864484

research-article20192019
SGOXXX10.1177/2158244019864484SAGE OpenAhmad et al.

Original Research

SAGE Open

The Use of Social Media on Political

July-September 2019: 1­–9
© The Author(s) 2019
DOI: 10.1177/2158244019864484
https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019864484

Participation Among University Students: journals.sagepub.com/home/sgo

An Analysis of Survey Results From Rural

Pakistan

Taufiq Ahmad1, Aima Alvi2, and Muhammad Ittefaq3

Abstract
Over the last decade, extensive literature has been published regarding social media effects on real-life political participation.
Many argue that social media stimulates online and offline political participation. This study investigates how online political
activities impact political efficacy and real-life political participation among university students in rural Pakistan. In addition,
this study also sheds light on the relationship between political activities and political awareness. We conducted an online
survey of (N = 200) male and female undergraduate and graduate students from the University of Narowal, Pakistan. We
used Qualtrics software to distribute our survey among students for data-collection purposes. The results reveal that the
majority of the students use social media for political awareness and information. Political efficacy is significantly based
on online political participation. In addition to that, social media is a vital platform for netizens to participate in real-life
political activities. In conclusion, the findings of the study suggest that online political activities strongly correlate to political
awareness and offline political participation. In rural areas of Pakistan, the younger generations are very active on social media
to participate in online and offline political happenings.

Keywords
social media, political efficacy, real-life participation, political participation, Pakistan, survey

Introduction knowledge, and political participation are associated with

More than a decade ago, information and communication
technologies dramatically changed the world. For instance,
new media and technology have changed the interpersonal
interaction, communication patterns, and social and political
discussions. Media and communication scholars, political
scientists, sociologists, and international relations scholars
have conducted hundreds of studies on various aspects of
social media usage (Golan, Arceneaux, & Soule, 2019). The
Internet is playing a significant role in providing information
to the public on political events, engaging its users and
encouraging them to get involved in offline political activi-
ties. The Internet has become vital for political discussions
and political participation. In the beginning, Internet was
used as a one-way communication tool for political parties to
inform the public through their websites. However, new
media and technology have changed communication patterns
in two-way communication (Emruli & Bača, 2011).
Millennials are the most active users of the Internet and
social media. Online activities related to politics are useful
and encourage youth to participate in political events
(Quintelier & Vissers, 2008). Internet use, political
one another. This trend is playing a key role in elections,
especially in developing countries like Pakistan, India, and
Bangladesh. Internet and social media have become increas-
ingly important for disseminating political information
(McAllister, 2015). Conversely, it also poses threats to
democracies, as was seen in the 2016 United States presiden-
tial elections and some of the European countries. Social
media is one of the biggest sources of information for bil-
lions of its users; however, it also has huge potential for dis-
information to manipulate public opinion. The
above-mentioned effects of social media on political activ-
ism are important in gauging political dynamics. The Internet
encourages its users toward politics and strengthens offline
1
University of Narowal, Pakistan
2
Lahore College for Women University, Pakistan
3
The University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
Corresponding Author:
Muhammad Ittefaq, William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass
Communications, The University of Kansas, Stauffer-Flint Hall, 1435
Jayhawk Boulevard, Lawrence, KS 66045-7515, USA.
Email: muhammadittefaq@ku.edu; ittefaqmuhammad1@gmail.com

