THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 1

Collaboratively Analyzing Historically Black Colleges and Universities: The Evolution of

this Unique Institution Type in Higher Education and the Unrealized Possibilities

Dulce Beas, Kiana Medina, Diana Rea, and Jamaal Washington

Kremen School of Education and Development, California State University, Fresno

December 15, 2020

Author Note

Correspondence concerning our work should be addressed to Dulce Beas, Kiana Medina, Diana

Rea, and Jamaal Washington, California State University, Fresno, 5005 N. Maple Ave., Fresno,

CA, 93740.
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 2

Abstract

This research effort examines the origins of Historically Black Colleges and Universities

(HBCUs) as well as their legacy and distinction in creating access and opportunity for Black

students in higher education following the Civil War. Our collaborative investigation began with

compiling an institutional profile by accessing pertinent foundational, statistical, and historical

data from national databases to present a concise overview of HBCUs, subsequently proceeding

to analyze themes within mission/vision statements, organizational structure, and evolving

academic curriculum to understand how they are uniquely positioned to operate and serve

students. We have additionally contextualized the relationship between social, political, and

legislative influences on institutional expansion, evolution in the academic curriculum, and

contemporary issues such as high student default rates and challenges with accreditation

standards. To be fully encompassing in our research of HBCUs, we examined the unique

opportunities presented for engagement as it shapes the student, faculty, and staff experience -

synthesizing connections to noted education theory and models centered on student engagement,

student development, sense of belonging, and campus culture - that lead to successful outcomes

yet to be achieved by many other higher education institution types. After articulating many of

the historic factors and details that have shaped the modern HBCUs, we segue into our

conclusive offering of unrealized possibilities; in hopes of facilitating greater emphasis on the

internal and external partnerships that lead to advancing opportunities for Historically Black

Colleges and Universities as a competitive option amongst higher education choices, while

further empowering the student demographic (Black students) they were founded to serve.

Keywords: Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Black students, higher education,

institutional profile and analysis, access to higher education, civil rights in education
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 3

Collaboratively Analyzing Historically Black Colleges and Universities: The Evolution of

this Unique Institution Type in Higher Education and the Unrealized Possibilities

Throughout history, minority-serving institutions have served as providers of education

for underrepresented minority groups such as Hispanics, African-Americans, Asian-Americans,

Pacific Islanders, and American-Indians. The journey towards accessible higher education has a

unique legacy in connection to Black students and the early Black Colleges as America’s dark

roots of segregation provided very few options for newly freed people to realize economic and

social mobility. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) - as formally defined in

the Higher Education Act (1965) - presented access to education and opportunities for Black

students and many other socially disadvantaged communities. Their commitment to diversity and

social justice has especially nourished Black students with knowledge and conviction to

overcome challenges while learning to adapt and thrive through uncertain and dehumanizing

social conditions. We have approached this collaboration with scholarly intrigue and many

leading questions. These questions have fueled a collaborative energy and interest that

illuminates within our collective research. We seek to identify how vestiges of America’s history

of educational segregation impact the operations of HBCUs today. We also hope to determine

the internal and external factors contributing to how HBCUs position Black scholars for success

today. We approach these and many more questions with a purposeful mission to collectively

compile, analyze, and contextualize the many unique nuances of these minority-serving

institutions and broaden our understanding of their historical legacy, mission, and impact on

students.

Exploring HBCUs: Historical Overview and Description

THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 4

The formation of what are classified today as Historically Black Colleges and

Universities begins towards the end of the Civil War and the collapse of the confederacy. Black

churches, abandoned schoolhouses, living rooms, and basements would quietly serve as the

originating meeting spaces of and classrooms for Black students and Black colleges

(Smithsonian Institutes, 2020). Land grant funds for higher education became available through

the second Morrill Act of 1890, requiring that states already using federal higher education funds

either provide Black students with access to existing higher education institutions (integration) or

agree to the allocation of land grant funds for institutions specifically to serve them (Freemark,

2015). While the interest in education was extremely high amongst African Americans following

the Civil War, southern states opted away from integrating their public institutions and instead

created a completely separate set of public Black colleges (Freemark, 2015). While over 90

different Black colleges were operating between 1861 and 1900, Shaw University in Raleigh,

North Carolina is recognized as the first Black College organized after the Civil War— founded

on December 1, 1865 (Smithsonian Institutes, 2020).

