Comics

Comics is a narrative medium used to express ideas with images, often combined with text or
other visual information. It typically takes the form of a sequence of panels of images. Textual
devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia can indicate dialogue, narration,
sound effects, or other information. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on
a definition of comics; some emphasize the combination of images and text, some sequentiality
or other image relations, and others historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of
recurring characters. Cartooning and other forms of illustration are the most common image-
making means in comics; fumetti is a form that uses photographic images. Common forms
include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since the late 20th century,
bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly
common, while online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century.

The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures. Scholars have posited a
pre-history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings. By the mid-20th century, comics
flourished, particularly in the United States, western Europe (especially France and Belgium), and
Japan. The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Töpffer's cartoon strips of
the 1830s, and became popular following the success in the 1930s of strips and books such as
The Adventures of Tintin. American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th
century with the advent of newspaper comic strips; magazine-style comic books followed in the
1930s, in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in 1938.
Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning (manga) propose origins as early as the 12th
century. Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century, and the output of
comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post-World War II era (1945–) with the
popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu Tezuka. Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for
much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance
with the public and academics.

The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium itself (e.g.
"Comics is a visual art form."), but becomes plural when referring to works collectively (e.g.
"Comics are popular reading material.").

Origins and traditions

Examples of early comics

 Manga
Hokusai, early 19th century

Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame

Rodolphe Töpffer, 1830
 Ally Sloper in Some of the Mysteries of Loan and Discount
Charles Henry Ross, 1867

The Yellow Kid

R.F. Outcault, 1898

The comics traditions of Europe, America, and Japan have all taken various paths.[1] Europeans
have seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer from as early as 1827
and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F. Outcault's 1890s newspaper strip The
Yellow Kid, though many Americans have come to recognize Töpffer's precedence.[2] Japan has
a long history of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e
artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning, manga, in the early
19th century.[3] In the 1930s Harry "A" Chesler started a comics studio, which eventually at its
height employed 40 artists working for 50 different publishers who helped make the comics
medium flourish in "the Golden Age of Comics" after World War II.[4] In the post-war era modern
Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.[5]
Towards the close of the 20th century, these three traditions converged in a trend towards book-
length comics: the comic album in Europe, the tankōbon[a] in Japan, and the graphic novel in the
English-speaking countries.[1]

Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics
in the Lascaux cave paintings[6] in France (some of which appear to be chronological sequences
of images), Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,[7] the 11th-century Norman Bayeux
Tapestry,[8] the 1370 bois Protat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books,
Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel,[7] and William Hogarth's 18th-century
sequential engravings,[9] amongst others.[7][b]

Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics.

English-language comics
 At the house of the writing pig.

The Upside Downs of Little Lady Lovekins and Old Man Muffaroo , comics by Gustave Verbeek containing reversible
figures and ambigram sentences (March 1904).

Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the
short-lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825. The most popular was Punch,[11] which
popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures.[12] On occasion the cartoons in these
magazines appeared in sequences;[11] the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized
comic strip when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884.[13]

American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of
illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American,
particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips. Early
Sunday strips were full-page[14] and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists
experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons.[15] A noteworthy example is
Gustave Verbeek, who wrote his comic series "The UpsideDowns of Old Man Muffaroo and Little
Lady Lovekins" between 1903 and 1905. These comics were made in such a way that one could
read the 6-panel comic, flip the book and keep reading. He made 64 such comics in total. In
2012 a remake of a selection of the comics was made by Marcus Ivarsson in the book 'In
Uppåner med Lilla Lisen & Gamle Muppen'. (ISBN 978-91-7089-524-1)

Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff (1907–1982) was the first successful daily comic strip (1907).
Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became
established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.[16] In Britain,
the Amalgamated Press established a popular style of a sequence of images with text beneath
them, including Illustrated Chips and Comic Cuts.[17] Humour strips predominated at first, and in
the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also
became popular.[16]

Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic
strips; by the end of the decade, original content began to dominate.[18] The success in 1938 of
Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic
Books, in which the superhero genre was prominent.[19] In the UK and the Commonwealth, the
DC Thomson-created Dandy (1937) and Beano (1938) became successful humor-based titles,
with a combined circulation of over 2 million copies by the 1950s. Their characters, including
"Dennis the Menace", "Desperate Dan" and "The Bash Street Kids" have been read by generations
of British children.[20] The comics originally experimented with superheroes and action stories
before settling on humorous strips featuring a mix of the Amalgamated Press and US comic
book styles.[21]

Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books (Wonderworld Comics #3, 1939; cover: The Flame by Will
Eisner).

The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II,[22] while comic book
sales continued to increase as other genres proliferated, such as romance, westerns, crime,
horror, and humour.[23] Following a sales peak in the early 1950s, the content of comic books
(particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups and government
agencies, which culminated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment of the Comics Code
Authority self-censoring body.[24] The Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of
American comics and maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder
of the century.[25] Superheroes re-established themselves as the most prominent comic book
genre by the early 1960s.[26] Underground comix challenged the Code and readers with adult,
countercultural content in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[27] The underground gave birth to the
alternative comics movement in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content in non-
superhero genres.[28]

Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture; cultural
elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the latter half of the
20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines between high and low
culture began to blur. Comics nevertheless continued to be stigmatized, as the medium was
seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.[29]

The graphic novel—book-length comics—began to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the
term with his book A Contract with God (1978).[30] The term became widely known with the
public after the commercial success of Maus, Watchmen, and The Dark Knight Returns in the
mid-1980s.[31] In the 21st century graphic novels became established in mainstream
bookstores[32] and libraries[33] and webcomics became common.[34]

Franco-Belgian and European comics

The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827,[7] and
published theories behind the form.[35] Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines
from the 19th century.[36] The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech
balloons in European comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate.[37] The
Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style,[38] was first serialized in newspaper
comics supplements beginning in 1929,[39] and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.[40]

Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey (1934–44),[41] dedicated comics magazines[42]

and full-colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid-20th century.[43]
As in the US, at the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy;
commentators stated that "none bear up to the slightest serious analysis",[c] and that comics
were "the sabotage of all art and all literature".[45][d]
In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées ("drawn strips") came into wide use in French to denote
the medium.[46] Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audiences,[47] and the term "Ninth
Art"[e] was coined, as comics began to attract public and academic attention as an artform.[48] A
group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give
artists greater freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of Asterix
appeared in it[49] and went on to become the best-selling French-language comics series.[50]
From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied censorship laws in the
countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events.[51]

Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to
found the adults-only L'Écho des savanes in 1972. Adult-oriented and experimental comics
flourished in the 1970s, such as in the experimental science fiction of Mœbius and others in
Métal hurlant, even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige-format adult comics.[52]

From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less
common as the number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be
published directly as albums.[53] Smaller publishers such as L'Association[54] that published
longer works[55] in non-traditional formats[56] by auteur-istic creators also became common.
Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers
proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print
market.[57]

Japanese comics
Rakuten Kitazawa created the first modern Japanese comic strip. (Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō Kenbutsu,[f] 1902)

Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),[g] have a history that has been seen as far back as
the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th-to-13th-century Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, 17th-century
toba-e and kibyōshi picture books,[61] and woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e which were popular
between the 17th and 20th centuries. The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images,
movement lines,[62] and sound effects.[63]

Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical cartoons to

Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western and Japanese styles
became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements
began to appear in Japan,[64] as well as some American comic strips.[61] 1900 saw the debut of
the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern
sense,[60] and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip.[65]
By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine
and collected into hardback volumes.[66]

