FOOD CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY-1

Subject Material

BSc Food Technology

2020 Batch
Semester I

Prepared by

Dr G V Ramana
B.Tech., M.Tech., PhD., MBA., PGDIPR

AU Syllabus

(February 2021)

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 CBCS/Semester System (2020-21) - I Semester Syllabus
B.Sc. FOOD TECHNOLOGY

DSC-1 Paper-1: FOOD CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY-1

(THEORY)

Teaching Hours: 4 Hours / Week (Total – 60 Hours) Credits: 4

Mid Sem. Exam: 25 Marks Sem. end exam:
75 Marks

Unit –I (12 Hours)

Introduction to food chemistry
Approach to the study of Food Chemistry – biochemical changes in
foods, moisture in foods, water activity and sorption isotherms,
shelf life of foods, Hysteresis. Scope and importance of
biochemistry, Biomolecules.

Unit–II (12 Hours)

Colloidal solutions, Definition, classification of colloidal solutions,
protective colloids and gold number. Introduction to the proximate
composition of foods, official methods for the analysis of foods –
AOAC, AACC, AOCS.

Unit-III (12 Hours)

Carbohydrates
Introduction, Classification of Carbohydrates, structure and food
sources, chemical properties, functional properties of
carbohydrates. Crude fiber, browning reactions in foods,
application of stabilizers and thickeners in foods.

Unit – IV (12 Hours)

Lipids
Classification, Sources and Chemistry of lipids – physical
properties and chemical properties in foods. Role of fat and
applications in food preparation. Shortenings – shortening value
and factors affecting it.
Unit-V (12 Hours)
Proteins& Enzymes
Definition, classification, structure of amino acids, Essential and
non-essential amino acids, Biologically important proteins,
Enzymes, Nomenclature and Classification and functions of
enzymes of Enzymes, Holo enzymes, apoenzymes, Co-enzymes
& cofactors, mechanism of action, Enzyme Inhibition. Impact of

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 Temperature, PH , and substrate concentration on enzyme activity,
Application of Enzymes in food industry.

Books for Reference:

1. Dr. Ling, H D Belitz, Dr. Ing, W. Grosch, Food Chemistry,
Springer, Newyork, 1987.

2. Braverman, Introduction to the Bio-Chemistry of Foods,

Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
3. AOAC methods for food analysis.
4. Meyer, Food Chemistry, AVI Publishing Company, USA 1983.

5. Sadasivam and Manickyam, Biochemical Methods, New

Age International Publications, New Delhi, 1996.

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 Unit -I: Introduction to food chemistry

Approach to the study of Food Chemistry

Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-
biological components of foods.[1][2] The biological substances include such items
as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main
components such as carbohydrates, lipids, andprotein, but it also includes areas such as
water, vitamins, minerals, enzymes, food additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also
encompasses how products change under certain food processing techniques and ways either
to enhance or to prevent them from happening.
In food processing and storage, chemical substances may play an important role. For example,
food additives can extend the shelf life of foods; others can make food more enticing, such as
colours. To make foods tastier, flavourings are used. Health supplements are used as energy
sources.
As a major division of food science, food chemistry deals with the structure and properties of
foods and the chemical modifications they face. In order to ensure the food manufactured is
healthy and of good quality, food chemists often play a significant role.
Chemistry can be found in the foods we consume, the air we breathe, the cleansing of toxins,
our feelings, and practically anything we can see or touch in everyday life. There may be some
typical chemistry that is evident, but others may surprise us. Our body consists of chemical
compounds which are ingredient combinations.
To have an enticing scent, chemicals, both natural and synthetic, are applied to cosmetics. To
mask the smell of other chemicals, including ‘unscented’ items can contain masking
fragrances. There are over 3,000 ingredients used globally to manufacture the vast variety of
fragrances used in consumer goods.
Scores of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, and other pesticides, plant growth inhibitors,
fertilizers, and animal feed supplements include chemical products produced to assist in the
processing of fruit, feed, and fibre.