Nearly 100 years later in the Higher Education Act of 1965, the Department of Education

defined Historically Black Colleges and Universities as “any historically Black college or

university established prior to 1964 whose principal mission was, and is, the education of Black

Americans and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association”

(Smithsonian Institutes, 2020). It is no coincidence that the timing of this definitive identification

of HBCUs by the Department of Education aligns with the Civil Rights movement as HBCUs

have stood as historic living artifacts of our nation’s dark history of racial oppression in that

these structures serve as a reminder of how African Americans had to access educational

opportunities during times when this nation legally denied such access based on race. In
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 5

addressing a deeply rooted need among African Americans to change social and economic

outlook (as well as a yearning for what had been withheld) following the end of the Civil War,

the Black church, old schoolhouses, and philanthropists served as the founders of the early

HBCUs—100 of which are still in operation today (Freemark, 2015).

HBCUs provide access to a highly rigorous education for Black students which was not

an option at many other state or private higher education institutions because of segregation.

These institutions were established as African Americans sought out opportunities for higher

education and contributed to the development of their communities and cultures (Gasman et al.,

2015). Today, HBCUs in the United States are spread across 20 states largely in the South, the

District of Columbia, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. There are a total of 105 nonprofit HBCU

institutions in the United States, roughly split between public and private (Gasman et al., 2015).

Exploring HBCUs: Providing Access and Opportunity to Minoritized Students

Student Demographics

The Department of Education defines Historically Black Colleges and Universities

(HBCUs) as institutions that were established prior to 1964 with the principal mission of

educating Black Americans (Smithsonian Institutes, 2020). Across the nation, nine percent of all

African American college students attend HBCUs with data showing disproportionate enrollment

of first-generation, low-income, and Pell Grant college student recipients, with more than 94% of

students relying on financial aid (Thurgood Marshall College Fund, 2019). Despite these

barriers, HBCUs are responsible for producing the highest number of bachelor’s degrees for

Black students (Thurgood Marshall College Fund, 2019) in addition to historically playing a

critical role in the economic and social mobility of Black graduates (Postsecondary National

Policy Institute, 2019).

THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 6

The choice to attend an HBCU has shown some interesting trends over the past few

decades. The number of HBCU students increased by 47 percent between 1976 and 2010, then

decreased 11 percent between 2010 and 2018 (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.).

Female enrollment at HBCUs has been higher than male enrollment every year since 1976—

increasing from 53 percent in fall 1976 to 62 percent in fall 2018 (National Center for Education

Statistics, n.d.). In 2018, non-Black students made up 24 percent of enrollment at HBCUs,

compared with 15 percent in 1976 (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.).

HBCUs Mission and Values

HBCUs’ mission applies a holistically focused approach to meet the academic and

emotional needs of African American students (Brown and Davis, 2001). These institutions

embrace a culture of caring that reaffirms students of who they are and provides them with the

skills and confidence to reach their career goals (HBCU History and Modern Importance, n.d.).

Research indicates that students from HBCUs leave their campus more motivated, optimistic,

and satisfied with their experience compared to peers who attend predominantly white

institutions because of their closer relationships with faculty and the institution’s dedication to

diversity (National Educational Association, 2018). Other studies suggest that attending these

institutions leads to a greater sense of belonging and connection, which is important for groups

who have been historically marginalized and alienated (Van Camp et. al., 2009). HBCUs’ roles

also gravitate towards serving the communities in which they are situated. For example, many of

their mission statements discuss the responsibility of preserving Black historical and cultural

traditions and providing leadership for students to better serve the Black community (Brown and

Davis, 2001). Their commitment to equity and access has enabled students to develop better self-

concepts of their academic abilities and led to greater academic achievement and social mobility.
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 7

Change in HBCUs’ Student Landscape

More recently, HBCUs have experienced an increase in non-Black student admissions,

with 24% of its student population being non-Black. According to the Postsecondary National

Policy Institute (2019), Latinx student enrollment grew by 90%, Asian student admittance rose

more than 50%, and White student registration increased by 55% all in the past decade.

Many suggest that this rise in racial diversity is a result of a decline in Black student

enrollment and interest. For instance, scholars have found that rising recruiting efforts from

predominantly White institutions and increased access to financial aid have resulted in more

college options for African American students (Anderson, 2017). As a result, HBCUs have

become more lenient to the possibility of enrolling students beyond the Black community in an

effort to maintain their institution open. Many worry that this changing landscape will take away

its value and have an impact on its campus culture. However, due to the current financial crisis

for many HBCUs, the surge of non-Black students will ensure their survival and persistence.