The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II, propelled by the success of the
serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka,[67] often considered as "The God of Manga", and
the comic strip Sazae-san.[68] Genres and audiences diversified over the following decades.
Stories are usually first serialized in magazines such as the popular Weekly Shōnen Jump which
are often hundreds of pages thick and may contain over a dozen stories;[69] they are later
compiled in tankōbon-format books.[70] At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, nearly a
quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics.[71] Translations became extremely popular
in foreign markets—in some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of domestic comics.[72]

Forms and formats

Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared
in newspapers. In the US, daily strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips
have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were typically in black-and-
white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.[73]

Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures. Comic books, primarily
an American format, are thin periodicals[74] usually published in colour.[75] European and
Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines—monthly or weekly in Europe,[60] and
usually black-and-white and weekly in Japan.[76] Japanese comics magazine typically run to
hundreds of pages.[77]

A comparison of book formats for comics around the world. The left group is from Japan and shows the
tankōbon and the smaller bunkobon formats. Those in the middle group of Franco-Belgian comics are in
the standard A4-size comic album format. The right group of graphic novels is from English-speaking
countries, where there is no standard format.

Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comic albums are most
commonly printed in A4-size[78] colour volumes.[43] In English-speaking countries, the trade
paperback format originating from collected comic books have also been chosen for original
material. Otherwise, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in
various formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction
—"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and collections of short works.[79] Japanese comics
are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine serialization.[80]

Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel, often incorporating a caption or
speech balloon. Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag, editorial,
and other single-panel cartoons; they can be included in definitions that emphasize the
combination of word and image.[81] Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets
published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the term "cartoon"[h] was first used to
describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch.[12]

Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences,
and new readers usually can access archived installments.[82] Webcomics can make use of an
infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page.[83]

Some consider storyboards[84] and wordless novels to be comics.[85] Film studios, especially in
animation, often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences. These storyboards are
not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the public.[84] Wordless novels are books
which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative.[86]

Comics studies

Similar to the problems of

"Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-
defining literature and film,[87] no
legged and sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a
consensus has been reached on a
metaphor as mixed as the medium itself, defining comics
definition of the comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted enigma wrapped in a
medium,[88] and attempted mystery ..."
definitions and descriptions have R. C. Harvey, 2001[81]
fallen prey to numerous
exceptions.[89] Theorists such as
Töpffer,[90] R.C. Harvey, Will Eisner,[91] David Carrier,[92] Alain Rey,[88] and Lawrence Grove
emphasize the combination of text and images,[93] though there are prominent examples of
pantomime comics throughout its history.[89] Other critics, such as Thierry Groensteen[93] and
Scott McCloud, have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images.[94] Towards the close of
the 20th century, different cultures' discoveries of each other's comics traditions, the rediscovery
of forgotten early comics forms, and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more
complicated task.[95]
European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which
emphasized panel transitions and the visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made
until the 1970s.[96] Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of
comics, analyzing text–image relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or
what Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure".[97] In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term
multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics page as a semantic unit.[98] By the 1990s,
theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to artists' poïetic
creative choices.[97] Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the
definition of comics, a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history.
Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littératures dessinées" (or "drawn literatures").[95] French
theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such
as McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions.[98] In the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn began
analyzing how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond
theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that
sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound "grammars" to be understood
that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts,
and that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such
as language and music.[99]

Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent, post-WWII history, or on
attempts to demonstrate deep roots in the past, such as to the Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga picture scroll
of the 12th and 13th centuries, or the early 19th-century Hokusai Manga.[100] The first historical
overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara's Nihon Manga-Shi[i] in 1924.[101] Early post-
war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left-wing political nature until the 1986 publication of
Tomofusa Kure's Modern Manga: The Complete Picture,[j] which de-emphasized politics in
favour of formal aspects, such as structure and a "grammar" of comics. The field of manga
studies increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s.[102]
Formal theories of manga have focused on developing a "manga expression theory",[k] with
emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page, distinguishing the
medium from film or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element.[103]
Comics studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities, and Japan Society for
Studies in Cartoon and Comics[l] was established in 2001 to promote comics scholarship.[104]
The publication of Frederik L. Schodt's Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics in 1983
led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean "Japanese comics" or
"Japanese-style comics".[105]
 Will Eisner (top) and Scott McCloud have proposed influential and controversial definitions of comics.

Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics
(1947).[106] Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art (1985) and Scott McCloud's Understanding
Comics (1993) were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics. David Carrier's
The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the first full-length treatment of comics from a
philosophical perspective.[107] Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include
Eisner's, McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the
arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story or dramatize an idea";[108] Scott
McCloud defined comics as "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence,
intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer",[109] a
strictly formal definition which detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings.[110]
R.C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions in which words (often lettered
into the picture area within speech balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures
and vice versa".[111] Each definition has had its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as
excluding single-panel cartoons,[112] and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements,
insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content".[98] Aaron
Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art
history.[91]

Cross-cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of
the words for "comics" in different languages.[113] The French term for comics, bandes
dessinées ("drawn strip") emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a defining factor,[114]
which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics.[115] The term manga is used in
Japanese to indicate all forms of comics, cartooning,[116] and caricature.[113]

Terminology

The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus
takes the singular: "comics is a medium" rather than "comics are a medium". When comic
appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium, such as individual comic
strips or comic books: "Tom's comics are in the basement."[117]

Panels are individual images containing a segment of action,[118] often surrounded by a

border.[119] Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called
encapsulation.[120] The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure by using
background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into
events.[121] The size, shape, and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the
narrative.[122] The contents of a panel may be asynchronous, with events depicted in the same
image not necessarily occurring at the same time.[123]

A caption (the yellow box) gives the narrator a voice. The characters' dialogue appears in speech balloons. The tail of
the balloon indicates the speaker.
Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons, captions, and sound effects.
Speech balloons indicate dialogue (or thought, in the case of thought balloons), with tails
pointing at their respective speakers.[124] Captions can give voice to a narrator, convey
characters' dialogue or thoughts,[125] or indicate place or time.[126] Speech balloons themselves
are strongly associated with comics, such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to
turn the image into comics.[127] Sound effects mimic non-vocal sounds textually using
onomatopoeia sound-words.[128]

Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink (especially India
ink) with dip pens or ink brushes;[129] mixed media and digital technology have become
common. Cartooning techniques such as motion lines[130] and abstract symbols are often
employed.[131]

While comics are often the work of a single creator, the labour of making them is frequently
divided between a number of specialists. There may be separate writers and artists, and artists
may specialize in parts of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds, as is common in
Japan.[132] Particularly in American superhero comic books,[133] the art may be divided between
a penciller, who lays out the artwork in pencil;[134] an inker, who finishes the artwork in ink;[135] a
colourist;[136] and a letterer, who adds the captions and speech balloons.[137]

Etymology

The English-language term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which
predominated in early American newspaper comic strips, but usage of the term has become
standard for non-humorous works as well. The alternate spelling comix – coined by the
underground comix movement – is sometimes used to address this ambiguities.[138] The term
"comic book" has a similarly confusing history since they are most often not humorous and are
periodicals, not regular books.[139] It is common in English to refer to the comics of different
cultures by the terms used in their languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bande
dessinée for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.[140]

Many cultures have taken their word for comic strip from English, including Russian (комикс,
komiks)[141] and German (Comic).[142] Similarly, the Chinese term manhua[143] and the Korean
manhwa[144] derive from the Chinese characters with which the Japanese term manga is
written.[145]
See also

