________________.

(Gate 2019)
(A) Cr23C6 (B) Fe3C (C) SiC (D) Mn3C

3 Assertion: Hardenability of steel can be increased by adding K3 CO3

certain alloying elements.
Reason: The alloying elements can provide a fine dispersion of
alloy carbides. (Gate -2010)
Justify the above statement.
4 Match the alloy names listed in Group I with the main elements K4 CO3
present in them listed in Group II . (Gate -2014)

Group I Group II
p. Babit metal 1. Fe-Ni
Q. Muntz Metal 2. Ni-Cr-Fe
R. Invar 3. Cu-Zn
S. Inconel 4. Sn-Sb-Cu
5 Which of the Following element is Austenite Stabilizer. K2 CO3

(Gate- 2013)
a) Nitrogen b) Molybdenum c) Vanadium d) Tungsten

6 Discuss the some non-ferrous metals for making the following K2 CO3
components with justification. (i) Bush (ii) Furnace heating
element (iii) Type writer parts (iv) Coins (v)Grinders of airships
(vi)Big end bearing (vii) Filament of electric lamp (viii) Turbine
blades
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
1. State three characteristics of ferrous alloys that limit their
K1 CO3
utilization.
Heavy in weight, Lower electrical and thermal conductivity,
lower resistance to corrosion.

2. List three primary groups of plain carbon steels?

K1 CO3
1. Low-carbon steels: Those contain less than 0.25% carbon.
2. Medium-carbon steels: Those containing between 0.25 and
0.60% carbon.
3. High-carbon steels: Those containing more than 0.60% carbon.

3. Discuss the primary effects of chromium, and copper as

K2 CO3
alloying elements in steel?
Effects of alloying chromium: Increases corrosion and oxidation
resistance, increases hardenability, increases high-temperature
strength, and resists abrasion and wear (with high carbon).

Effects of alloying copper: Increases strength, and increases

corrosion resistance.
4. List the required properties of a tool steel? CO3
K1
Tool steels should have the following requirements:
1. Good toughness, 2. Good wear resistance, 3. Very good
machinability,
4. Slight change of form during hardening, 5. Little risk of cracking
during hardening.
5. Resistance to softening on heating
5. Write about 18-4-1 high speed steel? CO3
A widely used high-speed tool steel is 18-4-1 high speed steel. This K1
steel contains
18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and 1% vanadium. It is considered
to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels.

6. Discuss about maraging steels? Give its composition. CO3

Maraging steels are low-carbon, highly alloyed steels. These are K2
very high- strength materials that can be hardened to obtain
tensile strengths of up to1900 Mpa.
Composition: Maraging steels contain 18% nickel, 7% cobalt,
and small amounts of other elements such as titanium. The
carbon content is low, generally less than 0.05%.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
7. Differentiate between malleable cast iron and ductile cast
iron? K2 CO3
Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating unalloyed white
iron. The ductile (or SG or nodular) cast iron is produced by adding
magnesium and/or cerium to molten cast iron.
Both malleable and ductile cast irons have the nodules, also called
spheroids. But the nodules of ductile cast irons are more perfect
spheres.
8. Discuss the primary effects of adding Ni, and Mo in cast
K2 CO3
irons?
Nickel: It has graphitizing effect on cementite. So it tends to
produce a grey iron. It has a grain-refining effect, which helps to
prevent the formation of coarse grain. It also toughens thin
sections.
Molybdenum (Mo): It increases the hardness of thick sections. It
also improves toughness.
9. List the outstanding properties of copper and some typical
K1 CO3
applications.

The copper posses the following properties:

1. Copper possess very high electrical conductivity.
2. It also has very high thermal conductivity.
3. It exhibits excellent resistance to corrosion.
4. It is very soft, ductile and malleable.
Copper is extensively used for manufacturing power cables,
telephone cables, cables for computer networks, printed circuit
boards, connectors, etc.