Colleges should find a balance between meeting the diverse needs of its new student population

while maintaining an emphasis on social justice and equity for Black students.

HBCUs’ Curriculum

Evolution of the Curriculum in HBCUs

Since the founding of this institutional type, Historically Black Colleges and Universities

have played a historical role in enhancing equal educational opportunity for all students. The

curriculum has progressed from providing Black youth a basic education and training to become

teachers or tradesmen to now educating the most accomplished African American professionals

in the country (Stefon, 2011). The emerging rise in African American students pursuing a higher

education began because of this institutional type. The impact HBCUs have played in delivering
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 8

undergraduates is striking. HBCUs are responsible for awarding nearly 75% of all African

Americans holding a doctorate and remarkably educating 80% of all African American federal

judges. A large portion of graduates holds distinguished positions after graduating from an

HBCU including congressmen, CEOs, professors, and lawyers (United States Commission on

Civil Rights, 2010). Moreover, the curriculum has progressed to entering the rigorous STEM

field. Historically Black Colleges and Universities produce a significant number of students who

receive degrees in STEM fields such as science, engineering, technology, and mathematics. As

times progress, there are more African American students in this field, which is a huge step that

assures the contribution of HBCUs and the curriculum. Exceptionally, students graduating from

this institution type have a career advantage over graduates of other colleges in terms of

employment rate, salary, and other measures of career success (New America, 2015).

HBCUs also contribute a significant amount of Black individuals and people of color to

the workforce that otherwise are primarily white-based. This is important because for example,

in the field of medicine, it has been proven that patients of color feel more comfortable with a

provider of color, and providers of color are more likely to serve underrepresented communities.

With a widening health care disparity for impoverished and underrepresented communities,

providers of color filling in these gaps is essential— and HBCUs allow students of color the

opportunity to be that resource for these communities (Noonan et al., 2013).

Not only do HBCUs promote a rigorous academic career path but also foster a holistic

approach. African-American students report more contact with faculty compared to African-

American students at non-HBCUs. Also, African- Americans at this institutional type are more

likely to be involved in faculty research projects compared to students at non-HBCUs (United

States Commission on Civil Rights, 2010). Students are also more likely to earn a graduate or
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS 9

professional degree than other African American students at other institutions (New America,

2015). The holistically engaging experiences involving students, faculty, culturally relevant co-

curricula and culturally responsive opportunities for careers and community service are a critical

component to the HBCU experience and the Culturally Engaging Campus Environments

(Museus S.D., 2014) they foster; promoting stronger retention and student engagement by

connecting learning to opportunities to lead social change.

Though HBCUs continue to award degrees, this institution type has dealt with low

retention and graduation rates. However, considering the socioeconomic status and academic

preparedness of its students, HBCUs’ graduation equals or surpasses those of other institutions.

If this is not taken into consideration, then HBCU graduation and retention rates would fall

below non-HBCU institutions. HBCU graduates are also more likely than graduates of other

colleges to complete their degree with a great amount of debt and student loans. HBCUs'

connection with student demographics and the curriculum needs improvement. While their

impact in the STEM field and other competitive fields is impressive, there is an evident and clear

need to improve the overall graduation and retention rates (New America, 2015). To successfully

do this, developing strategies that provide strong supports to first-generation and Pell-eligible

students is vital.

Professional Organizations and Advocacy Groups for HBCUs

The National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education (NAFEO) is the

umbrella organization of the nation’s Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and

Predominantly Black Institutions (PBIs). Founded in 1969, NAFEO provides an international

voice for the nation’s HBCUs, specifically, to place and maintain the issue of equal opportunity

in higher education on the national agenda (NAFEO Nation, n.d.). Moreover, NAFEO serves as
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
10
a program to advocate for policies, programs, and practices designed to preserve and enhance

HBCUs. Its purpose is to increase the active participation of African Americans in the

formulation and implementation of policies and programs in American higher education

(NAFEO Nation, n.d.). Other advocacy groups under NAFEO include Thurgood Marshall

College Fund, HBCU Community Development Action Coalition, and the United Negro College

Fund, among others. Together, these advocacy groups and professional organizations serve

students at HBCUs by advocating for educational equity for African American students to access

a college education (Murray, 2020).