Animation Picture book

Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum

See also lists

List of best-selling comic series List of Franco-Belgian comics series

List of best-selling manga List of newspaper comic strips

List of comic books Lists of manga

List of comics by country List of manga artists

List of comics creators List of manga magazines

List of comics publishing companies List of manga publishers

List of comic strip syndicates List of years in comics

Portals: Comics Arts Visual arts

Notes

本
a. tankōbon (単行 , translation close to "independently appearing book")

b. David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto-comics in his The Early
Comic Strip (1973) and The History of the Comic Strip (1990).[10]

c. French: "... aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu serieuse." – Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois in La
Presse enfantine française (Midol, 1957)[44]

d. French: "C'est le sabotage de tout art et de toute littérature." – Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la
littérature enfantine de ma Mère l'Oye au Roi Babar (Hachette, 1950)[44]

e. French: neuvième art

f. Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo (Japanese: 田吾作 杢 と 兵衛の東京見物, Hepburn:

Tagosaku to Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu)

画
g. "Manga" (Japanese: 漫 ) can be glossed in many ways, amongst them "whimsical pictures",
"disreputable pictures",[58] "irresponsible pictures",[59] "derisory pictures", and "sketches made for or out
of a sudden inspiration".[60]

h. "cartoon": from the Italian cartone, meaning "card", which referred to the cardboard on which the
cartoons were typically drawn.[12]
 i. Hosokibara, Seiki (1924). 日本漫画史 [Japanese Comics History]. Yuzankaku.

j. Kure, Tomofusa (1986). 現代漫画の全体像 [Modern Manga: The Complete Picture]. Joho Center
Publishing. ISBN 978-4-575-71090-8.[102]

k. "Manga expression theory" (Japanese: 漫 画表現論, Hepburn: manga hyōgenron) [103]

l. Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics (Japanese: 日本マンガ学会, Hepburn: Nihon Manga
Gakkai)

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3. Petersen 2010, p. 41; Power 2009, p. 24; Gravett 2004, p. 9.

4. Ewing, Emma Mai (1976-09-12). "The 'Funnies' " (https://www.nytimes.com/1976/09/12/archives/the-

funnies-can-be-serious.html) . The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://www.worldcat.org/iss
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5. Couch 2000; Petersen 2010, p. 175.

6. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Barker 1989, p. 6; Groensteen 2014; Grove 2010, p. 59; Beaty 2012; Jobs 2012,
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7. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv.

8. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beaty 2012, p. 61; Grove 2010, pp. 16, 21, 59.

9. Grove 2010, p. 79.

10. Beaty 2012, p. 62.

11. Clark & Clark 1991, p. 17.

12. Harvey 2001, p. 77.

13. Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxii.

14. Nordling 1995, p. 123.

15. Gordon 2002, p. 35.

16. Harvey 1994, p. 11.

17. Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 45.

18. Rhoades 2008, p. 2.

19. Rhoades 2008, p. x.

20. Childs & Storry 2013, p. 532.

21. Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 46.

22. Gabilliet 2010, p. 51.

23. Gabilliet 2010, p. 49.

24. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 49–50.

25. Gabilliet 2010, p. 50.

26. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 52–55.

27. Gabilliet 2010, p. 66.

28. Hatfield 2005, pp. 20, 26; Lopes 2009, p. 123; Rhoades 2008, p. 140.

29. Lopes 2009, pp. xx–xxi.

30. Petersen 2010, p. 222.

31. Kaplan 2008, p. 172; Sabin 1993, p. 246; Stringer 1996, p. 262; Ahrens & Meteling 2010, p. 1; Williams
& Lyons 2010, p. 7.

32. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 210–211.

33. Lopes 2009, p. 151–152.

34. Thorne 2010, p. 209.

35. Harvey 2010.

36. Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.

37. Vessels 2010, p. 45; Miller 2007, p. 17.

38. Screech 2005, p. 27; Miller 2007, p. 18.

39. Miller 2007, p. 17.

40. Theobald 2004, p. 82; Screech 2005, p. 48; McKinney 2011, p. 3.

41. Grove 2005, pp. 76–78.

42. Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.