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(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage).
2 SAGE Open
political participation which shows the dual effect of Internet
on information and participation toward politics (Nam,
2012).
The use of social media among millennials is not only
popular in the developed world but also in developing coun-
tries. In Pakistan, political parties and individual politicians
have very active social media accounts to disseminate infor-
mation for social media users and voters (Michaelsen, 2011).
New technology and social media have an impact on politi-
cal communication in both developed and developing coun-
tries, although developed countries experience larger impact
because of proliferation of the Internet (Riaz, 2010). Social
networking sites (SNS) have significant influence on the
social and political learning of netizens, especially youth
(Khan & Shahbaz, 2015). A recent study revealed that SNS
have powerful political impact on individuals in Pakistan
(Karamat & Farooq, 2016). Students actively use new media
for political information such as sharing opinions and dis-
cussing issues around politics with fellow community mem-
bers (Arshad & Hassan, 2014).
In Pakistan, Facebook is the most used network among
youth for political information compared with other social
networks such as Twitter. According to the recent study,
Pakistan has the second highest population of youth in the
world after Yemen which has created huge impact on the
dynamics of Pakistan’s politics (Ittefaq & Iqbal, 2018). Since
2008, Pakistan’s political parties are actively using social
media and it has changed the dynamics of politics in Pakistan
(Eijaz, 2013). The majority of survey respondents partici-
pated in politics via social media, especially Facebook. The
Internet penetration is very low in Pakistan compared with
the other Asian countries, but the users are increasing with
the passage of time. According to the latest statistics, only
19% people has Internet access in Pakistan; however, sub-
stantial use of social and new media in different sectors
including politics, health, and education is encouraging
researchers to analyze the usage of social and new media
(Ittefaq & Iqbal, 2018). It provides an opportunity to discuss
different multifaceted issues facing Pakistani society and
encouraged them to participate in national elections, for bet-
ter turnout in electoral process (Ahmad & Sheikh, 2013).
Political participation by university students on Facebook
influenced their offline activism and is linked that how much
time they spend and engage in politics online. The study
shows that political activities of the Punjab University stu-
dents and their perception about politics have changed
through this platform (Zaheer, 2016). This study was con-
ducted in Lahore which is a metropolitan city of Pakistan and
has one of the largest universities in Pakistan.
Finding a gap in literature and especially marginalized and
rural area of Pakistan, this study sheds a light on the effects
that social media has on political participation and how uni-
versity students participate in online and offline political
activities and what is the theme of discussion on social media
networking sites. In addition, the study examines the effects
of online political activities of the participants and their real-
life participation in politics. The relationship of this efficacy
and participation toward politics has also been investigated.
Previous studies have investigated the role of social and new
media in bigger cities and other sectors of society like educa-
tion, health, and politics as well, but marginalized areas are
ignored by most of the researchers. But our study focuses on
rural area of Pakistan to examine their social media use in
political spectrum.
Literature Review
New Media and Political Efficacy
The Internet and social media provide an opportunity to the
young population for political discussion through various
online groups, pages, and accounts. Bimber and Copeland
(2011) emphasized on the role of new media for providing
the platform for political participation and changing their
political efficacy. Schulz’s (2005) study suggested that new
media users are active in politics and political discourse. The
Internet has developed the interests toward politics of its
users and improved political efficacy of the respondent
which create their online and offline political engagements.
Jiang (2016) examined the effects of the Internet on online
and offline political participation. He also investigated the
Internet’s role in molding citizens’ perceptions of politics.
This strong relationship creates political efficacy and elec-
tion interest among Internet users and increases their politi-
cal involvement (Jiang, 2016). The use of the Internet has
become the main source of political efficacy and political
participation, enhancing awareness about voting and cam-
paigning. New media also increases the ratio of voters’ turn-
out among users. It develops the approach which helps in
voting and donating campaign for politics (Larson, 2004).
Users’ efficacy helps them to understand the political affairs
in a better way through the acquisition of political informa-
tion from new media. Kahne, Middaugh, and Allen (2014)
investigated the youth, new media, and the rise of participa-
tory politics and concluded that new media has given a plat-
form to individuals for information and communication with
large audiences and a means to participate in political activi-
ties. The above-mentioned studies have been conducted in
developed countries and shared the similar findings.
However, marginalized and rural areas youth have been
excluded and neglected in the research domain. Our study
focuses on rural active youth in political process through
social media.
