Unit – I

Introduction to Computers: History of Computers – Generation of Computers –

Characteristics of Computers – Classification of Computers – Components of
Computers – Block Diagram
COMPUTER:
The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to
calculate. A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the
data by performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results.
Computer performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER
Until the development of the first generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there
had been several developments in the computing technology related to the mechanical
computing devices. The key developments that took place till the first computer was
developed are as follows—
1.Abacus
The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the
first computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.
It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads
were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan.
An image of this tool is shown below;

2.Napier's Bones
It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier
(1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones
marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones.
It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.

3.Pascaline
Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented
between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed
that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.
It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels. When a wheel is rotated one
revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on the top of the
wheels to read the totals. An image of this tool is shown below;

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4.Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel
It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine.
It was a digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as
instead of gears it was made of fluted drums.

5.Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of
Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations.
It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm
tables.

6.Analytical Engine
This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

7.Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a
mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data
or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census.

8.Differential Analyzer
It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an
analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch
electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

9.Mark I
The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard
Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large
numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It
was the first programmable digital computer.

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GENERATION OF COMPUTER

First Generation of Computers (1942-1955)

 The beginning of commercial computer age is from UNIVAC (Universal
Automatic Computer).
 It was developed by two scientists Mauchly and Echert at the Census
Department of United States in 1947.
 The first generation computers were used during 1942-1955.
 They were based on vacuum tubes.

 Examples of first generation computers are ENIVAC and UNIVAC-1.

Advantages
 Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
 Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
 These computers could calculate data in millisecond.
Disadvantages
 The computers were very large in size.
 They consumed a large amount of energy.
 They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
 They were not very reliable.
 Air conditioning was required.
 Constant maintenance was required.
 Non-portable.
 Costly commercial production.
 Limited commercial use.
 Very slow speed.
 Limited programming capabilities.
 Used machine language only.
 Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
 Used punch cards for input.
 Not versatile and very faulty.
Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)
 The scientists at Bell laboratories developed transistor in 1947.
 These scientists include John Barden,William Brattain and William Shockley.
 The size of the computers was decreased by replacing vacuum tubes with
transistors.
 The second generation computers used transistors
The examples of second generation computers are
IBM 7094 series,
IBM 1400 series and CDC 164 etc.

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Advantages
 Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.
 The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
 Used less energy and were not heated.
 Wider commercial use
 Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
 Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
 Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
 Accuracy improved.
Disadvantages
 Cooling system was required
 Constant maintenance was required
 Commercial production was difficult
 Only used for specific purposes
 Costly and not versatile
 Puch cards were used for input.

Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)

 Jack Kilby developed the concept of integrated circuit in 1958.
 It was an important invention in the computer field. The first IC was invented and
used in 1961.
 The size of an IC is about ¼ square inch.
 A single IC chip may contain thousands of transistors.
 The computer became smaller in size, faster, more reliable and less expensive.
 The Third generation computers used the integrated circuits (IC).
 The examples of third generation computers are
IBM 370,
IBM System/360,
UNIVAC 1108 and
UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.
Advantages
 Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
 More reliable.
 Used less energy
 Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
 Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
 Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
 Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is rare.
 Totally general purpose
 Could be used for high-level languages.
 Good storage
 Versatile to an extent
 Less expensive
 Better accuracy
 Commercial production increased.
 Used mouse and keyboard for input.
Disadvantages
 Air conditioning was required.
 Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

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Fourth Generation Computers -Microprocessors  (1972 onwards) 
 They use a device called microprocessor instead
of ICs
 They are smaller in size.
 They are cheaper and faster.
 They are very easy to handle.
 All present day computers come under this category.
 Microprocessors were introduced as CPU– Complete processors and large section of
 main memory could be implemented in a single chip
 Tens of thousands of transistors can be placed in a single chip (VLSI design
implemented)
 CRT screen, laser & ink jet printers, scanners etc were developed.
 Semiconductor memory chips were used as the main memory.
 Secondary memory was composed of hard disks
 Floppy disks & magnetic tapes were used for backup memory
 Parallelism, pipelining cache memory and virtual memory were applied in a better
way
 LAN and WANS were developed (where desktop work stations interconnected)
 Introduced C language and Unix OS
 Introduced Graphical User Interface
 Less power consumption
 High performance, lower cost and very compact
 Much increase in the speed of operation
 In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. 

Fifth Generation Computers (Future Computers)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being
used today.
The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically
change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.

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  They will be intelligent like human beings, and will use Artificial Intelligence
(AI) for working.
 They will be able to think and take decisions like us.
 They will be used in areas such as robotics, designing, defence.
 Object oriented language like JAVA suitable for internet programming has
been developed.
 Portable note book computers introduced
 Storage technology advanced – large main memory and disk storage available
 Introduced World Wide Web. (And other existing applications like e-mail, e
Commerce, Virtual libraries/Classrooms, multimedia applications etc.)
 New operating systems developed – Windows 95/98/XP/LINUX, etc.
 IBM notebooks, Pentium PCs-Pentium 1/2/3/4/Dual core/Quad core... SUN
work stations, Origin 2000, PARAM 10000, IBM SP/2).

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
The characteristics of the computer are,

1. Speed
2. Accuracy
3. Diligence
4. Storage capacity/memory
5. Versatility
6. Reliability
7. Power of remembering
8. Compactness

1.Speed:-
 Computer can process millions of instruction in seconds
 Same calculation that would have taken hours and day to complete can be
completed in a few seconds using the computer
 The speed of computer is calculated in (MIPS) (millions of instruction per
second)
2.Accuracy:-
 A computer provides a high degree of accuracy
 Every calculation is performer with the same accuracy
3.Diligence:-
 Computer can work for hours without any break or boredom
 It does not get tried
 It can perform complex
 Calculation with the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end
4.Storage capacity/(memory)
 Computer can store very large amount of data
 We have many storage devices like CD, DVD etc
5.Versatility :-
 Computers can be used to perform different types of tasks
 At one point of time you can type a document. The next moment you can listen
to a song or watch a video

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 6.Compactness :-
 Day by day computer size is decreasing with new technology
7.Reliability:-
 Computer will not do mistaken
 It we give wrong input can we recalled at any time
8.Power of remembering :-
 The data stored in the computer can we recalled at any time
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER
 It can not work with out electricity
 Computer can not take own discussion
 Computer has zero IQ
 Computer is completely depends on human
 Computer is costly
 Computer has no creativity
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

To divide computers on the basis of size cost and speed as:

1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Network Computers

1. Microcomputers(Personal Computer)
 A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system.
 The older pc started 8 bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit
processor with speed  of 4.66 GB. 
 In 1975, the microcomputer did not exist.
 In 1995, sales exceeded $116 billion. Microcomputers are the fastest growing
segment of the computer industry.
 The microcomputer segment of the industry is complex; there are different types of
microcomputer platforms with varying capabilities.
 Microcomputers are the smallest and cheapest of these and are used at home, in
schools and in some businesses.
Examples: -     IBM PCs, APPLE computers

Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types :

 Desktops
 Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers
cannot be carried around.
Personal Computers
 Used at home
 “A small computer, intended for use by an individual. A personal computer will
usually fit on a desk.”
 A computer designed for use by a single user.
 Although other Microcomputers preceded it, the IBM PC was the first to use the name
specifically.