43. Petersen 2010, pp. 214–215.

44. Grove 2005, p. 46.

45. Grove 2005, pp. 45–46.

46. Grove 2005, p. 51.

47. Miller 1998, p. 116; Lefèvre 2010, p. 186.

48. Miller 2007, p. 23.

49. Miller 2007, p. 21.

50. Screech 2005, p. 204.

51. Miller 2007, p. 22.

52. Miller 2007, pp. 25–28.

53. Miller 2007, pp. 33–34.

54. Beaty 2007, p. 9.

55. Lefèvre 2010, pp. 189–190.

56. Grove 2005, p. 153.

57. Miller 2007, pp. 49–53.

58. Karp & Kress 2011, p. 19.

59. Gravett 2004, p. 9.

60. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 22.

61. Schodt 1996, p. 22.

62. Mansfield 2009, p. 253.

63. Petersen 2010, p. 42.

64. Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 21–22.

65. Petersen 2010, p. 128; Gravett 2004, p. 21.

66. Schodt 1996, p. 22; Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 23–24.

67. Gravett 2004, p. 24.

68. MacWilliams 2008, p. 3; Hashimoto & Traphagan 2008, p. 21; Sugimoto 2010, p. 255; Gravett 2004,
p. 8.

69. Schodt 1996, p. 23; Gravett 2004, pp. 13–14.

70. Gravett 2004, p. 14.

71. Brenner 2007, p. 13; Lopes 2009, p. 152; Raz 1999, p. 162; Jenkins 2004, p. 121.

72. Lee 2010, p. 158.

73. Booker 2014, p. xxvi–xxvii.

74. Orr 2008, p. 11; Collins 2010, p. 227.

 75. Orr 2008, p. 10.

76. Schodt 1996, p. 23; Orr 2008, p. 10.

77. Schodt 1996, p. 23.

78. Grove 2010, p. 24; McKinney 2011.

79. Goldsmith 2005, p. 16; Karp & Kress 2011, pp. 4–6.

80. Poitras 2001, p. 66–67.

81. Harvey 2001, p. 76.

82. Petersen 2010, pp. 234–236.

83. Petersen 2010, p. 234; McCloud 2000, p. 222.

84. Rhoades 2008, p. 38.

85. Beronä 2008, p. 225.

86. Cohen 1977, p. 181.

87. Groensteen 2012, pp. 128–129.

88. Groensteen 2012, p. 124.

89. Groensteen 2012, p. 126.

90. Thomas 2010, p. 158.

91. Beaty 2012, p. 65.

92. Groensteen 2012, pp. 126, 131.

93. Grove 2010, pp. 17–19.

94. Thomas 2010, pp. 157, 170.

95. Groensteen 2012a, pp. 112–113.

96. Miller 2007, p. 101.

97. Groensteen 2012a, p. 112.

98. Groensteen 2012a, p. 113.

99. Cohn 2013.

100. Stewart 2014, pp. 28–29.

101. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 23; Stewart 2014, p. 29.

102. Kinsella 2000, pp. 96–97.

103. Kinsella 2000, p. 100.

104. Morita 2010, pp. 37–38.

105. Stewart 2014, p. 30.

106. Inge 1989, p. 214.

107. Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxix.

108. Yuan 2011; Eisner 1985, p. 5.

109. Kovacs & Marshall 2011, p. 10; Holbo 2012, p. 13; Harvey 2010, p. 1; Beaty 2012, p. 6; McCloud 1993,
p. 9.

110. Beaty 2012, p. 67.

111. Chute 2010, p. 7; Harvey 2001, p. 76.

112. Harvey 2010, p. 1.

113. Morita 2010, p. 33.

114. Groensteen 2012, p. 130; Morita 2010, p. 33.

115. Groensteen 2012, p. 130.

116. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 336.

117. Chapman 2012, p. 8; Chute & DeKoven 2012, p. 175; Fingeroth 2008, p. 4.

118. Lee 1978, p. 15.

119. Eisner 1985, pp. 28, 45.

120. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 10.

121. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 316.

122. Eisner 1985, p. 30.

123. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 12–13.