Biochemical changes in foods

The processing of food raw material often targets specific compounds in order to achieve
the desired texture and taste, for example, treatment of milk in order to coagulate proteins to
form a cheese and subsequent storage to develop flavor. In complex matrices such as meat and
vegetables, the processing will most likely also affect other compounds and hence produce
biochemical changes that may affect the product properties in a negative manner. In meats, the
formation of unwanted substances or safety concerns are sometimes related to processing
conditions, for instance, the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during intensive
particular smoking processes, the generation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in particular
heating/ grilling conditions, and the release of compounds from the oxidation reactions of lipids
and proteins that can affect flavour and texture [1,2]. The opposite is also possible, and one can
favor processes that boost the presence of nutritional valuable components in meat products
and/or facilitate digestion. For instance, through an extensive proteolysis, the formation of
bioactive peptides with different bioactivity such as antioxidant, antihypertensive,

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immunomodulating, antimicrobial, prebiotic, and hypocholesterolemic properties can be
enhanced in a variety of fermented and aged meat products [3]. The application of mild
preservation processes can better preserve highly regarded nutrients such as vitamins.
Obviously, the product goal can be reached without extensive detrimental effects by
selecting proper processing parameters. However, this is not a straightforward task, and more
knowledge at the molecular level is still needed. This Special Issue covers a total of six articles
(five research papers and one commentary report) concerning the effect of new processing
technologies, packaging methods, protein extraction, and color ingredients on products or
compounds related to biochemical and nutritional changes. Color is an important quality
attribute of food products for consumer acceptability. In this issue, two papers provide
information about the stability of two natural colorants, namely carotenoids and anthocyanins,
which both also have health promoting properties.
Juices are a well-known healthy food product, produced and enjoyed for centuries, but the
juicing process is in fact allowing contact between degradative enzymes and healthy phenolic
compounds leading to flavor and nutritional changes.

Moisture in foods

Moisture Content
Moisture content is, simply, how much water is in a product. It influences the physical
properties of a substance, including weight, density, viscosity, conductivity, and others. It is
generally determined by weight loss upon drying.

Measuring Moisture Content

There are many methods for determination of moisture content. The primary methods used
are loss on drying and Karl Fischer titration.

• Loss on Drying. In this method, a wet sample is weighed on a balance, placed in an

oven, and heated until the end of the drying period, i.e., until the sample reaches
equilibrium. The weight loss is the moisture content of the sample. In moisture
balances, this process is sped up by superheating the sample by a variety of means,
including infrared, halogen, and microwaves.
• Karl Fischer. In this method, the amount of water in a sample is determined directly
by titration with Karl Fischer reagent, which consists of iodide, sulfur dioxide, a base,
and a solvent system. There are two titration approaches: coulometric titration for
samples with very low moisture content (<0.03%) and volumetric titration for
samples with moisture contents ≥0.03%. In coulometric titration, the sample is added
to the reagent, and electrolytic oxidation causes the production of iodine. The amount
of iodine produced is proportional to the electricity (number of coulombs) used,
which in turn is proportional to the amount of water in the sample. In volumetric
titration, a sample is added to a moisture-free solvent and titrated with the reagent,
whose titer (mg of water/mL of reagent) is known. The titration endpoint, determined
by a constant-current polarization voltage method, represents the moisture content of
the sample.

Whereas the loss-on-drying method will detect the loss of any volatile substance, the Karl
Fischer method is specific for water.

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Water Activity And Sorption Isotherms
Definition
Water activity may be defined as ratio of tendency of a solvent to escape from solution (ƒ0)
to tendency of the solvent to escape from pure solvent (ƒ). At ambient pressure, ƒ/ƒ0 is
almost equal to relative vapour pressure of the solution. Therefore, aw may also be defined as
ratio of relative vapour pressure of solvent upon dissolving nonvolatile solute to the vapour
pressure of pure solvent. Therefore, relative vapor pressure is also used interchangeably for
aw. The relative vapour is related to per cent equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) of the
product environment.
Temperature Dependence
Relative vapor pressure is temperature dependent. The degree of temperature dependence is a
function of moisture content. This behavior can be important for a packaged food because it
will undergo a change in relative vapour with a change in temperature, causing the
temperature dependence of its stability to be greater than that of the same product
unpackaged.
Moisture sorption isotherms
A plot of water content of a food (g water/g dry material) versus aw at constant temperature is
known as a moisture sorption isotherm (MSI). Information derived from MSIs are useful for
concentration and dehydration processes, formulation of food mixtures so as to avoid moisture
transfer among the ingredients, determination of moisture barrier properties needed in a
packaging material, determination of what moisture content will curtail growth of
microorganisms of interest and prediction of the chemical and physical stability of food as a
function of water content. Resorption (or adsorption) isotherms are prepared by adding water
to previously dried samples. Desorption isotherms are isotherms prepared by removing water
from samples Isotherms with a
sigmoidal shape are characteristic of
most foods. Foods such as fruits,
confections, and coffee extract that
contain large amounts of sugar and
other small, soluble molecules and
are not rich in polymeric materials
exhibit a J-type isotherm. As water is
added (resorption), sample

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composition moves from Zone I (dry) to Zone III (high moisture).
Properties of water associated with each zone differ significantly.