Governing Structures of HBCUs

The governing structures of HBCUs can vary greatly between private and public

institutions and what state they may reside in. According to Minor (2004), there is an ever-

present tension between the Universities and the “powers that be” that decide state and federal

funding and policies. HBCUs are continually neglected in this funding and typically receive less

support than their PWI (predominantly white institution) counterparts. The public institutions are

typically overseen by a board of trustees appointed by the state governor and the board of

trustees communicates directly with the University’s administration (Minor, 2004). Although

HBCUs do not possess a governing structure, the outside influence of stakeholders and

community members have a large influence on the institution’s success. HBCUs may often be

viewed as inferior to their PWI counterparts, and the public perception of the university can have

an effect on enrollment as well as decisions made by the board of trustees (Minor, 2004).

HBCUs and Policies

Although many HBCUs were brought into existence due to the passing of large

legislation, like the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1890, HBCUs have faced significant struggle due
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
11
to the passing of restrictive policy. For example, the legislative changes to the Parent PLUS

federal loan program significantly affected HBCUs. The Parent PLUS program was altered and

made it more difficult for student parents to apply and qualify for loans. This served as a major

barrier for student parents to attend universities, and the HBCUs took a hard hit. Howard

University lost over $7 million in tuition costs due to the drop in enrollment of student parents

(Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges, 2014).

There is also an implementation of a federal college ranking system that can be implicitly

biased against HBCUs. This system uses numerical data to showcase graduation and retention

rates, but the population that HBCUs serve face many barriers that may keep students from

completing their degree. This policy that made the ranking system happen does not portray the

increased sense of belonging and community on campus, nor does it portray the unique levels of

Black student success. This system is not an accurate representation of HBCUs, therefore, the

policy was not equitable for HBCUs (Association of Governing Boards of Universities and

Colleges, 2014). Many policies for federal financial aid for low-income students have allowed

students of color increased access to attending colleges and HBCUs, but there still is a long

journey in protecting HBCUs from policies that threaten closure, lowers enrollment, and

decreases funding for essential education of our Black students and students of color.

Leadership at HBCUs

Considering that HBCUs have limited financial resources and endowments compared to

other universities, strong leadership is needed to address the growing crisis of historically Black

colleges. However, many of its campuses suffer from inadequate governance practices and poor

working relationships with its management. One of the main issues HBCUs face is that

leadership turnover is at an all-time high. Kimbrough (2017) states that between 2010 and 2014,
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
12
HBCU presidents’ tenure typically took an average of 3.3 years while the average among four-

year institutions is 7 years. Some campuses even have a temporary position for interim

presidents, such as in the case of Prairie View A&M University (Harris, 2017). The absence of a

long-term and dedicated president not only weakens the institution but also prevents the

opportunity for long-term direction and lasting change. Explanations for HBCUs’ high rate of

leadership turnover has contributed to several factors, most notably for internal and political

pressures, lack of financial resources, and conflict between the president and their board of

trustees (Lockett, 2019). More importantly, because HBCUs have strong ties to the government,

their survival is often dependent on state and federal support. Having a stable president who is

knowledgeable of its campus mission statement, campus culture, and campus policies will allow

them to better convince policymakers to support their institutions and maintain their relevance.

Scholars like Tekniepe (2014) also suggest that the amount of pressure and responsibility for an

HBCU president only worsens because of their old age, citing that more than half of the

presidents were between 60 to 70 years old, which is more than the average age of other four-

year presidents. As a result, many suggest paving the way for younger leaders to carry on the

work and to address some of the challenges in more innovative ways.

Unrealized Possibilities for HBCUs

Historically Black Colleges and Universities have a few areas that generally present

unrealized possibilities across the system. In examining the research that exists, we have

identified the following ways in which HBCUs have the potential to tap into unrealized

possibilities. It is important to preface that this section of our research is in no way serving to

minimize the role, impact, or ways that HBCUs’ facilitate student success by undermining where

they are through non-HBCU institution comparison— because the truth is that in evaluating
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
13
HBCUs and the predominantly Black student demographic they were formed to serve, both share

generational legacies rooted in the African diaspora, slavery, and the multitudinous forms of

oppression that still reverberate through the Black community and the higher education

institutions designed to serve this population to this very day. The first unrealized possibility for

HBCUs is the unique opportunities for faculty and students in STEM. For example, the current

COVID-19 pandemic and the disproportionate impact and devastation it has caused to African-

Americans and other communities of color yields a particular interest within STEM students to

engage in support that facilitates social change. In fact, during this recent academic year, Howard

University is one of ten HBCUs to receive $15 million cumulatively over the next three years in

funding from the Gates Foundation to build up a COVID-19 testing infrastructure (Hansen, D.