124. Lee 1978, p. 15; Markstein 2010; Eisner 1985, p. 157; Dawson 2010, p. 112; Saraceni 2003, p. 9.

125. Lee 1978, p. 15; Lyga & Lyga 2004.

126. Saraceni 2003, p. 9; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 18.

127. Forceville, Veale & Feyaerts 2010, p. 56.

128. Duncan & Smith 2009, pp. 156, 318.

129. Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978, p. 145; Rhoades 2008, p. 139.

130. Bramlett 2012, p. 25; Guigar 2010, p. 126; Cates 2010, p. 98.

131. Goldsmith 2005, p. 21; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 13–14.

132. O'Nale 2010, p. 384.

133. Tondro 2011, p. 51.

134. Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161.

135. Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978, p. 145.

136. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315.

137. Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 163.

138. Gomez Romero & Dahlman 2012.

139. Groensteen 2012, p. 131 (translator's note).

140. McKinney 2011, p. xiii.

141. Alaniz 2010, p. 7.

142. Frahm 2003.

143. Wong 2002, p. 11; Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.

144. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 301.

145. Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177; Thompson 2007, p. xiii.

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WMC) . New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-345-48590-8.

Vessels, Joel E. (2010). Drawing France: French Comics and the Republic (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=Gut56lkOOfgC) . University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-444-7.

Williams, Paul; Lyons, James (2010). The Rise of the American Comics Artist: Creators and Contexts.
University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-792-9.

Wong, Wendy Siuyi (2002). Hong Kong Comics (https://books.google.com/books?id=sNaQQxhcD-oC) .

Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-269-4.

Academic journals
Couch, Chris (December 2000). "The Publication and Formats of Comics, Graphic Novels, and Tankobon"
(http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/narratology/chriscouch.htm) . Image & Narrative (1).
ISSN 1780-678X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1780-678X) . Retrieved 2012-02-05.

Frahm, Ole (October 2003). "Too much is too much. The never innocent laughter of the Comics" (http://w
ww.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/graphicnovel/olefrahm.htm) . Image & Narrative (7). ISSN 1780-
678X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1780-678X) . Retrieved 2012-02-05.

Gomez Romero, Luis; Dahlman, Ian (2012). "Introduction - Justice framed: law in comics and graphic
novels" (https://ro.uow.edu.au/ltc/vol16/iss1/2) . Law Text Culture. 16 (1): 3–32.

Groensteen, Thierry (Spring 2012a). "The Current State of French Comics Theory". Scandinavian Journal
of Comic Art. 1 (1): 111–122.

Cohen, Martin S. (April 1977). "The Novel in Woodcuts: A Handbook". Journal of Modern Literature. 6 (2):
171–195. JSTOR 3831165 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831165) .

Yuan, Ting (2011). "From Ponyo to 'My Garfield Story': Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Pathway to
Literary Composition" (https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-254482672) . Childhood Education. 87 (4).

Web
Beerbohm, Robert (2003). "The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck Part III" (http://scoop.diamondgalleries.c
om/Home/4/1/73/1017?articleID=43536) . The Search For Töpffer in America. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
 Harvey, R.C. (2010-12-20). "Defining Comics Again: Another in the Long List of Unnecessarily
Complicated Definitions" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110914065411/http://classic.tcj.com/top-stori
es/defining-comics-again-another-in-the-long-list-of-unnecessarily-complicated-definitions/) . The
Comics Journal. Fantagraphics Books. Archived from the original (http://classic.tcj.com/top-stories/defi
ning-comics-again-another-in-the-long-list-of-unnecessarily-complicated-definitions/) on 2011-09-14.
Retrieved 2013-02-06.

Markstein, Don (2010). "Glossary of Specialized Cartoon-related Words and Phrases Used in Don
Markstein's Toonopedia" (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091016112147/http://www.toonopedia.com/glos
sary.htm) . Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original (http://www.toonopedia.com/glossa
ry.htm) on 2009-10-16. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

Further reading

Carrier, David (2002). The Aesthetics of Comics. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02188-1.