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  As a result, the term PC now applies to an IBM-compatible computer as contrasted to
the Apple Macintosh, these being the two standards that emerged from an abundance
of competitors in the early 1980s.
 Used in Educations Institutions and Organizations as nodes
 Can perform typical activities like documentation, playing games, surfing web to
more complex activities as programming, design, DTP etc.

PC further divided in to two types:

             Desktop Computer
Laptop/ Note book Computer
DESKTOP COMPUTER:

DEFINATION:
 “A computer designed for desktop use; usually comprises, at a minimum, a central
processing unit (CPU), a monitor, and a keyboard as separate units, connected by
special cables. Most such computers now also include a Pointing Device.
 "Desktop" can also indicate a horizontally-oriented computer case usually intended to
have the display screen placed on top to save space on the desktop.
 Most modern desktop computers have separate screens and keyboards.
 
WORKSTATION:
 A workstation is a powerful desktop computer designed to meet the computing needs
of engineers, architects, and other professionals who need detailed graphics displays.
 The workstation has sometimes been called a "super micro."
 The workstation looks very much like a desktop microcomputer, but the chips inside
make the difference
 For example, workstations are commonly used for computer-aided design (CAD), in
which industrial designers create pictures of technical parts or assemblies.
 To process these complex and detailed diagrams, the computer needs great processing
power and much storage.

FEATURES:
1. Workstations are small, powerful systems designed to drive networks of less powerful
microcomputers and to create high-quality graphics.
2. Workstations typically cost $5,000 to $20,000.

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 3. Major competitors in this market include DEC, Hewlett-Packard, Sun, and Silicon
Graphics, Inc.

The different portable computers are: -

 When you are working on a multiuser computer, such as a mainframe or
minicomputer, you can control the input and see the output on the display, but you
control nothing else.
 A single-user computer gives you control over all the phases of computer processing:
input, processing, output, and storage.
 You can select the programs you want to use, and you don't have to compete with
other users to gain access to the system.
 A single-user system is designed to meet the computing needs of an individual.
LAPTOP /NOTE BOOK COMPUTER:
DEFINATION:
 “A laptop is a personal computer designed for mobile use, small and light enough to
sit on a person's lap while in use.”
 “A portable computer typically weighing less than 6 pounds (3 kilograms) that has a
flat-panel display and miniature hard disk drives, and is powered by rechargeable
batteries.”
 Laptops are capable of many of the same tasks that desktop computers perform,
although they are typically less powerful.
 Performance is always lower than that of a comparable desktop because of the
compromises necessary to keep weight and power consumption low.

Notebook: -
 These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers are
comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop.
 They weigh 2 to 3 kg.
 They are more costly than laptop.

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Palmtop (Hand held): -
 They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
 These computers are small in size.
 They can be held in hands.
 It is capable of doing word processing, spreadsheets and hand writing recognition,
game playing, faxing and paging.
 These computers are not as powerful as desktop computers.
Ex: - 3com palmV.

  2) Minicomputer: -       

 A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer.
 That is more powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed
to serve multiple users simultaneously (Parallel Processing).
 They are more expensive than microcomputers.
 The "age of the mini" started in the late 1960s.
 The creation of integrated circuits suitable for computers enabled designers to shrink
the size of the computer.
 Minicomputers are frequently referred to as mid-range computers. Before Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC) released the first DEC PDP-8 minicomputer in 1968,
 Large computers both in terms of physical size
 as well as computations•
 They support huge numbers of users•
 Basically used to store and process huge amount of data•
 Not all organizations can offered to maintain one mainframe. Take service of one
vendor

FEATURES:
 Like mainframes, most minicomputers are multi user systems.
 Many of today's minicomputers can accommodate as many as 200 users working
from individual terminals.
 Mini computers are a little slower than mainframe.
 Like mainframes, minicomputers can accommodate remote users, but not as many.
 Minicomputers' input, output, and storage devices look like those on mainframes.
 Minicomputers have slightly less storage, and the printers are slightly slower.

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EXAMPLE:
 IBM AS/400
 IBM SYSTEM 360
 HP 3000
 PRIME 9755
3. Mainframe computers: -
 Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing (compared
to mini- or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers.
 They support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a number of users
like ATM transactions.
 They are also used as central host computers in distributed data processing system.
 Mainframe computers are the most powerful computers.
 A mainframe computer may contain several microprocessors.
 A single mainframe computer can be used by hundreds of people at once.
 Each user has his own terminal that is connected to the mainframe.
 Mainframe computers are usually kept in a special cooled, clean computer room.
Minicomputers are medium-sized computers which are more powerful than
microcomputers but not as powerful as mainframes.
 A mainframe computer system is usually composed of several computers in addition
to the mainframe, or host processor.
HostProcessor:
The host processor is responsible for controlling the other processors, all the
peripheral devices, and the mathematicsoperations.
FrontEndprocessor:
A front-end processor is responsible for handling communications to and from
all the remote terminals connected to the computer system.
BackendProcessor:
Sometimes a back-end processor is used to handle data retrieval operations.
Although the host computer could perform all these operations, it can be used
more efficiently if relieved of time-consuming chores that do not require
processingspeed.
 

FEATURES:        
 Mainframe computer systems are powerful enough to support several hundred users
simultaneously at remote terminals.
 Mainframe Computers are so much faster than people, the users never notice that the
computer is handling other tasks.
 This capability to process many programs concurrently for multiple users is known as
multiprogramming.
 The typical mainframe computer occupies much of a large room.

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  Like supercomputers, mainframes require an environment with closely monitored
humidity and temperature.
 Mainframe computers are priced between
$100,000 and $2,000,000.

EXAMPLE:
- IBM S/390
- Amdahl 580
- Control Data Cyber 176
4.Super Computer
 Supercomputers are the largest, fastest, most powerful, and most expensive computers
made.
 Like other large systems, supercomputers can be accessed by many individuals at the
same time.
 Supercomputers are used primarily for scientific applications that are mathematically
intensive.
 The first supercomputer was built in the 1960s for the United States Department of
Defense.
 Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and computing speeds which
are many times faster than other computers.
 A supercomputer is measured in terms of tens of millions Instructions per second
(mips), an operation is made up of numerous instructions.
 The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and
engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis.
 Application involves, weather forecasting, military applications, electronic design etc.
 Supercomputers derive much of their speed from the use of multiple processors.
 Multiprocessing enables the computers to perform tasks simultaneously--either
assigning different tasks to each processing unit or dividing a complex task among
several processing units.
EXAMPLE:
 Cray-1
 Cray-2
 Control Data Cyber 205
 ETA

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FEATURES:
 The aerospace, automotive, chemical, electronics and petroleum industries use
supercomputers extensively.
 Supercomputers are used in weather forecasting and seismic analysis. They are found
in many public and private research centers, such as universities and government
laboratories.
 A supercomputer was used to alert scientists to the impending collision of a comet
with Jupiter in 1994, giving them time to prepare to observe and record the event.
 The ultra supercomputer will simulate nuclear explosions (eliminating the need to
detonate any bombs), model global weather trends, and design power plants.
 Supercomputers can perform at up to 128 gigaflops, and use bus widths of 32 or 64
bits. This capability makes supercomputers suitable for processor-intensive
applications, such as graphics.
Note:
 The speed of modern supercomputers is measured in nanoseconds and gigaflop.
 A nanosecond is one billionth of a second.
 A gigaflop is one billion floating-point arithmetic operations per second.
5.Network Computers –
 They are computers with minimal memory, disk storage and processor power
designed to connect a network, especially the Internet.
 A Network is the coordinated system of linked computer terminals or mini computer
and mainframes that may operate independently but also share data and other
resources.
 Collection of PCs• Additional Network Interface Card• Can share the information,
work from anywhere environment• LAN – WAN – MAN – Internet• Uniting the
World
 
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER:
Computer is an electronic device which performs tasks given by user with extremely fast
speed and accuracy. Like any other device or machine, a computer system has also a number
of parts. 
A computer system can be blocked into mainly three parts:
1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit
3. Output Unit

1. Input unit –
Input unit is a unit that accepts any input device. The input device is used to input data
into the computer system.