New Media and Political Participation
It is fair claim that social media has its disadvantages too.
For instance, Calder’s (2013) study argued that “it is neces-
sary to know the disadvantages of new media for political
communication and we have to save political participation
Ahmad et al. 3
from this situation rather than to accept it” (p. 66). Mahmud
and Amin (2017) focused on the usage of online media in
political activities among university students. The findings
of the study show the relationship of online and offline politi-
cal participation; however, compared with Facebook, email
plays a small role in political discussion. Similarly,
Schmiemann (2015) examined SNS and political participa-
tion and concluded that Facebook content shows a positive
response regarding political participation. Gibson and
McAllister (2012) evaluated online social ties and political
engagement and examined how online platforms increase
political interaction. In addition, online interaction is enhanc-
ing similar bonds among unrelated bridging networks; they
found that online social contact fosters offline participation.
Following the trend in this research domain, Papagiannidis
and Manika (2016) investigated political participation and
engagement via different online and offline channels and
found that new media and other online channels allow politi-
cal participants to get involved in politics and express their
opinion openly. Individual attitudes vary as do their digital
media use and real-life political participation.
The use of Internet and all other e-activities improves the
knowledge of online users about politics and spurs political
engagement and participation. Cantijoch and his colleagues
studied the use of Internet, political engagement, and the
impact of e-discussion, e-information, and e-political cam-
paigning. Their findings claimed that e-campaigning directly
connects and engages Internet users before and after elec-
tions (Cantijoch, Cutts, & Gibson, 2012). Marco, Robles,
and Antino (2017) also observed this political attitudes and
engagement in the case of individuals on digital platforms in
Spain. Study findings show significance difference between
cognitive and effective components of attitude. Rainie,
Smith, Schlozman, Brady, and Verba (2012) investigated
social media and political engagement and found that 39% of
adults in the United States used social media and one out of
every eight adults used social media for civic and political
purposes.
Social media generated new trends for political participa-
tion and changed the patterns of political communication.
Siluveru (2015) endeavored to dig out the facts about social
and digital media in political communication and concluded
that social media is being used for the purpose of social rela-
tions and updating the users about happenings. Stieglitz,
Brockmann, and Xuan (2012) analyzed the usage of social
media for political communication and found a strong rela-
tionship among politicians and social media users. In addi-
tion to that, due to SNS, interaction between voters and
politicians has improved significantly. Biswas, Ingle, and
Roy (2014) examined the influence of social media in India,
on voting behavior, their results show that social media
unites people within political parties. Storck (2011) revealed
that activists used social media for collective action. Hellweg
(2011) examined politicians’ social media use to influence
constituent perceptions and found that voters responded
more positively to politicians’ personal content rather than to
their professional content. Similarly, Kalsnes (2016) dis-
cussed Facebook as a unique platform for interaction between
political parties and voters; the study provides best practices
to link with voters for political engagement. Raoof, Zaman,
Ahmad, and Al-Qaraghuli (2013) studied social network sys-
tems as a tool for political change. Their findings clearly
showed that social media was widely used as a communica-
tion network among candidates and voters. By providing
information about politics, social media invites participation
and mobilization and plays a vital role in political education
as well as the mobilization of the public in politics (Doris,
2014).
According to the latest statistics, Pakistan has 44.61 mil-
lion Internet users. Among these Internet users, 37 million
are considered as active users of social media. Among them,
36 million use Facebook, 6.30 million use Instagram, 1.26
million use Twitter, 2.15 million use Snapchat, and 5.10 mil-
lion use LinkedIn. Moreover, 41% users are between 18 and
24 years and 36% people are between 25 and 34-years-old.
These statistics indicate that the majority of social media and
Internet users are young people in Pakistan (We Are Social,
2019). Another digital marketing company published latest
report named Digital Statistical Indicators 2018 and claims
that 44.6 million out of 198.9 million are Internet users,
which is 22% of the total population. Out of them, only 35
million are active users of social media, which is 18% of the
total population. Mobile users are 109.5 million out of the
total population, and among them, 32 million are active
Internet and social media users from their mobile devices,
which is just 16% of the total population. The majority of
social media users are the young people both in rural and
urban areas.
Facebook and Political Efficacy
Write a topic sentence here. Build a concept of a story. Social
media, especially Facebook, plays an important role in politi-
cal efficacy. Abdulrauf (2016) examined cognitive engage-
ment and online political participation on Facebook and
Twitter among youth in Nigeria and Malaysia and concluded
that political knowledge and needs increased the political
involvement and trust in young people. Abdu and his col-
leagues measured the role of Facebook and its use, interactiv-