Water in Zone I of
the isotherm
The water in Zone I
of the isotherm is
most strongly
sorbed and least
mobile, associated
with accessible
polar
sites by water-ion
or water-dipole
interactions,
unfreezable at -
40°C, not abile to
dissolve solutes,
not present in
sufficient amount
to have a
plasticizing effect
on the solid,
behaving simply as
part of the solid
and constituting a
tiny fraction of the
total water in a
high-moisture food
material.
Water in Zone II
of the isotherm
Water in Zone II of the isotherm occupies first-layer sites that are still available, associates
with neighboring water molecules and solute molecules primarily by hydrogen bonding,
slightly less mobile than bulk water, most of it is unfreezable at - 40°C, exerts a significant
plasticizing action on solutes, lowers their glass transition temperatures and causes swelling
of the solid matrix. This action, coupled with the beginning of solution processes, leads to
acceleration in the rate of most reactions. Water in Zones I and Zone II usually constitutes
less than 5% of the water in a high moisture food material.
Water in Zone III of the isotherm
Water in Zone III of the isotherm causes glass-rubber transition in samples containing glassy
regions, very large decrease in viscosity, very large increase in molecular mobility and
commensurate increases in the rates of many reactions. This water is referred to as bulk-
phase water, having properties of bulk-phase water and will not alter properties of existing
solutes, freezable, available as a solvent, readily supports the growth of microorganism and
constituting more than 95% of the total water in a high-moisture food. It is the most mobile
fraction of water existing in any food sample governs stability.
Hysteresis

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An additional complication is that an MSI prepared by addition of water (resorption) to a dry
sample will not necessarily be superimposable on an isotherm prepared by desorption. This
lack of superimposability is referred to as “hysteresis”. The magnitude of hysteresis, the
shape of the curves, and the inception and termination points of the hysteresis loop can vary
considerably depending on factors such as nature of the food, physical changes it undergoes
when water is removed or added temperature, rate of desorption and degree of water removal
during desorption.

Shelf Life Of Foods

Shelf life is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use,
consumption, or sale. In other words, it might refer to whether a commodity should no longer
be on a pantry shelf (unfit for use), or just no longer on a supermarket shelf (unfit for sale, but
not yet unfit for use). It applies to cosmetics, foods and beverages, medical devices, medicines,
explosives, pharmaceutical drugs, and many other perishable items
Relation of food stability with its water activity
Food stability and its aw are closely related in many situations. The rates of many reactions
are influenced by the extent of water binding in food in which water content is less than TS
(<50%). The effect of water activity on processes that influence quality of food is depicted in
figure. It is clear that water activity has profound influence on the rate of many chemical
reactions in food as well as on the rate of microbial growth.
Decreased water activity retards growth of microorganisms slows enzyme catalyzed reactions
and also retards non-enzymatic browning. Enzyme activity is virtually non-existent in
monolayer water (aw<0.25). Therefore growth of microorganisms at this level of activity is
also zero. Mold and yeast start to grow when water activity reaches between 0.7-0.8, which is
the upper limit of capillary water. Bacterial growth takes place when water activity reaches 0.8,
which is the limit of loosely bound water. However yeast and mold are usually inhibited
between 0.8-0.88. Enzyme activity increases gradually between water activity of 0.3-0.6 and
than rapidly increases in the loosely bound water range i.e. water activity of about 0.8.
Maillard reaction strongly depends on water activity and reaches a maximum rate at a value
of 0.6 to 0.7. Beyond this range the rate of reaction decreases. The explanation for such
behaviour is that in intermediate water activity range, the reactants are all dissolved and
further increase in aw leads to dilution of reactants, which adversely affects the reaction rate.
The effect of water activity on oxidation of lipids is complex. Lipid oxidation rates are at a
high in the monolayer water range of water activity, reach a minimum at water activity of
0.3-0.4 and then increases to a maximum at 0.8. If we start at very low water activity value,
it is apparent that rate of oxidation decreases as water is added. Further addition results in

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increased rate of reaction followed by another reduction. The interpretation for such a
behaviour is that first addition interferes with oxidation probably by—
1. Binding hydroperoxides and thereby interfering with their decomposition which hinders
the progress of oxidation.
2. Hydration of metallic ions thereby reducing their effectiveness as catalyst of oxidation
3. Quenching free radicals and by preventing access of O2 to the lipid which further provides
protection against oxidation. The increases observed by further addition of H2O maybe due
to--
1. Increased solubility of O2, thereby increasing the mobilization of O2 as well as catalysts
2. The swelling of macromolecules which exposes more catalytic sites
The second decrease observed at aw 0.8 may probably be due to dilution of the catalysts that
decreases their effectiveness.