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 Function of input unit:
1. It converts inputted data into binary codes.
2. It sends data to main memory of computer .
2.Central Processing Unit (CPU) – 
CPU is called the brain of a computer. An electronic circuitry that carries out the
instruction given by a computer program.
CPU can be sub classified into three parts.
i. Control unit (CU)
ii. Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU)
iii. Memory Unit (MU)
i. Control unit (CU)- 
The control unit  manages the various components of the computer. It reads instructions
from memory and interpretation and changes in a series of signals to activate other parts of
the computer. It controls and co-ordinate is input output memory and all other units.
ii. Arithmetic & Logic unit (ALU) – 
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs simple arithmetic operation such as +,-,
*, / and logical operation such as >, <, =<, <= etc.
iii. Memory Unit (MU)- 
Memory is used to store data and instructions before and after processing. Memory is  
also called Primary memory or internal memory. It is used to store data temporary or
permanently.
Function of CPU-
1. It controls all the parts and software and data flow of computer.
2. It performs all operations.
3. It accepts data from input device.
4. It sends information to output device.
5. Executing programs stored in memory
6. It stores data either temporarily or permanent basis.
7. It performs arithmetical and logical operations.
Output Unit –
Output unit is a unit that constituents a number of output device. An output device is used
to show the result of processing.
Function of Output unit:
1. it accepts data or information sends from main memory of computer
2. It converts binary coded information into HLL or inputted languages.

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 Unit – II
Programming Languages: Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level
Language – Translators: Assembler, Interpreter, Compiler. Number Systems: Decimal,
Binary, Octal, Hexa-Decimal – Decimal to Binary – Binary to Decimal – Binary to Hexa
Decimal
Definition of programming language:
A computer or a system is operated by given a set of rules and instruction to perform
some task. These set of rules and instructions are able to control the working of computer or
any automated and/or manipulated machine.
To control the computer system using these sequential set of grammatical rules are
known as programming language. In other words, ‘A programming language is a vocabulary
and a set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer system to perform any specific
task’.

Classification of programming languages:
It is classified into three categories. Sometime it’s also known as level and/or
generation of programming language. All the computer programming languages are broadly
classified into the following;
1. Machine level Language
2. Assembly level Language
3. High-level Language
1.Machine level languages (First Generation of programming language):
 It’s the lowest level and named as first generation of programming language.
 Machine level language consist only two condition i.e. either true (1) or false (0);
this type of language known as binary language.
 A computer system could understand only binary language i.e. all the instruction
feed into the computer system must be in the form of 0 or 1.
 Machine level languages are very tough to understand by the humans.
Advantages of machine level language:
There have many advantage of machine level language; some of them are listed below;
 Machine level languages are directly interacting with computer system.
 There is no requirement of software of conversion like compiler or interpreters.
 It takes very less time to execute a program, because there is no conversion take
place.
Disadvantages of machine language:
Some of the disadvantages of machine level language are listed below;
 Its machine dependent language i.e. individual program required for each machine.
 To develop a program in machine language, it’s too hard to understand and
program.
 Its time consuming to develop new programs.
 Debugging process is very hard because of finding errors process is typical.
 Machine language is not portable language.
2.Assembly level languages (Second Generation programming language):
 It’s a middle level and named as second generation programming language. It
contains the same instruction as machine level language, but the instructions and the
variables have specific name or called commands instead of being just binary
numbers. It also uses symbols to describe field of instructions. Every aspect of
machine variable in program, assembly language uses one statement per machine
instruction. It managed explicitly all instruction like register allocation, call, stack,
timer, jump, loop etc.

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  To understand the assembly language computer must require an assembler which
takes a part in between assembly language and computer system to convert the
assembly instructions into the machine language. This assembler is software or a set
of program which translates assemble language programming instruction into the
machine language. 
For example;
 LOAD                    BASEPAY
 ADD                       OVERPAY
 STORE                  GROSSPAY
Advantages of Assembly language:
There have many advantage of assembly level language; some of them are listed below;
 It is easily understood by human because it is uses statements instead of binary
digits.
 To develop a program it takes less time.
 Debugging and troubleshoot is easy due to easily find error.
 It’s a portable language.
Disadvantages of Assembly language:
Some of the disadvantages of assembly level language are listed below;
 It’s a machine dependent language due to that program design for one machine no
use of other machine.
 Sometime it’s hard to understand the statement or command use
3.High-level language (Third Generation):
 High level language is the upper level language and also known as third generation
programming language. It does consider as high level because, which language comes
under this category are closer to human languages. Hence this is highly understood
programming language by human. There have many examples of high level languages
such as, FORTRAN, Pascal, C, C++, JAVA, ADA, COBOL, LISP, Prolog etc.
 The first high level programming language was written in 1950s. Those programs
written in high level language must require software or a set of program to translate
that program into machine understandable. This software called compiler and/or
interpreter. The main job of compiler and translator is to take the source code of the
program and convert that code into the machine understood code.
Advantages of high level language:
There have many advantage of high level language; some of them are listed below;
 In this instructions and commands much easier to remember by programmer.
 Its logic and structure are much easier to understand.
 Debugging is easier compare to other languages.
 Less time consuming to writing new programs.
 HLL are described as being portable language.
Disadvantages of high level language:
Some of the disadvantages of high level language are listed below;
 HLL programming language take more space compare to other MLL (machine
level language) and/or ALL (Assembly level language).
 This programming language execute slowly.

PROGRAM TRANSLATORS
A computer can only understand programs defined using machine code. Consequently
a program written for example in a high level language such as Java cannot be run directly.
To execute a computer program written in high or low level language, it must be first be
translated.

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 There are 3 types of system software used for translating the code that a programmer
writes into a form that the computer can execute (i.e. machine code).
These are:
1. Assemblers
2. Compilers
3. Interpreters
 Source Code is the code that is input to a translator.
 Executable code is the code that is output from the translator.
1. Assembler
An Assembler converts an assembly program into machine code.

2. Compiler
A Compiler is a program that translates a high level language into machine code.
The Turbo Pascal compiler, for example, translates a program written in Pascal into
machine code that can be run on a PC.