ity, quality information, and political interest among youth.
The study concluded that “Facebook use, and political interest
positively correlates with online political participation” (Abdu,
Mohamad, & Muda, 2017, p. 1). Conroye and his colleagues
found that online political groups are mutually connected with
offline political participation; however, the relationship
between online political groups and political knowledge is
limited because of online group discourse, but the connection
between online and offline participation is very strong
(Conroye, Feezellb, & Guerreroc, 2012). Heiss and Matthes
(2016) studied the effects of politicians’ participatory Facebook
4 SAGE Open
posts on young people’s political efficacy and revealed signifi-
cant positive effects on those with high external and collective
efficacy traits and low cynicism traits. Chan and Guo (2013)
investigated Facebook use in political activities and concluded
that “social media use among youth can facilitate greater polit-
ical and civic engagement, particularly for those who perceive
that they have limited ability to participate and understand
political affairs” (p. 461).
Facebook and Political Participation
Considerable research over the decade has been produced on
the impact of social media and Internet on online and offline
political participation. For instance, Facebook has become
one of the most significant platforms for online users to dis-
cuss politics and participate in politics offline. Njegomir
(2016) examined the impact of Facebook, Twitter, and
YouTube on millennials’ political behavior and found that
Twitter and YouTube were not used for political purposes;
however, Facebook was used for political content and may
have a negative effect on formal political participation in
both developing and developed countries. Westling (2007)
examined the expansion of the public sphere and the impact
of Facebook on political communication. He interlinked the
political communication strategies with public sphere expan-
sion and found that Facebook was a valid platform for bridg-
ing political communication among public. Another study
conducted by Marcheva (2008) found that there was a strong
correlation between social media platforms and collective
movements. Facebook helped in understanding the various
impressions of political participation such as discussions of
controversial issues.
Researchers have developed multiple scales to study the
impact of Internet on campaign and political messages. Due
to the monolithic nature of the medium, it is difficult to
assess the effects of social media on netizens. Political par-
ticipation on Facebook is robust during elections. Rustad and
Sæbø (2013) found that politicians use Facebook to connect
with citizens and keep them updated about their agenda and
political activities. Borah (2014) presented his paper at the
annual conference in International Communication
Association on the use of Facebook amid the presidential
campaign and found that posts promoting the candidate
increased political participation in individuals whose party
affiliation is congruent with the post (p. 1). Similar to that,
Vitak et al. (2009) observed the usage of Facebook and polit-
ical involvement in the 2008 election. They concluded that
there are possible effects to change the usage of SNS among
applicants and political organizations. Hanson, Haridakis,
Cunningham, Sharma, and Ponder (2010) revealed that
social media usage shows negative predictions for political
cynicism. Andersen and Medaglia (2009) found that the
online sphere is popular among voters because they know
about their political candidates through various means of
party organization. Gerodimos and Justinussen (2014) found
that Obama’s campaign in 2012 utilized Facebook as a tool
for promotion; this online campaign highlighted Obama’s
personality as a strategy which motivated followers to acts
rather than to become empowered. Stumpel (2010) has given
insight in his thesis on politics of social media (Facebook)
and argues that discursive processes and counter protoco-
logical implementations should be an essential political fac-
tor which governs user activities on SNS. Based on the
extensive amount of literature which has been devoted to
social media and political communication, we can argue that
published literature shows the opportunities and challenges
of social media in politics in various countries across the
globe. Based on the presented literature, the following
hypotheses are derived to address in this study:
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Online political activities have a sig-
nificant relationship with political efficacy.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Online political activities have a sig-
nificant relationship with real-life participation.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): Political participation and political
efficacy have a significant relationship with each other.
Method
In this study, the population includes students of University
of Narowal, Pakistan. We selected a sample of (N = 200)
respondents including (N = 100) BS students (Hons) and (N
= 100) pursuing master’s degrees (male and female for both
groups). The quantitative survey method has been utilized
along with its data-collection techniques to get better results.
For the collection of information from the selected sample of
study respondents, we used Qualtrics software to distribute
our survey among students in University of Narowal. In this
study, the questionnaire is constructed with analytical, close-
ended questions along with the 5-point Likert-type scale
(summated rating scale), consisting of multiple options, that
is, 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, and
5 = Never. Respondents chose one option to answer each
question. In this study, both independent and dependent vari-