Scope and importance of Biochemistry

Scope of Biochemistry
Modern Biochemistry has two branches, descriptive Biochemistry and dynamic Biochemistry.
Descriptive Biochemistry deals with the qualitative and quantitative characterization of the

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various cell components and the dynamic Biochemistry deals with the elucidation of the nature
and the mechanism of the reactions involving these cell components. Many newer disciplines
have been emerged from Biochemistry such of Enzymology (study of enzymes),
Endocrinology (study of hormones) Clinical Biochemistry (study of diseases), Molecular
Biochemistry (Study of Biomolecules and their functions). Along with these branches certain
other specialties have also come up such as Agricultural Biochemistry, Pharmacological
Biochemistry etc.

Objectives of Biochemistry

The major objective of Biochemistry is the complete understanding of all the chemical
processes associated with living cells at the molecular level. To achieve this objective,
biochemists have attempted to isolate numerous molecules (Bio molecules) found in cells, to
determine their structures and to analyze how they function. Biochemical studies have
illuminated many aspects of disease and the study of certain diseases have opened up new
therapeutic approaches. In brief the objectives can be listed as follows:
1. Isolation, structural elucidation and the determination of mode of action of biomolecules.
2. Identification of disease mechanisms.
3. Study of in born errors of metabolism
4. Study of oncogenes in cancer cells
5. The relationship of biochemistry with genetics, physiology, immunology, pharmacology,
toxicology etc.

Importance of biochemistry in MEDICINE

• Physiology: Biochemistry helps one understand the biochemical changes and related
physiological alteration in the body.
• Pathology: Based on the symptoms described by the patient, physician can get clue on the
biochemical change and the associated disorder. For example if a patient complains about
stiffness in small joints, then physician may predict it to be gout and get confirmed by
evaluating uric acid levels in the blood. As uric acid accumulation in blood results in gout.
• Nursing and diagnosis: In nursing importance of clinical biochemistry is invaluable. Also
almost all the diseases or disorders have some biochemical involvement. So the diagnosis of
any clinical condition is easily possible by biochemical estimations.

Importance of biochemistry in AGRICULTURE

• Prevent diseases and Enhance Yield/ growth: It helps for prevention, treatment of diseases
and also increase the production or yield. Some hormones promote growth, while other
promote flowering, fruit formation etc. In fisheries, use of substances to promote fish growth,
their reproduction etc can be understood.
• Adulteration: Even the composition of food material produced, their alteration or
adulteration for example in honey can be found by biochemical tests. Biochemistry tests help
prevent contamination.
• Biochemical tests for the pesticide residues or other toxic waste in plant, food grain and soil
can be evaluated. Hence during import and export of food grains a biochemical check of the
toxic residues is done to fix the quality.
• In animal husbandry, the quality of milk can be checked by biochemical tests. It also helps
diagnose any disease condition in animals and birds.

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• In fisheries the water quality is regularly monitored by biochemical tests. Any drastic
change in water chemistry & composition of fishery ponds can lead to vast death of fishes
and prawns, hence the tests are done on regular basis to see salt content (calcium content),
pH, accumulation of waste due to not changing water for long etc.
• In Plant/ Botany: Biochemistry of plants gave way to breakthrough of how food is
synthesized in them and the reason why they are autotrophs i.e. not dependent on other living
beings for food. Biochemistry in plants describes; Photosynthesis; Respiration; Different
sugars; Plants secondary metabolites.