Advantages of a Compiler
1. Fast in execution
2. The object/executable code produced by a compiler can be distributed or
executed without having to have the compiler present.
3. The object program can be used whenever required without the need to of recompilation.
Disadvantages of a Compiler
1. Debugging a program is much harder. Therefore not so good at finding errors
2. When an error is found, the whole program has to be re-compiled
3. Interpreter
An Interpreter is also a program that translates high-level source code into executable
code. However the difference between a compiler and an interpreter is that an interpreter
translates one line at a time and then executes it: no object code is produced, and so the
program has to be interpreted each time it is to be run.
If the program performs a section code 1000 times, then the section is translated into
machine code 1000 times since each line is interpreted and then executed.

Advantages of an Interpreter
1. Good at locating errors in programs
2. Debugging is easier since the interpreter stops when it encounters an error.
3. If an error is deducted there is no need to retranslate the whole program

17
Disadvantages of an Interpreter
1. Rather slow
2. No object code is produced, so a translation has to be done every time the
program is running.
3. The program to run, the Interpreter must be present
Differences between compiler and interpreter
SI. Compiler Interpreter
No
1 Performs the translation of a program as Performs statement by statement
a whole. translation.
2 Execution is faster. Execution is slower.
3 Requires more memory as linking is Memory usage is efficient as no
needed for the generated intermediate intermediate object code is generated.
object code.
4 Debugging is hard as the error messages It stops translation when the first
are generated after scanning the entire error is met. Hence, debugging is
program only. easy.
5 Programming languages like C, C++ Programming languages like Python,
uses compilers. BASIC, and Ruby uses interpreter

Number System

A number system is a way of representing the numbers. A digital system can

understand positional number system only where there are only a few symbols called digits
and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the
number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).
Types
Number System & Description Base Digits
Binary Number System 2 0,1
Octal Number System 8 0 to 7
Decimal Number System 10 0 to 9
Hexa Decimal Number System 16 0 to 9 ,A to F
1.Decimal Number System
The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number
system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands and so on. Each position represents a specific power of the base (10).

104 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4

10,
1,000 100 10 1 1 / 10 1 /100 1 / 11000 1/ 10000
000

18
 For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3
in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position, and its value
can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100) + (3x10) + (4xl)
(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 1
1234
Example for fraction number 143.25
= 1X 102 + 4 X 101 + 1X 100+ 2 X 10-1 + 5 X 10-2
= 100 +40+3+0.2+0.05
=143.25
From the above example we can say the weight of the number from right hand side is equal to
nth digit X (base)n-1. The weight of the each digit depends on its relative position with in the
numbers is called positional number system.

2.Binary Number System

A computer, being an electronic machine is made up of switches, that is, the circuits
are either in the ON state or in the OFF state. The binary number system is the ideal number
system to represent the two states
Because it has only two digits: zero and one. A term commonly used to refer to 1 or 0 in
binary system is bit.
A BIT (Binary Digit) is one of the digits used in binary notation, i.e. 0 or 1.
A BYTE is made up of 8 bits.
A KILOBYTE is 1024 bytes.
A MEGABYTE is 1024 Kilobytes.
A GIGABYTE is 1024 Megabytes.

Characteristics
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
 Also called base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2 x
where x represents the last position - 1.
In the binary number system, the weight of any bit can be determined by raising a power
equivalent to the position of bit in the number. 10111.112

Digit 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
Weight 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2

Example Binary Number: 10111.112

= 1 X 24 + 0 X 23 + 1X 22 + 1X21+1X20+1X2-1+1X2-2
=16+0+4+2+1+0.5+0.25
=23.7510
Decimal Binary
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100

19
 5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
Advantage
The binary number system is treated natural language for the computer.

3.Octal Number System

The Octal number system is the positional number system uses base 8 to represent
different values. Therefore this number system is also known as base 8 number system. As
this system uses base 8, eight symbols are available for representing the values in the system.
These symbols are the digits 0 to 7.
Characteristics
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in a octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in a octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8 x
where x represents the last position - 1.
Example Octal Number: 125.48
1 2 5 . 4
82 81 80 8-1

Decimal Number
= ((1 x 82) + (2 x 81) + (5 x 80) + (4x 8-1)
= 64+16+5+0.5
= 85.510
Octal Binary
0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111

To convert decimal number into Octal system

9210 (?)8
8 92
8 11 - 4
1 - 3
9210 1348
Advantage
Programs can display data in octal format because it is relatively easy for humans to
read and can easily be translated in to binary format (machine language).

20
4.Hexadecimal Number System
The hexadecimal number system is a positional number system that use base 16 to
represent different values. Therefore, this number system is known as base -16 system .
These symbols are the digits 0 to 9 and the letters A,B,C,D,E and F are used to represent the
decimal values 10 through 15
Characteristics
 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14,
F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16).
Example 160
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1.

Hexadecimal Binary
0 0000
1 0001
1 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1DE16
1 D E
82 81 80

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

= (1 x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10
= 256 +208+15
= 47910

Number System Conversion

1.Decimal to Binary (Whole number  Division , Fraction Multiplication)
Whole numbers
1. Decimal number was repeatedly divided by 2 and noted down the remainder 0 and 1
2. This is division continued until the number become 0 or less than 1

21
 3. The remainders are read from bottom to top.

Example : 23.2510  (?)2

2310  (?)2
23
2 11 - 1
2 5 - 1
2 2 - 1
1 - 0
2310  101102
Fraction numbers
1. Fraction number was multiplied by 2 and the integer of the result will be noted .
2. The fraction is repeatedly multiplied by 2 until the fractional part becomes 0.
3. The integers which are noted read from top to bottom.
0.2510  (?)2
0.2 X 2 = 0 . 50
5
0.5 X 2 = 1 . 00
0
0.2510  0.012 Final Answer 23.2510  10111.012

2.Binary to Decimal (Whole number  power of 2 , Fractionpower of 2 (-ve sign ))

1. Determine the positional value of each digits. (base is 2)
2. Multiply the positional value by the digit in the corresponding column.
3. Sum the product values.

Example : 101102  (?)10

24 23 22 21 20
1 0 1 1 1
1X1 = 1
1X2 = 2
1X4 = 4
0X8 = 0

1 X 16 = 16
23
2310  101102

Fraction numbers
0.012  (?)10
2-1 2-2
0 1
1 X = 0.25
(1/4)
0 X = 0
(1/2)
0.25
0.012  0.2510 Final Answer 10111.012 23.2510

3.Decimal to Octal (Whole number  Division , Fraction Multiplication)

22
Whole numbers
1. Decimal number was repeatedly divided by 8 and noted down the remainder 0 to7
2. This is division continued until the number become 0 or less than 8
3. The remainders are read from bottom to top.
Example : 92.1510  (?)2
8 92
8 11 - 4
1 - 3
9210  1348
Fraction numbers
1. Fraction number was multiplied by 8 and the integer of the result will be noted .
2. The fraction is repeatedly multiplied by 8 until the fractional part becomes 0.
3. The integers which are noted read from top to bottom.
0.1510  (?)2
0.1 X 8 = 1 . 20
5
0.2 X 8 = 1 . 60
0.1510  0.118 0 Final Answer 92.1510 
134.118
4.Octal to Decimal (Whole number  power of 8 , Fractionpower of 8 (-ve sign ))
1. Determine the positional value of each digit. (base is 8)
2. Multiply the positional value by the digit in the corresponding column.
3. Sum the product values.
Example : 134.1148  (?)10
82 81 80
1 3 4
4X1 = 4
3 X 8 = 24
1 X =
64
64
92
1348  9210
Fraction numbers
0.118  (?)10
8-1 8-2 8-3
1 1 4
1 X(1/64) = 0.015625
1 X (1/8) = 0.125
0.14
0.118  0.14062510

Final Answer 134.118 92.14062510

5. Decimal to Hexadecimal (Whole number  Division, Fraction Multiplication)
Whole numbers
1. Decimal number was repeatedly divided by 16 and noted down the remainder 0 to16
2. This is division continued until the number become 0 or less than 16
3. The remainders are read from bottom to top.
Example: 62.510  (?)16
16 6
2

23
 8 3 - 14(E)
9210  3E16
Fraction numbers
1. Fraction number was multiplied by 8 and the integer of the result will be noted.
2. The fraction is repeatedly multiplied by 8 until the fractional part becomes 0.
3. The integers which are noted read from top to bottom.