2020). Considering how a majority of HBCUs’ mission and vision statements include themes

centered on shaping students and alumni for careers that lead to social change, with the

opportunity being in how students and faculty are supported in aligning learning experiences

within each academic discipline to real-world opportunities to shape social change. achievements

yet to be realized by a student body learning and developing as they witness the disparity and

devastation of multiple pandemics on Black and poor communities of color.

The next unrealized possibility with HBCUs is the potential to see top prospective black

student-athletes opt away from high-profile Division I intercollegiate athletics programs situated

within higher education institutions that have a history of student marginalization. Top recruits

are already making this decision with others contemplating the many benefits of such a decision

- including that for legacy and culture (Borzello, J., 2020). In articulating the types of

marginalization student-athletes face, David Horton Jr. states “student-athletes

THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
14
are confronted with layered marginalization due to their status as a community college student,

student-athlete, and when applicable, as a member of an underrepresented ethnic, gender, or

socioeconomic group” (Horton, D., 2011). This unrealized potential would allow top high school

and community college athletic prospects to exert more agency over the type of holistically

supportive culture higher education institutions provide around student-athletes. In addition, the

recent progress towards changing NCAA regulations on how student-athletes may profit on their

likeness (Booker, B., 2020) has opened an uncharted domain to amplify the student-athlete

platform, voice, personal branding, and profitability.

Our concluding unrealized possibility for HBCUs is that they ascend towards becoming

an increasingly sought after hub and incubator for an immensely talented Black workforce that

can provide businesses with one of many routes that can be taken to address voids in diverse and

inclusive hiring, development, and advancement patterns that have overlooked qualified Black

and minority candidates. In regards to evaluating this trend amongst corporations across

America, a recent Harvard Review article concluded, “We have not identified a major company

that is doing this well on a broad scale” (Roberts, L. M., & Mayo, A. J., 2019). A common

response among corporations and businesses upon the noted voids in hiring and workplace

diversity is typically something along the lines of not having candidates who met the

qualifications. During an interview with CNN, Howard University President Wayne A. I.

Frederick responded to Wells Fargo CEO’s diverse workforce comment “very limited pool of

Black talent to recruit from” by stating:

I have a unique window into the African-American students within my own institution,

fellow historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs), and other centers of higher

education across the country. The talent I see every day is immense and inspiring. Black
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
15
students and alumni have a depth of capabilities and diverse passions and ambitions.

They leave our campuses eager to work hard and ready to change our industries, our

society, and our world for the better. All they need is an opportunity (CNN Business

Perspectives, 2020).

External Forces on the Evolution of HBCUs

From the founding of the very first Historically Black College and University, there have

been many external forces that have shaped how this institutional type has changed. Taking into

consideration the different regions HBCUs are located, the public or private status, and their

main revenue streams, the external influences can differ from institution to institution. Some of

the main external forces, as discussed by Lee and Keys, that influence HBCUs are state and

federal government, stakeholders, media, and higher education organizations (Lee & Keys,

2013). According to the article, HBCUs have been forced to defend their existence in a “post-

Obama” era. These questions on the history and existence of HBCUs play out in the monumental

U.S. Supreme Court Case of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) in which the decision to

desegregate has served as a point of right-wing criticism favoring state’s rights (Harper S.,

Jackson J., 2011). Edward P. St. John (2011) explains:

Legal remedies to segregation of higher education, a process that involves the federal

government in monitoring plans accepted by the courts to remedy vestiges of de jure

segregation in the dual systems of predominantly White institutions and HBCUs in the

south ….shifted after the Supreme Court’s United States v. Fordice (1992) which shifted

the federal role from encouraging states to equally fund HBCUs to rationalizing funding

for new programs based on their ability to desegregate these colleges. (Harper S., Jackson

J., 2011, p.380).

THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
16
It is because of this idea and how it has manifested through external forces (state governments

and Supreme Court legislation) that HBCUs admit a very diverse population of students each

year. An additional reason why HBCUs admit many White, Latino, and Asian students each year

is the increase in competition with admitting Black students with other universities (Lee & Keys,

2013). In order to keep revenue and funding high, HBCUs must admit more student affinity

groups, especially within private universities.

Another external factor is the state and federal policies that govern how to grant loans.

Many recent policies have restricted the student loan lending default rate due to the nation-wide

student debt crisis the nation is currently facing. Unfortunately, many private HBCUs have a

high student debt default rate, which puts them in danger of losing federal support. Additionally,

HBCUs rely heavily on accreditation organizations that require the institution to assess their

practices and structure. Many HBCUs have been under high scrutiny by their accreditation

boards. This influences many areas within the universities, forcing them to comply, and putting

them at risk for losing funding (Lee & Keys, 2013).

The selection and development of leadership have also been strongly influenced by

federal and state-level funding and policy. The leadership within the HBCUs are required to

serve a part-education, part-policy maker role. They must be able to understand federal and state

legislation as well as advocate for specific policies and measures (Lee & Keys, 2013). The

relationship between the leadership of HBCUs and legislators is key to securing funding and

support from the federal government to continue the betterment of the universities.

Concluding Thoughts

Historically Black Colleges and Universities have done an admirable job at fostering a

healthy campus culture that empowers Black and other disadvantaged students to excel and
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
17
achieve educational success. Considering that the large majority of students come from

impoverished backgrounds, these institutions have been crucial in furthering upward mobility for

numerous students. Perceptions of HBCUs may vary but their significance and results are clear.

As research has shown, HBCUs have produced numerous African American students in fields

like STEM that are important to the future of our country. Furthermore, they have provided

students with the opportunities and skills to grow as leaders and serve as positive influences in

their communities. Their founding legacy and commitment to fighting social justice has not only

eased the invisible barriers to Black achievement but has led to better psychosocial adjustment

and strong racial pride for students of color.

THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
18
References

Abelman, R., & Dalessandro, A. (2009). The Institutional Vision of Historically Black

Colleges and Universities. Journal of Black Studies, 40(2), 105-134. Retrieved December

14, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40282625

Anderson, M. (2017, February 28). A look at historically black colleges and universities

as Howard turns 150. Pew Research Center.

https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/ 02/28/a-look-at-historically-black-colleges-

and-universities-as-howard-turns-150/

Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges. (2014). Top strategic

issues facing HBCUs, now and into the future.

http://agb.org/sites/default/files/legacy/2014Top StrategicIssuesFacingHBCUs.pdf

Booker, B. (2020). College Athletes Are Now Closer to Getting Paid After NCAA Board

OKs Plan. (2020, April 29). NPR.org.

Borzello, J. (2020, June 25). Why HBCUs could again become serious options for elite

basketball prospects. ESPN.com.

https://www.espn.com/mens-college-basketball/story/_/id/29351930/why-hbcus-again-

become-serious-options-elite-basketball-prospects

Brown, M. C. & Davis, J. E. (2001). The historically Black college as social contract,

social capital, and social equalizer. Peabody Journal of Education, 76(1), 31-49.

https://doi.or g/10.1207/S15327930PJE7601_03
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
19
CNN Business Perspectives (2020, October 25). Howard University president: The pool

of Black talent in America is not 'limited' at all. Opinion by Wayne A. I. Frederick for

CNN Business Perspectives. https://www.cnn.com/2020/10/25/perspectives/hbcu-black-

talent/i ndex.html

Freemark, S. (2015). The history of HBCUs in America.

https://www.americanradioworks.org/se gments/hbcu-history/

Gasman, M., Nguyen, T. H., & Conrad, C. F. (2015). Lives intertwined: A primer on the

history and emergence of Minority Serving Institutions. Journal of Diversity in Higher

Education, 8(2), 120–138. https://doi-org.hmlproxy.lib.csufresno.edu/10.1037/a0038386

Hansen, D. (2020, October 14). Howard University receives Gates Foundation funding

for Covid testing. Washington Business Journal.

https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/ 2020/10/14/howard-university-gets-

gates-foundation-funding.html

Harper, S. R., & Jackson, J. F. (2011). Policy. In Introduction to American higher

education. Routledge.

