Respiratory Bronchioles,

Alveolar Ducts, and Alveoli

Contain small saccular outpocketings called alveoli.
An alveolus is about 0.25 to 0.5 millimeter in
diameter.
Its thin wall is specialized to promote diffusion of
gases between the alveolus and the blood in the
pulmonary capillaries.
Gas exchange can take place in the respiratory
bronchioles and alveolar ducts as well as alveoli in the
lungs.
The spongy nature of the lung is due to the packing of
millions of alveoli together.
 Layers of bronchi
• Tunica mucosa
(ciliated columnar)
(abundant goblet cells)
Tunica muscular
• Tunica submucosa (glands)
• Tunica cartilage
• Tunica adventitia
Layers of bronchiole
• Tunica mucosa
(ciliated cuboidal)
(no goblet cells)
Tunica muscular
• No
• No
• Tunica adventitia
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD)
COPD = chronic bronchitis and
emphysema
Irreversible pathology process
Symptoms include dyspnea, cough,
mucus production and wheezing. It's
typically caused by long-term exposure
to irritating gases or particulate matter,
most often from cigarette smoke.
People with COPD are at increased risk
of developing heart disease, lung
cancer and a variety of other
conditions.
 Clara cells

Club cells, also known as bronchiolar exocrine cells, and formerly

known as Clara cells, are dome-shaped cells with short microvilli, found in
the bronchioles of the lungs.
Club cells may secrete glycosaminoglycans to protect the bronchiole
epithelium. Bronchiolar cells gradually increase in number as the number
of goblet cells decrease.
Club cell secrete surfactant. They are also responsible for detoxifying
harmful substances inhaled into the lungs.
Club cells also act as a stem cell, multiplying and differentiating into
ciliated cells to regenerate the bronchiolar epithelium.
Secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines for local immune
defense.
Clara cell
 Bronchiolitis

Bronchiolitis is a common lung

infection in young children and
infants. It causes inflammation
and congestion in the bronchioles
of the lung. Bronchiolitis is almost
always caused by a virus.
Symptoms of bronchiolitis are
similar to those of a cold:
Runny nose
Stuffy nose
Cough
Slight fever
 Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an infection
that inflames the air sacs
in one or both lungs. The
air sacs may fill with fluid
or pus (purulent material),
causing cough with pus,
fever, chills, and
dyspnea. A variety of
bacteria, viruses and
fungi, can cause
pneumonia.
 Interstitial lung disease
ILD describes a large group of disorders,
most of which cause progressive fibrosis
of lung tissue. The fibrosis associated with
interstitial lung disease eventually affects
our ability to breathe and get enough
oxygen.
ILD can be caused by long-term exposure
to hazardous materials, such as asbestos.
Some types of autoimmune diseases,
such as rheumatoid arthritis, also can
cause interstitial lung disease.
The primary signs and symptoms of
interstitial lung disease are:
Shortness of breath at rest
Dry cough
1. Respiratory bronchiole
2. Alveolar ductus
3. Alveoli
 Surfactant protein
Pulmonary surfactant is a lipid-rich material that prevents lung collapse by
lowering surface tension at the air-liquid interface in the alveoli of lung.
Critical components include the phospholipid dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine
(DPPC), cholesterol, and four surfactant proteins.

• Surfactant protein A (SP-A): It is part of the innate immune system and is

used to opsonize bacterial cells in the alveoli marking them for
phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages.
• Surfactant protein B (SP-B): plays an essential role in determining the
structure of tubular myelin, the stability and rapidity of spreading, and the
recycling of surfactant phospholipids.
• Surfactant protein C (SP-C): an extremely hydrophobic surfactant protein
essential for lung function and homeostasis after birth.
• Surfactant protein D (SP-D): is a protein domain predominantly found
in lung surfactant. Its primary task is to act as a defence protein against
any pathogens that may invade the lung.
Pores of Kohn
The alveolar pores of
Kohn connect
adjacent alveoli. The
pores are responsible
for collateral
respiration when
blockage of a small
bronchiole occurs.

Thus in case of a
blockage adjacent
unobstructed
bronchioles and
associated alveoli
continue to provide
alveolar ventilation
through the pores of
Kohn.
Pleura and Pleural Cavities
The outer surface of each lung and the adjacent internal
thoracic wall are lined by a serous membrane called
pleura, which is formed from simple squamous
epithelium.
The outer surface of each lung is tightly covered by the
visceral pleura, while the internal thoracic walls, the
lateral surfaces of the mediastinum, and the superior
surface of the diaphragm are lined by the parietal
pleura.
The potential space between these serous
membrane layers is a pleural cavity.
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