0.510  (?)16
0. X 16 = 8 . 0
5
0.510  0.816 Final Answer 62.510 
3E.816
6. Hexadecimal to Decimal (Whole number  power of 16, Fractionpower of 16 (-ve
sign))
1. Determine the positional value of each digit. (base is 16)
2. Multiply the positional value by the digit in the corresponding column.
3. Sum the product values.
Example: 3E.816  (?)10
161 160
3 E
14 X =
14
1
3 X =
48
16
62
3E16 6210

Fraction numbers
0.816  (?)10
16-1
8
8 X (1/16) = 0.5
0.5
0.816  0.510
Final Answer 3E.816 62.58
7. Binary to Octal

1. Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right and write 4 2 1 )
2. Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example 101012 (?)8

10 101

421 421
010 101
2 5
Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

8. Octal to Binary

24
 1. Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number
2. Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
Octal Number: 258  (?)2
2 5
010 101
010101
Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012
9. Binary to Hexadecimal
1. Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right and write 8 4 2 1).
2. Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example Binary Number: 101012(?)16

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
1 0101

8421 8421
0001 0101
1 5
Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516
10. Hexadecimal to Binary
1. Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number.
2. Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 1516(?)2
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
1 5
0001 0101
00010101
Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012
11. Octal to Hexadecimal
Octal (3 digits 4 21) Hexadecimal (4 digits 8 4 21)
Octal  Binary
Binary  Hexadecimal

Example: 12.348 (?)16

1 2 . 3 4

001 010 . 011 100 Write three digits using 4 2 1

001010. 011100

00 1010 . 0111 00 Divide four digits

8421 8421 . 8421 8421 Write 8421 at the top

0000 1010 0111 0000

25
 0 10 (A) . 7 0 Write Hexadecimal number

Answer is: 12.348 (A.7)16

12. Hexadecimal to Octal
Hexadecimal (4 digits 8 4 21)  Octal (3 digits 4 21)
Hexadecimal  Binary
Binary  Octal

Example: A.716 (?)8

A . 7

1010 . 0111 Write three digits using 4 2 1

1 010 . 011 1 Divide by three digits

421 421 421 421 Write 421 at the top

001 010 011 100

1 2 . 3 4 Write Hexadecimal number

Answer is: (A.7)1612.348

Unit – III

26
 Input Devices: Mouse, Touch Pad/Touch Screen, Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR), Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Optical Mark Recognition
(OMR). Output Devices: Monitor, Printers: Dot Matrix, Inject, Laser, Plotter.
INPUT DEVICES
An input device is a piece of hardware used to provide data to a computer used for
interaction and control.  It allows input of raw data to the computer for processing.
Here’s a list of some input devices used in computers and other computing devices:
Input Devices
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Touch Pad
4. Touch Screen
5. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
6. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
7. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
1.Keyboard:
It is a text base input device that allows the user to input alphabets, numbers and other
characters. It consists of a set of keys mounted on a board.
The letters are arranged as in a typewriter and the arrangement is called QWERTY
layout because the first six keys on the top row of letters are Q,W,E,R,T and Y
It has 101 keys arranged in six groups.

Alphanumeric Keypad
It consists of keys for English alphabets, 0 to 9 numbers, and special characters like +
−/ * ( ) etc.
Function Keys
There are twelve function keys labeled F1, F2, F3… F12. The functions assigned to
these keys differ from one software package to another. These keys are also user
programmable keys.
Special-function Keys
These keys have special functions assigned to them and can be used only for those
specific purposes. Functions of some of the important keys are defined below.
Enter
It is similar to the ‘return’ key of the typewriter and is used to execute a command or
program.
Spacebar
It is used to enter a space at the current cursor location.
Backspace
This key is used to move the cursor one position to the left and also delete the

27
character in that position.
Delete
It is used to delete the character at the cursor position.
Insert
Insert key is used to toggle between insert and overwrite mode during data entry.
Shift
This key is used to type capital letters when pressed along with an alphabet key. Also
used to type the special characters located on the upper-side of a key that has two
characters defined on the same key.
Caps Lock
Cap Lock is used to toggle between the capital lock features. When ‘on’, it locks the
alphanumeric keypad for capital letters input only.
Tab
Tab is used to move the cursor to the next tab position defined in the document. Also,
it is used to insert indentation into a document.
Ctrl
Control key is used in conjunction with other keys to provide additional functionality
on the keyboard.
Alt
Also like the control key, Alt key is always used in combination with other keys to
perform specific tasks.
Esc
This key is usually used to negate a command. Also used to cancel or abort executing
programs.
Numeric Keypad
Numeric keypad is located on the right side of the keyboard and consists of keys
having numbers (0 to 9) and mathematical operators (+ −* /) defined on them. This
keypad is provided to support quick entry for numeric data.
Cursor Movement Keys
These are arrow keys and are used to move the cursor in the direction indicated by the
arrow (up, down, left, right).
Advantages

 It is not necessary to buy additional equipment because most computer systems

are normally supplied with keyboards.
 Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster than mouse.
Disadvantages

 It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and accurately.

 Typing speeds are still very slow when compared with computer speeds.
2. Mouse
The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and
select in order to perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size
windows, start programs etc. The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top:
the left one being used most frequently.
Mouse Actions
Left Click : Used to select an item.
Double Click : Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click : Usually used to display a set of commands.

28
Drag and Drop : It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To
achieve this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse button and while
holding the button down move the cursor to where you want to place the item, and then
release it.

Types of Mouse: 
a) Mechanical: Mechanical has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all
directions. Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball in rolling and
move the screen pointer accordingly.
b)Opto-mechanical: Opto-mechanical is same as a mechanical mouse but uses optical
sensors (LEDs) to detect motion of the ball. There is horizontal and vertical roller inside the
mouse. That roller helps to roll the mouse and calculate the coordinate points on the screen. 
c) Optical Mouse: Optical Mouse uses a laser to detect the mouse’s movement. For this we
must have a mouse along a special mat with a grid so that it can detect the movement of
mouse through laser beam.
d) Wireless mouse Mouse can be connected directly to the computers port or it might be
wireless (infra red or radio waves to communicate with the computer).

Advantages
1. A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
2. A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface.
3. Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the screen is faster
than using a keyboard.
Disadvantages
1. It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.
2. Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard.
3. A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision.
4. A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.

