Komar University Of Science And

Technology

Spring 2022

Mathematical Logic

Prepared By:
Sivan Ibrahim
Shaza Najat

Course title:
Business Mathematics

Supervised by:
Hataw Muhammad
Submission date:
May 18, 2022
Table of Contents:
Introduction………………………………………………………3

The Five (5) Common Logical Connectives or Operators…………4

Logical Negation …….……………………..………………….5

Logical Conjunction (AND)…………………………………6

Logical Disjunction (Inclusive OR)……………………….7

Logical Implication (Conditional)…………………….….8

Logical Biconditional (Double Implication)………….9

References……………………………………………………….10

Mathematical Logic PAGE 2

Introduction

What is Mathematical Logic?

Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics. Major subareas
include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory. Research in
mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal
systems of logic such as their expressive or deductive power. However, it can also
include uses of logic to characterize correct mathematical reasoning or to establish
foundations of mathematics.
Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to, and has been motivated
by, the study of foundations of mathematics. This study began in the late 19th century
with the development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry, arithmetic, and analysis.
In the early 20th century it was shaped by David Hilbert's program to prove the
consistency of foundational theories. Results of Kurt Gödel, Gerhard Gentzen, and
others provided partial resolution to the program, and clarified the issues involved in
proving consistency. Work in set theory showed that almost all ordinary mathematics
can be formalized in terms of sets, although there are some theorems that cannot be
proven in common axiom systems for set theory. Contemporary work in the
foundations of mathematics often focuses on establishing which parts of mathematics
can be formalized in particular formal systems (as in reverse mathematics) rather than
trying to find theories in which all of mathematics can be developed

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The Five (5) Common Logical Connectives or Operators

I. Logical Negation
II. Logical Conjunction (AND)
III. Logical Disjunction (Inclusive OR)
IV. Logical Implication (Conditional)
V. Logical Biconditional (Double Implication)

I. Logical Negation

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In logic, negation, also called the logical complement, is an operation that takes a
proposition Ρto another proposition "not P", written ¬ p , p ,∨ p . It is interpreted
intuitively as being true when P is false, and false when P is true.
Negation is thus a unary logical connective. It may be applied as an operation on
notions, propositions, truth values, or semantic values more generally. In classical
logic, negation is normally identified with the truth function that takes truth to falsity
(and vice versa). In intuitionistic logic, according to the Brouwer–Heyting–
Kolmogorov interpretation, the negation of a proposition P is the proposition whose
proofs are the refutations of P.
The negation operator denoted by the symbol ( ~ or ¬¿ takes the truth value of the
original statement then output the exact opposite of its truth value. In other words,
negation simply reverses the truth value of a given statement. Thus, if statement P is
true then the truth value of its negation is false. In the same manner if P is false the
truth value of its negation is true.

II. Logical Conjunction

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A conjunction is a type of compound statement that is comprised of two propositions
(also known as simple statements) joined by the AND operator.

Logical conjunction is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two
propositions, that produces a value of true if and only if both of its operands are true.
The conjunctive identity is true, which is to say that AND-ing an expression with true
will never change the value of the expression. In keeping with the concept of vacuous
truth, when conjunction is defined as an operator or function of arbitrary arity, the
empty conjunction (AND-ing over an empty set of operands) is often defined as having
the result true.

Rules for a Conjunction:

 The conjunction statement will only be true if both the combining statements are
true otherwise, false.
 It is similar to an AND gate which is utilized under the topic Gate logic.
 Let p and q be the two statements. The compound statement p ∧ q is called the
conjunction of p and q.
 The symbol “∧” that denotes the conjunction, it is read as “and” which is the
logical connective

Conjunction truth table

P Q P ΛQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

III. Logical Disjunction (Inclusive OR)

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A disjunction is a kind of compound statement that is composed of two simple
statements formed by joining the statements with the OR operator.
In a disjunction statement, the use of OR is inclusive. That means “one or the other” or
both.
The symbol that is used to represent the OR or logical disjunction operator is ∨. It
resembles the letter V of the alphabet.

IV. Logical Implication (Conditional)

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The concept of logical implication encompasses a specific logical function, a specific
logical relation, and the various symbols that are used to denote this function and this
relation. In order to define the specific function, relation, and symbols in question it is
first necessary to establish a few ideas about the connections among them.
Close approximations to the concept of logical implication are expressed in ordinary
language by means of linguistic forms like the following:

P implies Q
if p then q

V. Logical Biconditional (Double Implication)

A double implication (also known as a biconditional statement) is a type of compound

statement that is formed by joining two simple statements with the biconditional
operator. A biconditional statement is really a combination of a conditional statement
and its converse, and the biconditional operator is denoted by a double-headed arrow.

When you join two simple statements (also known as molecular statements) with the
biconditional operator, we get:

P↔ Q
P↔Q is read as “P if and only if Q.”

 where PP is known as the antecedent

 where QQ is known as the consequent

Mathematical Logic PAGE 8

References:

 Article title: Conjunction in Maths | Definition, Rules, Truth Table &

Examples
 URL: https://byjus.com/maths/conjunction/#:~:text=The%20compound
%20statement%20p%20%E2%88%A7,which%20is%20the%20logical
%20connective.

……………………………

 Author Mike Estela

 Article title: Truth Tables of Five Common Logical Connectives or Operators
 URL:

https://www.chilimath.com/lessons/introduction-to-number-theory/truth-
tables-of-five-common-logical-connectives/

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