Importance of biochemistry in NUTRITION

• Food chemistry gives an idea of what we eat. The nutrients value of food material can also
be determined by biochemical tests.
• Role of nutrients: Due to biochemistry the importance of vitamins, minerals, essential fatty
acids, their contribution to health were known. Hence there is frequent recommendation for
inclusion of essential amino-acids, cod liver oil, salmon fish oil etc. by physicians and other
health and fitness experts.
• Physician can prescribe to limit usage of certain food like excess sugar for diabetics, excess
oil for heart & lung problem prone patients etc. As these carbohydrate and fat biochemical
can inhibit the recovery rate from said disorder. This knowledge is due to their idea on food
chemistry and related

Importance of biochemistry in PHARMACY

• Drug Constitution: Biochemistry gives an idea of the constitution of the drug, its chances of
degradation with varying temperature etc. How modification in the medicinal chemistry helps
improve efficiency, minimize side effects etc.
• The half life and Drug storage: This is a test done on biochemical drugs to know how long a
drug is stable when kept at so and so temperature. For example many enzymes, hormones are
stored for dispensing. These get deteriorated over time due to temperature or oxidation,
contamination and also due to improper storage.
• Drug metabolism: It also gives an idea of how drug molecules are metabolized by many
biochemical reactions in presence of enzymes. This helps to avoid drugs which have poor
metabolism or those with excessive side effects from being prescribed or dispensed to the
patient.

Biomolecules

Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms. These non-living molecules are the
actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life. They range from small molecules such
as primary and secondary metabolites and hormones to large macromolecules like proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.
Among biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA, have the unique function of
storing an organism’s genetic code—the sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino
acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical importance to life on Earth. There are 20
different amino acids that can occur within a protein; the order in which they occur plays a

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fundamental role in determining protein structure and function. Proteins themselves are major
structural elements of cells. They also serve as transporters, moving nutrients and other
molecules in and out of cells, and as enzymes and catalysts for the vast majority of chemical
reactions that take place in living organisms. Proteins also form antibodiesand hormones, and
they influence gene activity.

Likewise, carbohydrates, which are made up primarily of molecules containing atoms

of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are essential energy sources and structural components of
all life, and they are among the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They are built from
four types of sugarunits—monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
andpolysaccharides. Lipids, another key biomolecule of living organisms, fulfill a variety of
roles, including serving as a source of stored energy and acting as chemical messengers. They
also form membranes, which separate cells from their environments and compartmentalize
the cell interior, giving rise to organelles, such as the nucleus and the mitochondrion, in
higher (more complex) organisms.

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 Unit – II: Colloids
Colloids, in chemistry, are a mixture of two substances, in which one substance is divided into
minute particles aka colloidal particles (ranging from 1 to 1000 nm in diameter) and dispersed or
suspended over another substance. Colloids are homogeneous non-crystalline substance
consisting of large molecules or ultramicroscopic particles of one substance dispersed through
a second substance. Colloids include gels, sols, and emulsions; the particles do not settle, and
cannot be separated out by ordinary filtering or centrifuging like those in a suspension.
These insoluble particles are inseparable either by filtering or centrifuging. A colloid has a
dispersed phase (the suspended particles) and a continuous phase (the medium of
suspension). Some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering
of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color.
Types
Types of Colloids are Sol, Emulsion, Foam, and Aerosol.

• Sol – It is a suspension of minute solid particles in a liquid.

• Emulsion – It is a colloid between two or more liquid with one consisting a

dispersion of another liquid.

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 • Foam – It consists of gas dispersed in solid or liquid.

• Aerosol – It consists of a minute liquid or solid particles in a gas.

Properties

Physical Properties of Colloidal Solutions

• Stability: Colloids are relatively stable in nature. The particles of the dispersed
phase are in a state of continuous motion and remain suspended in the solution.

• Filterability: Colloids require specialized filters known as ultrafilters for filtration.

They readily pass through ordinary filter papers without yielding any residue.

• Heterogenous nature: Since colloids consist of two phases, the dispersed phase as
well as the dispersion medium, they are known as heterogeneous in nature.

• Homogenous appearance: Even though colloids have suspended particles and are
heterogeneous in nature, they appear as if it is a homogenous solution. This is
because the suspended particles are so tiny that they are not visible by the naked
eye.
Colligative Properties
The particles of the dispersed phase come together to form associate molecules. The formation of
these associate molecules renders the solution certain special properties such as

• a decrease in vapor pressure

• elevation in boiling point

• depression in freezing point

• a decrease in osmotic pressure

Optical Properties of Colloidal Solutions: Tyndall Effect

Colloids exhibit a phenomenon known as the Tyndall effect observed by Tyndall in 1869. When
we pass an intense converging beam of light through a colloidal solution kept in dark, the path of
the beam gets illuminated with a bluish light. This phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal
particles is called the Tyndall effect and the illuminated path is known as the Tyndall cone. The

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dispersed colloidal particles scatter the light falling on them resulting in emissions that are
comparable to ultraviolet and visible radiations. These scattered radiations get illuminated.