3.Touchscreen – is an input device that allows users to interact with a computer using their
fingers. It is used widely in laptop monitors, smart phones, tablets, cash registers and
information kiosks.  Most common functions of touch screens are as follows:
Actions
1.Tap - A single gentle touch or tap of the screen is as if you are clicking a mouse button
once and opens an app.

29
2.Double-tap - Depending on where you are a double-tap can have different functions. For
example, Double-tapping text in a text editor selects a word or section of words.
3.Touch and hold - Gently touching and holding your finger over an object selects or
highlights the object. For example, you could touch and hold an icon and then drag it
somewhere else on the screen or highlight text.
4.Drag - After you have touched and held anything on the screen while keeping the your
finger on the screen drag that object or highlight in any direction and then lift your finger off
of the screen to drop it in place.
5.Swipe - Swiping your finger across the screen scrolls the screen in that direction.
6.Pinch - Placing two fingers on the screen and then pinching them together zooms out and
pinching your fingers together and then moving them away from each other zooms into
where you started.
Advantage
1. No extra peripherals are needed except the monitor.
2. A touch screen allows easy access to commands, which are usually identified by
words or symbols on the screen.
Disadvantages
1. Touch screens are not suitable for inputting a large amount of data because they
require a lot of arm movements.
2. Only items already on the screen can be selected.

4.TouchPad
A touchpad or trackpad is a pointing device featuring a tactile sensor, a specialized
surface that can translate the motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on
the operating system that is made output to the screen. Touchpads are a common feature
of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce.
Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants (PDAs) and
some portable media players. Wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories.

Advantages

 Easy and Fast one finger control.

 Ideal for portable devices
Disadv antages

 Expensive and found in specific devices e.g. laptops

5.Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR is an input device, which reads the characters that have been printed in
Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) reader can read text printed with magnetized
ink. These devices were specially designed for banking operations. The details on the bank
cheques, such as cheque number, bank and branch code are written with the magnetic ink.

30
  The MICR devices can processes the cheque, identify the numeric characters and
store the data on the disk.
 The characters present at the bottom of the cheque are in human readable form
and can be recognised.
Woking
The bank cheque containing the magnetic characters is fed into the MICR Scanner for
processing. The MICR scanner consists of MICR toner, which produces magnetic charge for
reading the MICR line. The MICR scanner scans the cheques at a faster speed, and thus helps
in saving a considerable amount of time and processing the cheques.
Application
1. It is mainly used in bank industry for processing cheques.
2. If a copy of cheque is made with the help of coloured photocopy machine, then the
characters written with the magnetic ink will not simply respond. This provides extra
level of security in the banks for the protection of the cheques from illegal copying.
Advantages
1. MICR is difficult to forge.
2. Documents can still be read when folded or written on.
Disadvantages
1. MICR readers and encoders are very expensive.
2. The system can only accept a few different character sets.

6.Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character
by character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory. It consists of three components.
Image Scanner
The basic task of the image scanner is to capture the text image, which is to be
recognized optically.
OCR Software and Hardware
The OCR hardware and Software processes the text images captured by the image
scanner.
Output Interface
The output interface helps in establishing communication between the OCR devices
and outside the world.

31
Working

 The paper document is fed into the optical scanner for scanning.
 When a scanner first creates an image from a page the image is stored as a bitmap
in the computer’s memory. A bitmap is a grid of dots; each dot is represented by
one or more bits.
 The job of the OCR software is to translate the array of dots into the text that the
computer can understand as letters and numbers.
 To translate bitmaps into characters, OCR software looks at each character and
tries to match the character with its own assumptions.
Advanced OCR
Advanced OCR systems can read text in a large variety of fonts, but they still have
difficulty in handwritten text. Today OCR programs can translate a page of text that is
received by a fax machine.
Application
1. The OCR devices are popularly used in telebanking and in the processing of credit
cards.
2. The OCR can also be used by libraries in the creation of digital libraries from old
magazines and books.
Advantages
1. Written data and printed data can be read at the same time.
2. Hard copies of documents can be read directly into a computer without retyping.
3. The characters converted can later be edited by word processing software.
Disadvantage
1. OCR readers often do not work well with handwritten characters or those in unusual
fonts.

32
7.Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is also called mark sensing technology where an OMR device senses the
presence and absence of a mark, such as a pencil mark. While special OMR readers are
required to read data on OMR forms, individuals filling out the information do not need
anything more than a black pencil.
Reading Marks

 Optical Mark Reading is a method of entering data into a computer system;

 Optical Mark Reader reads pencil or pen marks, made in predefined positions on
the paper forms. OMR uses specially-prepared forms, printed in light blue ink.
 OMR reader looks for dark marks in specific locations on the form.
 OMR reader scans the form, detects the presences of marks, makes control and
passes this information to the computer by application software.
Application
The OMR technology enables a high speed
reading of large quantities of data and transferring
data without using keyboard.

 Surveys
 Standardized Test
 Aptitude Test
 Enrollment form
Advantage
1. It is relatively inexpensive to produce (in quantity).
2. It requires no complex technology for recording data.
3. It is accurate.
Disadvantage
1. It requires complete marks and complete erasers.
2. It may be difficult for entry of names and addresses.
3. It requires precise printing of forms for accurate results.
4. The cost of the OMR reader is high

Output Devices:
A device which is used to display result from a computer is called as output device.
It Allows people to receive information from computers. An output device is any peripheral
that receives or displays output from a computer. The picture shows an inkjet printer, an
output device that can make a hard copy of anything being displayed on a monitor. Output
device is electronic equipment connected to a computer and used to transfer data out of the
computer in the form of text, images, sounds or print.
The output devices are,
1. Monitor
2. Printers
3. Plotter
1.Monitors
Monitor commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU) is the main output device of
a computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular
form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the no. of the pixels.

33
 There are four kinds of viewing screen used for monitors:
1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
2. TFT/LCD
3. LED
4. Projection Displays

1.CRT Monitor

 It is the part of computer which looks like a TV set. After typing the characters
from the keyboard, we can see them on the monitor.
 In the CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short.
The smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity, or resolution.
 The most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and
25 lines vertically.

In CRT monitors, the image is projected on the screen by directing the electron beam
onto the computer screen. To precisely direct the electron beams, copper steering coils are
used to create a magnetic field inside the tube. By applying varying voltages to the copper
coils a beam can be positioned at any point on the screen.
Advantage
1. CRT monitors are very cheap.
Disadvantage
1. It requires a lot of power.
2. CRT monitors are big , take up a lot of desktop space.
2.Liquid Crystal Display Monitor
First introduced in watches and clocks in the1970’s, LCDs are now used to display
images in monitors. A newer technology in computer screens is TFT LCD monitors. These
are light weight monitors and are used in laptop computers. The LCD monitor creates images
with a special liquid crystal that is normally transparent but becomes unclear when charged
with electricity.

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Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display (TFT LCD)
LCD uses thin film transistor also known as active matrix to activate each cell. It is
type of monitor which used thin film transistor technology to enhance the image quality of
LCD Monitors. TFD based LCD monitors creates sharp bright images as compared to
previous LCD technologies.
Advantage
1. These monitors are portable, reliable and consume less electricity.
2. Images produced by these monitors are of better quality than that of old CRT
monitors.
3. The LCD monitors have very high resolution and emit less radiation than CRT
monitors.
4. The screen is also flicker free.
Disadvantage
1. It is very expensive
2. Narrow viewing angle  not all LCD monitors can be viewed at every angle, which
makes it difficult for anyone who is not in front of the monitor to see the screen.
3. The life of LCD is lesser than LED.
3.Light Emitting Diodes Monitors (LED)
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) is the latest technology which is being used now days
for making high definition TV screens and monitors. LED is known as light emitting diode. It
is an electronic device that lights up when electricity is passed through it. LEDs are usually
red. They are good for displaying images because they can be relatively small, and they do
not burn out.