10. Write about cupronickels? Write the uses of Monel metal?

K1 CO3
Cupronickels are alloys of copper and nickel.
Uses of monel metal: For making propellers, pump fittings,
condenser tubes, steam turbine blades, sea water exposed parts,
tanks, and chemical and food handling plants.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
11. Write about gun metals? Give its composition.
K1 CO3
Gun metals are alloys of copper, tin, and zinc.
Composition of admiralty gun metal: 88 Cu, 10 Sn, 2 Zn, 2 (max)
Ni.
12. Discuss about duralumin? Give its composition and
applications. K2 CO3

Duralumin is an alloy of aluminium and copper.

Composition: 94 Al, 4Cu, 0.5 Mg, 0.5 Mn, 0.5 Si, 0.5 Fe.
Typical applications: For aircraft and automobile industries; for
making electric cables, in surgical and orthopedic implements or
gadgets, etc.

13. Define precipitation hardening?

K1 CO3
Precipitation hardening, also known as age hardening, is the most
important method of improving the physical properties of some of
the non-ferrous alloys by solid state reaction

14. List the required characteristics of a bearing material?

K1 CO3
1. Bearing material should possess sufficient hardness and wear
resistance.
2. It should have a low coefficient of friction.
3. It should be tough, shock-resistant, and sufficiently ductile.
4. It should have a sufficient melting point, and high thermal
conductivity.
5. It should have good casting qualities, and good resistance to
corrosion.

15. Write about super alloys?

K1 CO3
Super alloy is a general term used to describe the nickel-base and
cobalt-base alloys which have been developed for use at elevated
temperatures.
Super alloys produce a combination of high strength as elevated
temperature, resistance to creep at temperatures up to 1000° C,
and resistance to corrosion.
 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)

S.N Question and Answers K Perat

o leve ining
l Co
16. Write the chemical composition of grey cast iron.
K1 CO3
Carbon-2.5 to 4%, Silicon-1 to 3%, Manganese – 0.4 to 1%,
Phosphorus-0.15 to 1%,
Sulphur -0.02 to 0.15%, remaining is iron

17. Write the effect of Adding Si to steel.

K1 CO3
It is a powerful graphitizer. Excess results in breakdown of
cementite. It increases the harden ability.

18. List at least four types of brasses used.

K1 CO3
Gliding metal (or commercial bronze), cartridge brass,
standard brass (or cold working brass), Muntz metal (or yellow
metal), Naval brass, Admiralty brass.

19. List the bearing materials that are commonly used.

K1 CO3
1. White metals, 2. Copper-base alloys, 3. Aluminium-base alloys,
4. Plastic materials, and 5. Ceramics.

20. Discuss about HSLA steels? Where are they used? K2 CO3

HSLA steels are nothing but high-strength low-alloy steels. HSLA

steels, also known as micro alloyed steels, are low-carbon steels
containing small amounts of alloying elements.
These HSLA steels are widely used as structural or constructional
alloy steels.
 Unit –III Part B Qs (with K level and CO)

S. Question and Answers K Perat

No level ining
Co

1. Discuss in detail (i) HSLA steel (ii) Maraging steel (iii) Stainless K2 CO3

steel

2. Explain the influence of various alloying elements in steel K2 CO3

3. Discuss stainless steel with respect to composition, properties K2 CO3

and applications

4. Discuss the composition, properties and applications of the K2 CO3

following. (i) Cupronickel (ii) Nickel silver (iii) Alpha Titanium
alloy
5. Discuss the composition, properties and typical applications of K2 CO3
any four copper alloys

6. (i) Discuss the applications of aluminium alloys K2 CO3

(ii)Explain the mechanism of ageing treatment of Al-Cu alloy

7. Discuss the composition, properties and uses of bearing alloys K2 CO3

8. Explain the classification of cast irons with properties and K2 CO3

applications
9. Discuss the Al alloys and Titanium alloys with properties and K2 CO3
applications
 13. SUPPORTIVE ONLINE CERTIFICATION COURSES