The zone of scattered light is observed to be much larger than the particle itself. This makes the
colloidal particles to appear as tiny bright spots when viewed under a microscope. This has to be
done at right angles to the beam of light.

True solutions do not exhibit a Tyndall effect. This is because the size of particles (ions or
molecules) present in a true solution are too small to scatter light. Thus, the Tyndall effect can be
used to distinguish a colloidal solution from a true solution.

Mechanical Properties of Colloidal Particles: Brownian Movement

The dispersed particles present in a colloidal solution exhibit a very important property called the
Brownian movement. When a colloidal solution is viewed under an ultramicroscope, the colloidal
particles are seen continuously moving in a zigzag path.

There is a continuous bombardment of the moving molecules of

the dispersion medium on the colloidal particles from all
directions. This imparts a momentum to the particles to move in
a forward direction where again it collides with another particle.
These collisions result in the random zigzag movement of the
colloidal particle.

The Brownian movement imparts stability to the sol. It opposes the gravitational force acting on
colloidal particles and prevents them from settling down thus maintaining the stability of the sol.

Electrical Properties of Colloidal Solutions

The particles of the colloidal solution carry the same type of charge, while the dispersion medium
carries an equal and opposite charge. The charge on the dispersion medium balances the charge
on dispersed particles and the solution as a whole is electrically neutral.

The dispersed particles of a colloid repel each other since they carry similar charges and this
prevents them from settling down thus maintaining the stability of the sol. Based on the nature of
the charge, the colloidal sols may be classified as positively charged and negatively charged sols.

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 Annexure

Applications of Colloids

Colloids have varied applications. Some of them include:

• Food industry: The food products which we eat today are colloids, including
the dairy products. Cake, bread, milk, cream, butter, ice cream, margarine, fruit
juices, whipped cream, etc. are colloidal in nature. Most of the foods we eat are
largely colloidal in nature. The function of food colloids generally has less to do
with nutritional value than appearance, texture, and “mouthfeel”.

• Medicines: Medicines in colloidal form are easily absorbed by the body tissues and
hence are more effective.

• Cleansing action of soap: Soap solution is colloidal in nature. It removes the dirt
particles either by adsorption or by emulsifying the greasy matter sticking to the
cloth

• Purification of water: The precipitation of colloidal impurities present in water can

be done by adding certain electrolytes like alum etc. The negatively charged
colloidal particles of impurities get neutralized by the Al3+ ions and settle down and
pure water can be decanted off.

• Rubber industry: Latex is a colloidal solution of negatively charged rubber

particles. From latex, rubber can be obtained by coagulation. Rubber plated articles

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 are prepared by depositing negatively charged rubber particles over the article to be
rubber plated by making that article an anode in a rubber plating bath
Sols – meaning
One important class of colloidal system is sols. In sols, the dispersed phase is solid and
dispersion medium is liquid.
Types
Depending upon the nature of the interaction between the dispersed phase and dispersion
medium sols can be classified into two types.
1. Lyophilic sols
2. Lyophobic sols
Comparison between Lyophilic and Lyophobic sols
Lyophilic Sol
Relatively stable as strong force of
interaction exists between dispersed phase
and dispersion medium
Can be prepared directly by mixing
dispersed phase with dispersion medium.
No need of stabilisers during preparation.
They are reversible in nature.
These are usually formed by organic
substances like starch, gum, proteins etc.
They are highly viscous and have higher
viscosity than that of the medium.
They are highly hydrated.
Particles cannot be detected even under an
ultramicroscope.
Charge on the lyophilic sol can be postive,
negative or netural.
Depending on the charge, their particles
migrate to either direction of an electric
field.
Lyophobic Sol
Less stable as weak force of interaction exists
between dispersed phase and dispersion
medium.
Cannot be prepared directly by mixing
dispersed phase and dispersion medium.
Additional stabilisers are required during
preparation.
They are irreversible in nature.
These are usually formed by inorganic
materials like metals and their oxides,
sulphides etc.
They have nearly the same viscosity as that of
the medium.
They are not much hydrated.
Particles can be detected under an
ultramicroscope.
Charge on the lyophobic sol can be postive or
negative. As2S3 sol is -ve and Fe(OH)3 sol is
+ve in nature.
Depending on the charge, their particles
migrate only in one direction of an electric
field.
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 Lyophilic Sol Lyophobic Sol
Surface tension is usually lower than that of Surface tension is nearly the same as that of
the dispersion medium. the dispersion medium.