Advantage
1. LED is light weight monitors and is used in laptop computers and in TV.
2. The Life of LED monitors is three times than that of LCD monitors.
3. These monitors require less space on the desk and have flicker free screen.
Disadvantage
1. It is very expensive.
2. They require more power than LCD monitors.
4.Projection Displays
These are normally used for large group presentations. These systems can be
connected to a computer and whatever appears on the computer terminal gets enlarged and
projected on a large screen. Video projector receives video signals and projects the
corresponding image on a projection screen. It uses a lens system for this projection.

35
Advantage
1. They can be connected to a computer, CD or DVD player.
2. They can produce not only images but also sound.
Disadvantage
1. It is very expensive
Classification of monitors

1. Classification of monitors on the basis of color

a. Monochrome Monitor
These monitors display the result in two colors, i.e., black/white, green/black,
amber/black. One color is for the background of the screen and other for the foreground.

b. Gray Scale Monitor

It is a monochrome type of monitor. But it displays the output by using different
shades of gray, made by a combination of black and white.

c. Color Monitor
It can display the output in many colors, ranging from 16 to over 1 million different
colors. These are also called as RGB monitors.
2. Classification of monitors on the basis of size
After color classification, the most important aspect of a monitor is its screen size. The
smallest size for VGA monitors is 14 inches. Other typical monitor sizes are 17 inches, 20
inches, 23 inches etc.
3.Classification of monitors on the basis of Resolution
The resolution of a monitor means the number of pixels per inch appearing on its surface.
The greater the number of pixels the sharper is the images.
4.Classification of monitors on the basis of signal
Analog Monitor
These are the traditional type of color monitors and are based on CRT technology.
These work like the television screen and accept analog signals.
Digital Monitor
An electronic signal that is sent as binary digits of either ON or OFF is called a
Digital signal
2.Printers
Printer is the most important output device, which is used to print information on
paper.
There are two types of printers
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers
1.Impact Printers
The printers that print the characters by striking against the ribbon and onto the paper
are called impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers
 Very low consumable costs
 Impact printers are very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

36
  There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types
1. Character printers
2. Line printers

1.Character Printers:
Character Printers are printers which print one character at a time.
These are of further two types
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market one of the most popular printer is Dot Matrix Printer because of
their ease of printing features and economical price. Each character printed is in form
of pattern of Dot’s and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9)
which comes out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

2.Line Printers
Line printers are printers which print one line at a time.
These are of further two types
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it called drum printer. The surface of
drum is divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e for a
paper width of 132 characters, Drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is
embossed on track.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer chain of character sets are used so it called Chain Printers. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
 Disadvantages
 Noisy
 Do not have the ability to print any shape of characters.

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2. Non-impact Printers
The printers that print the characters without striking against the ribbon and onto the paper,
are called Non-impact Printers. These printers print a complete page at a time, also called as
Page Printers.
These printers are of two types
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
Laser Printers
 These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produces the dots needed
to form the characters to be printed on a page.
Advantages
 Very high speed.
 Very high quality output.
 Give good graphics quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
Disadvantage
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.

Plotter
A plotter is a large printer that generates high-quality documents by moving ink pens
over the surface of a page. A device that draws pictures on paper based on commands from a
computer. Plotters differ from printers in that they draw lines using a pen.
Advantages

1. It can print on large printers.

2. High quality printing
Disadvantage
1. Plotters are more expensive than printers.
Types of Plotters
Drum Plotter
The drum which rotates the paper as pens moves across it and draw the image. It is
mainly used for engineering drawings.

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Flatbed plotters
The paper remains on a flat surface while pen moves across it horizontally and
vertically. It is mainly used for CAD programs.
Cutter plotter
It uses knives to cut the material as per the image in the computer. It is used in paper
crafts and card making.

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 Unit – IV
Storage Devices: System Memory – RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
Secondary Memory: Magnetic tape, Hard disk, Floppy disk, CD, DVD, Blue Ray Disc,
Pen drive.
Storage Devices
In computing, storage device is a hardware which can store data and files. In the
storage devices, information or data can be stored temporarily or permanently. Generally
there are two type of Storage Devices exist -Primary Storage devices and Secondary storage
device. These Storage devices can be internal or external for computing devices. 

PrimaryStorage
 Also known as main memory.
 Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a
memory bus.
 The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required.
Example:
1. RAM
2. ROM
3. Cache
1.RAM
 It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be accessed
just as fast as any of the other data.
 It is a very fast solid state storage medium that is directly accessible by the CPU.
 Any open programs or files on a computer are temporarily stored in RAM whilst
being used.
 RAM is a relatively expensive storage device and typical capacities are measured in
Gigabytes (GB).
 There are two types of RAM:
1.DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
2.SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
1.DRAM (pronounced DEE-RAM), is widely used as a computer’s main memory.
Each DRAM memory cell is made up of a transistor and a capacitor within an
integrated circuit, and a data bit is stored in the capacitor. Since transistors always
leak a small amount, the capacitors will slowly discharge, causing information stored
in it to drain; hence, DRAM has to be refreshed (given a new electronic charge) every
few milliseconds to retain data.
2. SRAM (pronounced ES-RAM) is made up of four to six transistors. It keeps data in
the memory as long as power is supplied to the system unlike DRAM, which has to be
refreshed periodically. As such, SRAM is faster but also more expensive, making
DRAM the more prevalent memory in computer systems.
Difference Between Static RAM and Dynamic RAm

Static RAM Dynamic RAM

1.Faster 1.Slower
2.More expensive 2.Less expensive
3.More power consumption 3.Less power consumption needs to be
does not need to be refreshed refreshed thousands of times per
second

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2.ROM
 This memory is used as the computer begins to bootup and nonvolatile memory.
 Small programs called firmware are often stored in ROM chips on hardware
devices(like a BIOSchip),and they contain instructions the computer can use in
performing some of the most basic operations required to operate hardware devices.
 ROM memory cannot be easily or quickly overwritten or modified.

Difference between RAM and ROM

 ROM can hold data permanently and RAM cannot. 
ROM chip is a non-volatile and RAM chip is volatile in nature.
Types of ROM : 
 PROM : 
Short for programmable read-only memory, a memory chip on which data can be
written only once. Once a program has been written onto a PROM, it remains there forever.
Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is turned off. The difference
between a PROM and a ROM (read-only memory) is that a PROM is manufactured as blank
memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To write data
onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner.
The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM. 
EPROM : 
Acronym for erasable programmable read-only memory, and pronounced ee-prom,
EPROM is a special type of memory that retains its contents until it is exposed to ultraviolet
light. The ultraviolet light clears its contents, making it possible to reprogram the memory.
To write to and erase an EPROM, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or
PROM burner. 
EEPROM :
 Short form of electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. EEPROM is a
special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Like other
types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off. Also like
other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM. 