Cohn, Neil (2013). The Visual Language of Comics: Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of
Sequential Images (https://books.google.com/books?id=RVABAQAAQBAJ&q=the+visual+language+of+c
omics) . London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-8145-9.

Dowd, Douglas Bevan; Hignite, Todd (2006). Strips, Toons, And Bluesies: Essays in Comics And Culture (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=TjzlxyfWbxwC) . Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-
621-0.

Eisner, Will (1995). Graphic Storytelling. Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-3-2.

Estren, Mark James (1993). A History of Underground Comics (https://books.google.com/books?id=hQb

_q6DWle4C) . Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-914171-64-5.

Groensteen, Thierry (2007) [1999]. The System of Comics (https://books.google.com/books?id=tgNKwR

M00w0C) . University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-57806-925-5.

Groth, Gary; Fiore, R., eds. (1988). The New Comics. Berkley Books. ISBN 978-0-425-11366-0.

Heer, Jeet; Worcester, Kent, eds. (2012). A Comics Studies Reader (https://books.google.com/books?id=
EjzAZtoxfx8C) . University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-109-5.

Horn, Maurice, ed. (1977). The World Encyclopedia of Comics. Avon. ISBN 978-0-87754-323-7.

Kunzle, David (1973). The Early Comic Strip: Narrative Strips and Picture Stories in the European
Broadsheet from c. 1450 to 1825 (https://books.google.com/books?id=yVY8PgAACAAJ) . University of
California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05775-3. OCLC 470776042 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4707760
42) .

Kunzle, David (1990). History of the Comic Strip: The Nineteenth Century (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=IAhTJO_R7eoC) . University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01865-5.
 McCloud, Scott (2000). Reinventing Comics: How Tmagination and Technology are Revolutionizing an Art
Form (1st Perennial ed.). Perennial. ISBN 0060953500.

McCloud, Scott (2006). Making Comics: Storytelling Secrets of Comics, Manga and Graphic Novels (http
s://archive.org/details/makingcomicsstor0000mccl) (1st Perennial ed.). ISBN 0060780940.

Sabin, Roger (1996). Comics, Comix and Graphic Novels: A History of Comic Art. Phaidon. ISBN 978-0-
7148-3993-6.

Stein, Daniel; Thon, Jan-Noël, eds. (2015). From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels. Contributions to the
Theory and History of Graphic Narrative (https://books.google.com/books?id=3RisCAAAQBAJ&q=from+
comic+strips+to+graphic+novels) . De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-042656-4.

Waugh, Coulton (1947). The Comics. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-499-2.

External links

Comics
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from
Wiktionary

Media from Commons

News from Wikinews

Quotations from
Wikiquote

Texts from Wikisource

Textbooks from
Wikibooks

Resources from
Wikiversity

Comics (https://curlie.org/Arts/Comics) at Curlie

Academic journals

The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship (http://www.comicsgrid.com/)

ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies (http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/)

 Image [&] Narrative (http://www.imageandnarrative.be/)

International Journal of Comic Art (http://www.ijoca.com/)

Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics (http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rcom20/current)

Archives

Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum (http://cartoons.osu.edu/)

Michigan State University Comic Art Collection (http://comics.lib.msu.edu/)

Comic Art Collection (https://web.archive.org/web/20110719050622/http://mulibraries.misso

uri.edu/specialcollections/comic.htm) at the University of Missouri

Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco (http://www.cartoonart.org/)

Time Archives' Collection of Comics (https://web.archive.org/web/20130823023710/http://w

ww.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_comics,00.shtml)

"Comics in the National Art Library" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091104235741/http://ww

w.vam.ac.uk/collections/prints_books/features/comics/index.html) . Prints & Books.
Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the original (http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/pri
nts_books/features/comics/index.html) on 2009-11-04. Retrieved 2011-03-15.

Databases

Grand Comics Database (http://comics.org/)

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Comics&oldid=1086985583"

Last edited 3 days ago by Orenburg1