Harris, A. (2017, June 22). HBCUs Have a Leadership Problem. This Group Thinks It

Has an Answer. The Chronicle of Higher Education.

https://www.chronicle.com/article/hbcus-ha ve-a-leadership-problem-this-group-thinks-

it-has-an-answer/

HBCU History and Modern Importance. (n.d.). The history of HBCUs and why they’re

still important today.

https://www.affordablecollegesonline.org/college-resource-center/hbc u-history-and-

modern-importance/
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
20
Horton, D. (2011). Developing an institutional culture toward degree attainment for

student athletes. New Directions for Community Colleges, 2011(155), 27–33. https://doi-

org.hmlproxy.lib.csufresno.edu/10.1002/cc.455

Kimbrough, W. (2017, July 8). Trends of the HBCU presidency demand attention.

HBCUDigest. https://hbcudigest.com/trends-of-the-hbcupresidency-demand-attention/

Lee, M. & Keys, S. (2013). Repositioning HBCUs for the future: Access, success,

research & innovation. Association of Public and Land Grant Universities.

https://www.aplu.org/library/repositioning-hbcus-for-the-future-access-success-research-

and-innovation/file

Lockett, A. (2019). Applying A Fit Perspective: A Portraiture Study Of Short-Tenure

Presidents At Historically Black Colleges And Universities. Publicly Accessible Penn

Dissertations. https:// repository.upenn.edu/edissertations/3309

Minor, J. (2004). Decision making in Historically Black Colleges and Universities:

Defining the Governance Context. The Journal of Negro Education, 73(1), 40-52.

https://doi.org/10.2 307/3211258

Murray, L. V. (2020). How to advocate for HBCUs. https://uncf.org/the-latest/how-to-

advocate-f or-hbcus

Museus, S.D. (2014). The culturally engaging campus environments (CECE) model: A

new theory of success among racially diverse college student populations. In Higher

education: Handbook of theory and research (pp. 189 - 227). New York, NY: Springer.

NAFEO Nation. (n.d.). The voice for Blacks in higher education.

https://www.nafeonation.org/ about/
THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
21
National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d). The NCES Fast Facts Tool provides quick

answers to many education questions. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES).

https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/disp lay.asp?id=667

National Education Association. (2018). HBCUs as engines of upward mobility.

https://www.ne a.org/advocating-for-change/new-from-nea/hbcus-engines-upward-

mobility

New America. (2015, January 1). Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs).

New America. https://www.newamerica.org/post-secondary-national-policy-institute/our-

blog /historically-black-colleges-and-universities-hbcus/

Noonan, A., Lindong, I., & Jaitley, V. N. (2013). The role of Historically Black Colleges

and Universities in training the healthcare workforce. American Journal of Public

Health, 103(3), 412–415. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.300726

Postsecondary National Policy Institute. (2019). Historically Black Colleges and

Universities.

https://pnpi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/PNPI_HistoricallyBlackColleges

AndUniversities.pdf

Roberts, L. M., & Mayo, A. J. (2019, November 14). Toward a racially just workplace.

Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2019/11/toward-a-racially-just-workplace

Smithsonian Institutes. (2020). 5 things to know: HBCU edition.

https://https://nmaahc.si.edu/ blog-post/5-things-know-hbcu-edition

Stefon, M. (2011). Historically black colleges and universities. Retrieved December 15,

2020, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/historically-black-colleges-and-universities

THE EVOLUTION AND UNREALIZED POSSIBILITIES OF HBCUS
22
Tekniepe, R. J. (2014). Linking the occupational pressures of college presidents to

presidential turnover. Community College Review, 42(2), 143-159

Thurgood Marshall College Fund. (2019). About HBCUs. Thurgood Marshall College

Fund. https://www.tmcf.org/about-us/mem ber-schools/about-hbcus/

U.S. Department of Education. (2020). Historically Black Colleges and Universities and

Higher Education Desegregation.

https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/hq9511.html

United Negro College Fund. (2020). Six Reasons HBCUs Are More Important Than

Ever. UNCF. https://uncf.org/the-latest/6-reasons-hbcus-are-more-important-than-ever

United States Commission on Civil Rights. (2010). The educational effectiveness of

historically black colleges and universities: a briefing before the United States

Commission on Civil Rights held in Washington, D.C. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

Van Camp, D., Barden, J., Sloan, L. R., & Clarke, R. P. (2009). Choosing an HBCU: An

opportunity to pursue racial self-development. The Journal of Negro Education, 78(4),

457-468