ables were taken from previous published studies, operation-
alized and modified. Online activities were used as the
independent variable, and political efficacy and real partici-
pation were the dependent variable. We used the Zaheer
(2016) scale regarding the measurement of items such as
political participation, political efficacy, use of social media,
and online and offline political activities.
The concepts of the study show that online media pro-
vides support to the dependent variable’s political efficacy,
real participation, and online activities. Political efficacy
reveals respondents’ political beliefs, political ideologies,
and their feelings about the political system. Several
researchers used political efficacy as a variable to examine
youth’s pre-existing understandings about politics and their
real-life political participation. Real-life participation
includes political activities such as active political
Ahmad et al. 5
Table 1.  Relationship of Online Political Activities With Political Efficacy (N = 200).
Model R R2
1 (PE) .286a .082
Note. PE = political efficacy; OA = online activities; SE = standard error.
a
Predictors: (Constant), OA.
Table 2.  Relationship of Online Political Activities With Real-Life Participation (N = 200).
Model R R2
a
2 (RP) .366 .084
Note. RP = real participation; OA = online activities; SE = standard error.
a
Predictors: (Constant), OA.
campaigning, attendance in rallies and protests, and take
part in the voting process during elections. Online activities
include sharing posts, liking pictures, and commenting on
videos on different digital platforms such as Facebook,
Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube. We studied the correla-
tion between online political activities and real-life partici-
pation among young university students in a rural area of
Pakistan.
In the beginning, data collection was difficult due to lack
of understanding of online surveys in Pakistan; especially in
rural areas. At that time, English was the language used in
surveys. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (n.d.)
World Factbook, Pakistan uses English and Lingua Franca to
communicate in offices and schools, and government offi-
cials primarily use English as their means of communication.
Second, University of Narowal offers all courses in English
and English language is the central medium of instruction.
After personally visiting several departments, in person,
response rate was significantly improved. We used our per-
sonal contacts, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Emails to distrib-
ute the link of our survey. We distributed our survey to all
departments and schools in University of Narowal, Pakistan.
After the data-collection phase, we ran several descriptive
statistic results to find the inconsistencies and errors. We
used Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software
to analyze the data and regression analysis, correlations, and
descriptive statistics to test the proposed hypothesis.
We used probability sampling and selected simple-ran-
dom sampling technique in this study. Wimmer and Dominick
(2011) noted that probability sampling uses mathematical
calculations and random sampling uses the element, subject,
and the unit of population. Consequently, students of bache-
lor’s and master’s degrees are selected in random sampling
and considered as youth. The method was a quantitative sur-
vey study design. Wimmer and Dominick (2011) discussed
that quantitative research method has been performed
through using different survey methods. Similarly, Williams
(2003) said that “survey research is based upon the well-
Adjusted R2 SE of the estimate
.077 .43914
Adjusted R2 SE of the estimate
.098 .51286
established statistical sampling principles of sampling”
(p. 23). Survey method is very popular in media and com-
munication studies.
Findings
In pursuance to analyze the H1 of this study, that is, online
political activities have a significant relationship with politi-
cal efficacy, Table 1 depicts political efficacy (PE) with an R
value .286, R2 value .082, adjusted R2 .077, and SE of the
estimate .43914. The scale of political efficacy has been
developed from Niemi, Craig, and Franco (1991). In this
7-item scale (α = .756), questions have been asked of
respondents. A Likert-type scale has been applied with the
response options of 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes,
4 = Often, and 5 = Never. Hence, the study findings support
H1, that there is a significant relationship between online
political activities and political efficacy.
To test the H2 of this study, that is, online political activi-
ties have a significant relationship with real-life participa-
tion, the regression analysis square test was applied to data.
Table 2 depicts real participation (RP) with an R value .366,
R2 value .084, adjusted R2 .098, and SE of the estimate
.51286. The scale for real-life political participation used in
this study has been resulting by means of merging the scales
of Verba and Nie (1972) and Cao (2008). To measure real-
life political participation, a 7-item scale was adopted
(α = .756). A Likert-type scale was applied with the response
options of 1 = Always, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes,
4 = Often, and 5 = Never. Hence, the study findings support
H2, that there is a significant relationship between online
political activities and real-life participation.
In pursuance of H3 of this study, that is, political partici-
pation and political efficacy have a significant relationship
with each other, the correlation test has been applied to the
data. Table 3 shows that online political activities (OPA) cor-
relate with political efficacy (PE) at .286 and significant at
.000, and moreover, with real political participation (RPP)
6 SAGE Open