Gels – meaning

Types
Elastic Gels

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Characteristics of Elastic Gels
Non Elastic Gels

Characteristics of Non Elastic Gels

Emulsion – meaning,
An emulsion is a biphasic liquid dosage form. An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids
that are normally immiscible to each other but using emulsifying agents one liquid is dispersed
into other liquid as droplets.
There are two phases in an emulsion. One is the dispersed phase and another is the continuous
phase. The concept is a dispersed phase (liquid), which is dispersed or spread in the other
phase(continuous phase).

Types

Basically, there are three types of emulsions-

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1. Simple Emulsion:
Oil in Water (O/W) Emulsion
Water in Oil (W/O)Emulsion

2. Multiple Emulsions:
Water-in-Oil-in-Water (W/O/W) Emulsion
Oil-in-Water-in-Oil (O/W/O) Emulsion

3. Micro Emulsions: Size of droplets 10- 200nm

Oil-in-Water Micro Emulsions
Water-in-Oil Micro Emulsions

Difference between Oil in water emulsion(O/W) and Water in oil emulsion(W/O):

Oil in water emulsion(O/W)
For O/W emulsion-water is the continuous
phase and oil is the dispersed phase
Less viscous and easily washable from the
skin by water
Example- Vanishing cream
Water in oil emulsion(W/O)
For O/W emulsion-water is the continuous
phase and oil is the dispersed phase
More Viscous than O/W and not easily
washable from the skin by water
Example- Cold cream

Multiple Emulsions: In the case of multiple emulsions, the dispersed phase contains smaller
droplets of the continuous phase.
Foams
Foam, is a colloidal system ( i.e., a dispersion of particles in a continuous medium) in
which the particles are gas bubbles and the medium is a liquid. The term also is applied to
material in a lightweight cellular spongy or rigid form.
In short, a foam is a dispersion of a gas in a liquid prepared using a foaming agent, which in
most cases consists of one or more surfactants. These elegant gas–liquid structures, which
appear in numerous products and processes, can be analysed and manipulated using many of
the tools. In addition, the dimension (thickness) of the thin liquid films (so-called lamellae)
present in foams fall, at least in the later part of the foam lifetime, within the colloid regime,
from approximately 1 nm to 1 μm. Therefore, a foam is a system with two dimensions in the
macroscopic size range and one dimension potentially in the colloidal range. Foams are
industrially important in many end-use products and also quite often as an undesired side effect
in various processes.

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Examples of the use of foams in products: (a) shaving cream, (b) bread (solid foam) and (c) a
Danish beer

Protective colloid

A protective colloid is a lyophilic colloid that when present in small quantities keeps
lyophobic colloids from precipitating under the coagulating action of electrolytes.

Need for protective colloids

When a small amount of hydrophilic colloid is added to hydrophobic colloids it may oagulate
the latter. This is due to neutralisation of the charge on the hydrophobic colloidal particles.
However, the addition of large amount of hydrophilic colloid increases the stability of the
hydrophobic colloidal system. This is due to adsorption.

When lyophilic sols are added to lyophobic sols, depending on their sizes, either lyophobic
sol is adsorbed in the surface of lyophilic sol or lyophilic sol is adsorbed on the surface of
lyophobic sol. The layer of the protective colloid prevents direct collision between the
hydrophobic colloidal particles and thus prevents coagulation

Examples

Lyophilic sols like starch and gelatin act as protective colloids.[2]

Measurement of protective action

Further information: Gold number

For a comparative study Zsigmondy introduced a scale of protective action for different
protective colloids in terms of gold number. The gold number is the weight in milligrams of a
protective colloid which checks the coagulation of 10ml of a given gold sol on adding 1 ml of
10% sodium chloride.

Thus smaller the gold number, greater is the protective action.[3] Gold numbers of some
materials Gelatin 0.005-0.01 Albumin 0.1 Acacia 0.1-0.2 Sodium oleate 1-5 Tragacanth 2 [4]

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Gold number

The Gold Number is the minimum weight (in milligrams) of a protective colloid required to
prevent the coagulation of 10 ml of a standard hydro gold sol when 1 ml of a 10% sodium
chloride solution is added to it.[1] It was first used by Richard Adolf Zsigmondy.