I. NPTEL online Courses:

1. Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering (Week 12)

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/106/113106032/

2.Materials Science and Engineering (Week 11)

https://nptel.ac.in/courses/113/102/113102080/

II. Coursera
1. Ferrous Technology II
https://www.coursera.org/learn/ferrous-technology-2?action=enroll#syllabus

III. Udemy online Courses

1. Engineering Materials or Material Science

https://www.udemy.com/course/engineering-materials/
Real time Applications in day to day life and to Industry
➢ Stainless steels are used in the following areas: Ball-bearings and valves,
springs, and cutlery, manufacture of dairy equipment food processing plants,
chemical industry , household and sanitary fittings.

➢ Maraging steels are used in Aerospace components such as rocket motor cases,
flexible drive shafts, die casting dies.

➢ Cast Irons applications:

Gray cat iron: Machine tool structure(bed and frame),

Cylinder blocks and head for I.C engine, underground water pipers, Manhole covers.

White cast iron: Balls for Grinding mills, Liners for cement mixtures, extrusion
nozzles.

Nodular cast iron: I C Engines, power transmission equipment's, Pumps and

compressor, pipes.

Malleable cast irons: Power trains, crank shaft, Brake drums, clutch plates,
Piston ring.

Copper Alloys applications: Making coins, medals, Jewellery base for gold plating,
Condenser and heat exchanger tubing, electrical sockets, radiator cases, piston rods,
pump rods, valve stems, turbine blades etc.

Al Alloys Applications: Automobile radiators, cooking utensils, container bodies

railway bogies , Aircraft structural applications, carburetor parts, pump castings,
automotive cylinder heads etc.

Bearing Alloys applications: Main bearing in Automobile and aero engines, Pumps,
compressors, mining machinery, electric motors, blowers, Aircraft bearings etc.

Magnesium alloys: sand and permanent mould casting, die casting, Aircraft
landing wheels, petrol tanks, crank cases etc.

Titanium alloys: Aircraft engine compressor blades, steam turbine blades, rivets,
sheet metal parts and tubing for aero space, rocket motor cases, orthopedic
implants etc.
 15. ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

S. No. Name of the Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

1. Unit Test – I

2. Unit Test – II

First Internal Assessment

3.
Test (FIAT) (Unit-I & Unit- II)

Second Assessment Test

4.
(SIAT)

5. Model Examination
 16. PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Avner, S.H., “Introduction to Physical Metallurgy”, McGraw Hill
Book Company, 2017.
2. Williams D Callister, “Material Science and Engineering” Wiley India
Pvt Ltd, Revised Indian 10th Edition, 2017

REFERENCES:
1. Kenneth G. Budinski and Michael K. Budinski, “Engineering
Materials”, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2012.
2. Van Vlack L.H., ‘Elements of Materials Science and Engineering’, 6th
Edition, AddisonWesley, 2011
3. Raghavan.V, “Materials Science and Engineering”, Prentice Hall of
India Pvt. Ltd., 2017.
4. U.C.Jindal : Material Science and Metallurgy, "Engineering Materials
and Metallurgy", First Edition, Dorling Kindersley, 2012
5. Upadhyay. G.S. and Anish Upadhyay, “Materials Science and
Engineering”, Viva Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2006.
6. Dieter George E., “Mechanical Metallurgy”, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2014
7. J. Prasad and C. G. K. Nair, Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of
Materials, Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2nd edition (2011).
 Mini Project suggestions

➢ Fabricate the Machine tool bed by using cast iron.

➢ Design the condenser coil by using Copper alloys.

➢ Fabricate the manhole covers using grey cast iron.

➢ Aluminum extrusions can be used to create a framework for solar panels.

➢ To Manufacture the die casting Dies using Maraging steel.

 Thank you

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