Table 3.  Relationship Between Political Participation and Political Efficacy.

OA PE RP
OA Pearson’s correlation 1 .286** .066
Significant (two-tailed) .000 .355
N 200 200 200

Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation.

**Relationship between two variables.

Table 4.  Correlation of Online Activities With Political Efficacy and Real-Life Participation.

OA PE RP
OA Pearson’s correlation 1 .286** .066
  Significant (two-tailed) .000 .355
  N 200 200 200
PE Pearson’s correlation .286** 1 .316**
  Significant (two-tailed) .000 .000
  N 200 200 200
RP Pearson’s correlation .066 .316** 1
  Significant (two-tailed) .355 .000  
  N 200 200 200

Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation.

**Correlation is significant at the .05 level (two-tailed).

Table 5.  Sample’s Descriptive Statistics.

M SD N
OA 3.9029 .26707 200
PE 3.9714 .45717 200
RP 3.6929 .21278 200

Note. OA = online activities; PE = political efficacy; RP = real participation.

correlated at .066. This study hypothesis shows positive cor-
relations between online and offline political participation as
Schulz’s (2005) and Vitak et al.’s (2009) studies. Hence, the
study findings support H3 because a significant relationship
was found between political participation and political
efficacy.
Table 4 depicts that OA correlate with PE at .286 and sig-
nificant at .000, and moreover, with RP correlated at .066.
On the contrary, PE is correlated with RP at .316. The overall
correlation among these three variables is significant at .01.
There were 50.5% undergraduate and 49.5% graduate stu-
dents. However, percentage distribution regarding age shows
that 41.0% were from 18 to 23 years old and 57.0% of the
respondents were from 24 to 28 years old. Moreover, 51.0%
were male and 49.0% were female. The results of the survey
related to political efficacy showed that 51.0% respondents
strongly agreed that they are well-qualified to participate in
politics through online media. However, 41.5% respondents
strongly agreed that sometimes politics and government
activities seemed too complicated to them. Survey results
also showed that in terms of real-life participation, 43.0% of
respondents often discussed political activities with their
family, colleagues, and others, while 19.0% respondents
never attended political party meetings. Moreover, results of
online political activities indicate that 37.5% of respondents
visit online video channels (e.g., YouTube) to view official or
unofficial videos about election issues, party leaders, or local
candidates on a daily basis and 44.0% of respondents daily
visit the Twitter accounts of parties, leaders, and local
candidates.
Conclusion
The findings of the first variable political efficacy (PE) rela-
tionship through online media show that the majority of
respondents strongly agree that they use online media and
feel well-aware of political issues. Majority of the respon-
dents said that they use SNS for political information and
discussions. However, education results show that both
undergraduate and graduate students are highly active on
online media and are politically conscious, while age cross-
tabulation indicates that students of age 24 to 28 years more
Ahmad et al. 7
actively use online media compared with students of age 18
to 23 years. Overall, the study findings suggest that online
political activities have a significant influence on political
efficacy. Results of the second variable real participation
(RP) relationship through online media results show that
respondents actively share political content online with their
friends, family, and colleagues. They actively participate in
real-life political activities. The majority of respondents had
contact with members of the national assembly and members
of the provincial assembly. In addition, the study’s third vari-
able online activities (OA) results reveals that the majority of
respondents visited political websites and also blogs of lead-
ers, politicians, and local candidates.
Conclusively, the study has determined that online media
has a significant influence on university students. It creates
political efficacy among all the respondents. The selected
sample of university students actively using online media is
better informed about government happenings. The respon-
dents said they discuss and share political content online and
they actively take part in various real-life political activities.
They use Facebook to communicate with politicians and
local candidates. Online media has an important role in polit-
ical efficacy and real participation. The study supports our
hypotheses about how online political activities have a sig-
nificant relationship with political efficacy, online political
activities have a significant relationship with real-life politi-
cal participation, and political efficacy largely depends on all
the above.
The results of our study show that Pakistan’s rural youth,
especially students, are very active on SNS to participate
online and offline in protests and rallies. It could have been
better to include a bigger sample from rural Pakistan. Our
study only consists of one university and future scholar
should include new universities such as the University of
Okara and other rural campuses to shed a light on the use of
social media among youth for political purposes.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Muhammad Ittefaq https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5334-7567
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Author Biographies
Taufiq Ahmad is a lecturer at Center for Media and Communication
Studies in University of Narowal, Pakistan. He started his career as
a Sub-Editor in Pakistan Observer, and he worked with News
Network International (NNI) as Monitoring Officer at International
Desk. He has also been associated with Uks Research, Resource
and Publication as a Research Executive. He joined academic career
as a visiting lecturer at Center for Media and Communication
Studies, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan. His
research interests are political communication, framing theory, and
analysis of political talk shows in broadcast media.
Aima Alvi is a MPhil scholar in Department of Mass Communication
at Lahore College for Women University, Lahore, Pakistan.
Muhammad Ittefaq did his first master’s degree in Communication
Studies at Institute of Communication Studies, University of
Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. He earned his second master’s degree at
the Institute of Media and Communication Science, Technical
University Ilmenau, Germany. Currently, he is a PhD student at
William Allen White School of Journalism and Mass
Communications, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA. His
research interests are social media, health communication, and new
media technology.