An electrical double layer is normally present on the gold sol particles, resulting in
electrostatic repulsion between the particles. The sodium chloride ions disrupt this electrical
double layer, causing coagulation to occur.

The coagulation of gold sol results in an increase in particle size, indicated by a colour
change from red to blue or purple. The higher the gold number, the lower the protective
power of the colloid, because a greater amount of colloid is required to prevent coagulation.

The gold number of some colloids are given below.

Protective Colloid Gold Number

Gelatin 0.005-.01
Haemoglobin 0.03-0.07
Egg Albumin 0.15-0.25
Potato Starch 20-25
Gum arabic 0.15-0.25
Caseinate 0.01-0.02
Sodium Oleate 1-5
Dextrin 125-150

Introduction to the proximate composition of foods

The proximate composition of foods includes moisture, ash, lipid, protein and carbohydrate
contents. Estimation methods of moisture content, ash value, crude lipid, total carbohydrates,
starch, total free amino acids and total proteins are put together in a lucid manner.

Official methods for the analysis of foods – AOAC, AACC, AOCS

AOAC INTERNATIONAL was established in 1884 as the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists. Later, the Association of Official Analytical Chemists name was adopted to better
reflect additional safety interest areas. Today, the organization’s legal name is AOAC
INTERNATIONAL, to reflect the global nature of its impact.
As a leader of analytical excellence, AOAC INTERNATIONAL advances food safety, food
integrity, and public health, by bringing together members, organizations, and experts
dedicated to developing and validating standards, methods, and technologies of global
relevance. From its initial scope of analyzing fertilizer, the organization expanded the contents

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of its methods book to cover dairy products, pesticides, microbiological contamination and
animal feeds, among others. Full membership was limited to government analytical chemists
until 1987 when membership was extended to industrial scientists.[4] As well as government
agencies, members, volunteers and partners now also include people from academia, other
international organizations, private laboratories, contract research organizations, instrument
manufacturers and rapid assay developers. AOAC International's technical contributions center
on the creation, validation, and global publication of reliable analytical test methods. Their
areas of focus include, but are not limited to, safety of foods, beverages, dietary supplements,
fertilizers, animal feeds, soil and water, and veterinary drugs.[3] The aim of the test methods is
to evaluate the purity of materials used in the production of foodstuffs, and their ingredients.

Test methods are of two broad categories: chemical tests (e.g., for vitamins or pesticides) and
microbiological tests (e.g., for spoilage agents or biological threat agents). Before a given
method can be approved as an AOAC official method, it is peer reviewed and tested in 8–10
laboratories in what is called a "Collaborative Study". The findings are often published on
the Journal of AOAC International.

If the OMB (Official Methods Board) approves the recommendation of the Study Director and
Committee Chair and approves the method for official status (an official method of analysis)
then it is given "First Action" approval.[7] During this time, members can comment on the
method and provide feedback about issues or other comments regarding the method. After a
year, the OMB can grant "Final Action" status to a method where there has been no feedback
serious enough to warrant further investigation. AOAC International publish first and final
action Official Methods in the Journal of AOAC International and Official Methods of
Analysis.[5] Methods are recognized as official methods by the FDA and other agencies

The American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) is a global scientific and medical
professional organization dedicated to clinical laboratory science and its application to
healthcare. Our leadership in education, advocacy and collaboration helps lab professionals
adapt to change and do what they do best: provide vital insight and guidance so patients get the
care they need. AACC’s approximately 8,000 members come from all areas of lab medicine—
clinical and research laboratories, diagnostic companies, government agencies, original
equipment manufacturers, and more. Collectively they develop and run lab tests and lab
instruments used throughout healthcare. They also manage labs, conduct research involving
biomarkers, and promote accurate diagnostic testing. AACC represents the diverse interests of
a global lab community: its members come from 110 countries and hold the spectrum of lab-

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related professional degrees, certifications, and credentials.

AOCS (American Oil Chemists' Society) :Since the 1920s AOCS methods have been
internationally recognized for trade, and several are listed by the Codex Alimentarius
Commission. Offered in several different formats, the Official Methods and Recommended
Practices of the AOCS is essential for a lab testing edible fats and oils, surfactants,
phospholipids, plant proteins, or similar compounds. Known throughout the world as the most
comprehensive collection of analytical testing methods for edible fats and oils, surfactants,
phospholipids, plant proteins, and similar compounds, the Official Methods and Recommended
Practices of the AOCS contains more than 450 methods. The book comes as an expandable
binder that opens flat for easy access to all methods.

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