Principles of

Reasoning
2022/04/20
C AT E G O R I C A L S Y L L O G I S M S I N
O R D I N A RY L A N G U A G E
• Reducing the Number of Terms in an Argument
1. Eliminating superfluous words
2. Using synonyms
3. Using class complements
4. Using conversion, obversion, and contraposition
5. Eliminating certain prefixes
• Paraphrasing Ordinary Language Arguments
• Translating Categorical Propositions into Multiple Arguments
WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT 30

• 6.G.1.I 12-15
6.G.1.I 12

All A are B.
Some non-B are C.
Some C are not non-A.
6.G.1.I 12

All A are B.
Some non-B are C.
Some C are not non-A.

All non-B are non-A. All A are B.

Some non-B are C. or Some C are not B.
Some C are not non-A. Some C are A.
6.G.1.I 12

All non-B are non-A.

Some non-B are C.
Some C are not non-A.
Invalid
Rule 2 is broken: If a term is distributed
in the conclusion, then it must be
distributed in a premise.
Rule 5 is broken:A negative conclusion
must have a negative premise.
6.G.1.I 13

All C are A.
All A are B.
All B are C.
6.G.1.I 13

All C are A.
All A are B.
All B are C.
Invalid
Rule 2 is broken: If a term is distributed
in the conclusion, then it must be
distributed in a premise.
6.G.1.I 14

All non-A are non-C.

No non-A are non-B.
All C are non-B.
6.G.1.I 14

All non-A are non-C.

No non-A are non-B.
All C are non-B.

All non-A are non-C.

All non-A are B.
All B are non-C.
6.G.1.I 14

All non-A are non-C.

All non-A are B.
All B are non-C.
Invalid
Rule 2 is broken: If a term is
distributed in the conclusion,
then it must be distributed in a
premise.
6.G.1.I 15

Some A are non-B.

No C are non-A.
Some C are not B.
6.G.1.I 15

Some A are non-B.

No C are non-A.
Some C are not B.

Some A are not B. Some A are non-B.

All C are A. or All C are A.
Some C are not B. Some C are non-B.
6.G.1.I 15

Some A are not B.

All C are A.
Some C are not B.
Invalid
Rule 1 is broken: The
middle term must be
distributed in at least one
premise.
WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT 31

• 6.H.I 6, 7, 8, 10, 11
• Due 4/22 Friday
• Reading textbook pp. 113-117
ENTHYMEMES

• Enthymemes
Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both.

1. There is no good scientific evidence to support a belief in ghosts;

so anyone who believes in ghosts is superstitious.
2. I only love those who love me.You do not love me.
3. The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.
4. Why do you think that I love you? I am not that stupid!
ENTHYMEMES

• Enthymemes
Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both.

E.g., There is no good scientific evidence to support a belief in ghosts;

so anyone who believes in ghosts is superstitious.

Missing premise:All beliefs that lack good scientific evidence are

superstitious beliefs.
ENTHYMEMES

• Enthymemes
Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both.

E.g., I only love those who love me.You do not love me.

Missing conclusion: I do not love you.

No people identical to you are people who love me.

All people I love are people who love me.
No people I love are people identical to you.
ENTHYMEMES

• Enthymemes
Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both.
When both the premise and conclusion are missing, we usually need to find
out the missing information from the context.

E.g., The only thing we have to fear is fear itself. (by President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, 1933, during the Great Depression)

Missing premise:The economic crisis is not fear itself.

Missing conclusion:The economic crisis is not something to be feared.

ENTHYMEMES

• Enthymemes
Arguments with missing premises, missing conclusions, or both.

When the original passage contains rhetorical expressions, we need to

rewrite the information into declarative sentences.

E.g.,Why do you think that I love you? I am not that stupid!

Rewritten conclusion: I do not love you.

ENTHYMEMES

E.g.,Why do you think that I love you? I am not that stupid!

Rewritten premise: I am not stupid.

Missing premise: Only stupid people are people who love you.

All people who love you are stupid people.

No people identical to I are stupid people.
No people identical to I are people who love you.
EXAMPLES

Dancing is exercise.Therefore, dancing is good for your

health.
EXAMPLES

Dancing is exercise.Therefore, dancing is good for your

health.

D = dancing
E = exercise
G = things that are good for your health

Missing premise:
Exercise is good for your health.
EXAMPLES Valid
No rule is broken:
All E are G. • Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed in at least one
premise.
All D are E.
• Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it
All D are G. must be distributed in a premise.
• Rule 3: A categorical syllogism cannot have two negative
premises.
• Rule 4: A negative premise must have a negative conclusion.
• Rule 5: A negative conclusion must have a negative premise.
• Rule 6: Two universal premises cannot have a particular
conclusion.
EXAMPLES

Not all cultured

pearls are expensive,
but they all are
beautiful.

This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-SA.

EXAMPLES

Not all cultured pearls are expensive, but they all are
beautiful.

C = cultured pearls
E = expensive things
B = beautiful things

Missing conclusion:
Some beautiful things are not expensive.
EXAMPLES Valid
No rule is broken:
All C are B. • Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed in at least one
premise.
Some C are not E.
• Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it
Some B are not E. must be distributed in a premise.
• Rule 3: A categorical syllogism cannot have two negative
premises.
• Rule 4: A negative premise must have a negative conclusion.
• Rule 5: A negative conclusion must have a negative premise.
• Rule 6: Two universal premises cannot have a particular
conclusion.
EXAMPLES

I didn’t ask to be born. Therefore, I don’t owe anything

to anyone.
EXAMPLES

I didn’t ask to be born. Therefore, I don’t owe anything to anyone.

I = persons identical to me
B = people who did not ask to be born
O = people who don’t owe anything to anyone

Missing premise:
People who did not ask to be born don’t owe anything to anyone.
EXAMPLES Valid
No rule is broken:
All B are O. • Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed in at least one
premise.
All I are B.
• Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it
All I are O. must be distributed in a premise.
• Rule 3: A categorical syllogism cannot have two negative
premises.
• Rule 4: A negative premise must have a negative conclusion.
• Rule 5: A negative conclusion must have a negative premise.
• Rule 6: Two universal premises cannot have a particular
conclusion.
EXAMPLES

Shouldn’t all citizens fulfill mandatory duties? Then all

citizens should fulfill public service.
EXAMPLES
Shouldn’t all citizens fulfill mandatory duties? Then all citizens should fulfill public
service.

C = citizens
M = people who should fulfill mandatory duties
P = people who should fulfill public service

Missing premise:
All people who should fulfill mandatory duties are people who should fulfill public
service.
Rewritten premise:
All citizens are people who should fulfill mandatory duties.
EXAMPLES Valid
No rule is broken:
All M are P. • Rule 1: The middle term must be distributed in at least one
premise.
All C are M.
• Rule 2: If a term is distributed in the conclusion, then it
All C are P. must be distributed in a premise.
• Rule 3: A categorical syllogism cannot have two negative
premises.
• Rule 4: A negative premise must have a negative conclusion.
• Rule 5: A negative conclusion must have a negative premise.
• Rule 6: Two universal premises cannot have a particular
conclusion.