2.Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower
than main memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly
does not access these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents
of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. 
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating
speed is slower than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on
permanent basis and transferred to the primary storage as and when required. 

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 Main secoundry memory are:
i. Magnetic Disk
ii. Floppy Disk
iii. Hard Disk
iv. Optical Disks
Magnetic Disk
The Magnetic Disk is Flat, circular platter with metallic coating that is rotated beneath
read/write heads. It is a Random access device; read/write head can be moved to any location
on the platter. Magnetic disk is a direct access secondary storage device. It is a thin plastic or
metallic circular plate coated with magnetic oxide and encased in a protective cover. Data is
stored on magnetic disks as magnetized spots. The presence of a magnetic spot represents the
bit 1 and its absence represents the bit 0.

The working of magnetic disk

The surface of disk is divided into concentric circles known as tracks. The outermost
track is numbered 0 and the innermost track is the last track. Tracks are further divided into
sectors. A sector is a pie slice that cuts across all tracks. The data on disk is stored in sector.
Sector is the smallest unit that can be read or written on a disk. A disk has eight or more
sectors per track (Magnetic disk is inserted into a magnetic disk drive for access. The drive
consists of a read/write head that is attached to a disk arm, which moves the head. The disk
arm can move inward and outward on the disk. During reading or writing to disk, the motor
of disk drive moves the disk at high speed (60–150 times/sec.)
Accessing data on the disk requires the following—
 The read/write head is positioned to the desired track where the data is to be
read from or written to. The time taken to move the read/write head to the
desired track is called the seek time.
 Once the read/write head is at the right track, then the head waits for right
sector to come under it (disk is moving at high speed). The time taken for
desired sector of the track to come under read/write head is called the latency
time.
 Once the read/write head is positioned at the right track and sector, the data
has to be written to disk or read from disk. The rate at which data is written to
disk or read from disk is called data transfer rate.
 The sum of seek time, latency time and time for data transfer is the access
time of the disk.
 The storage capacity of disk drive is measured in gigabytes (GB).
 Magnetic disk is inserted into a magnetic disk drive for access.
 The drive consists of a read/write head that is attached to a disk arm, which
moves the head. The disk arm can move inward and outward on the disk.
 During reading or writing to disk, the motor of disk drive moves the disk at
high speed (60–150 times/sec.)

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Floppy Disk 
Floppy disk (FD) is a flat, round, single disk made of Mylar plastic and enclosed in
square plastic jacket
 Floppy Disk Drive (FDD) is the disk drive for floppy disk.
 The floppy disk is inserted into the floppy disk drive to read or write data to it.
 Floppy disk has a write-protect slide tab that prevents a user from writing to it.
 A floppy disk may be single-sided or double-sided disk, i.e., data can be read and
written on one and both sides of floppy disk, respectively.
 They are portable. They can be removed from the disk drive, carried or stored
separately.
 They are small and inexpensive.
 Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disk. They have less storage capacity and
are less expensive than hard disk.
 They come in two basic sizes—5-¼ inch and 3-½ inch.
 The 5-¼ inch disk came around 1987. It can store 360 KB to 1.2 MB of data.
 The 3-½ inch disk has capacity of 400 KB to 1.44 MB. It usually contains 40 tracks
and 18 sectors per track and can store 512 bytes per sector.

Hard Disk 
A hard disk (HD) consists of one or more platters divided into concentric tracks and
sectors. It is mounted on a central spindle, like a stack. It can be read by a read/write head
that pivots across the rotating disks. The data is stored on the platters covered with magnetic
coating.

 Hard disk is a fixed disk. The disk is not removable from the drive, unlike floppy
disk.
 The hard disk and Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a single unit.
 Hard disk can store much more data than floppy disk. The data in hard disk are
packed more closely (because fast spinning uses smaller magnetic charges) and they
have multiple platters, with data being stored on both sides of each platter. Large
capacity hard disks may have 12 or more platters.

43
  Unlike floppy disk, the read/write head of hard disk does not touch the disk during
accessing.
 Hard disk can spin at the speed of up to 10,000 revolutions per minute and have an
access time of 9—14 ms. It stores 512 bytes per sector but the number of sectors are
more per track (54 or more) than floppy disk.
 Nowadays, hard disks are available that can store up to 500 GB of data. Generally,
PCs come with 160 GB hard disk.
 Hard disk is the key secondary storage device of computer. The operating system is
stored on the hard disk. The performance of computer like speed of computer boot up,
loading of programs to primary memory, loading of large files like images,
video,audio etc., is also dependent on the hard disk.
 Nowadays, portable external hard disk drive is available which can be attached to the
 USB drive of the computer. They come in the storage capacities of 80 GB to 500 GB.

Optical Disks 
Optical Mass Storage Devices Store bit values as variations in light reflection. They
have higher area density & longer data life than magnetic storage. They are also Standardized
and relatively inexpensive. Their Uses: read-only storage with low performance
requirements, applications with high capacity requirements & where portability in a
standardized format is needed

Types of Optical Disk

1. CD-Drive
2. DVD(Digital Video Disk)-Drive
CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to
read and write data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less
than a dollar. CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you
can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it with you.
There are three types of CDs −
 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are
recorded by the manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on
CD-ROMs.
 CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the
CD-R. It cannot be deleted or modified later.
 CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these
optical disks again and again.

44
DVD Drive
 DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15
times the data held by CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that
need high storage capacity. DVDs also come in three varieties – read only, recordable
and rewritable.

Blue Ray Disk

Blue Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD)
video and other multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to
CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in
more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.

Pen Drive
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic
fields or lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is
nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.

45
3.Cache Memory
To reduce the processing time, certain computers use costlier and higher speed
memory devices to form a buffer or cache. This technique uses a small memory with
extremely fast access speed close to the processing speed of the CPU. This memory is called
cache and it stores data and instructions currently required for processing. Cache memory
thus makes main memory appear much faster and larger than it really is. It improves the
memory transfer rates and thus raises the effective processor speed. 
The CPU searches cache before it searches main memory for data and instructions.
Cache is physically located close to the CPU and hence access to cache is faster than to any
other memory. 
Advantages of Cache Memory :
1. Cache memory is faster than main memory.
2. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
3. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
4. It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages of Cache Memory :
1. It is very expensive.
2. Cache memory has limited capacity.

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 Unit – V
Computer Networks: Types of Networks: LAN, MAN, WAN – Network
Topologies: Bus, Ring, Star, Tree, Mesh – Network Architecture: Peer to Peer, Client
Server.
Computer Network:
A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers that are able to
exchange information. The computers may be connected via any data communication link,
like copper wires, optical fibers, communication satellites, or radio links. The computers
connected to the network may be personal computers or large main frames. The computers in
a network may be located in a room, building, city, country, or anywhere in the world.
Network Types
Computer network is broadly classified into three types
1) Local Area Network (LAN)
2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3) Wide Area Network (WAN)
The different network types are distinguished from each other based on the following
characteristics:
 Size of the network - refers to the area over which the network is spread
 Transmission Technology - refers to the transmission media used to connect
computers on the network and the transmission
protocols used for connecting
 Networking Topology - refers to the arrangement of computers on the
network or the shape of the network.
The following subsections discuss the three types of networks and their
characteristics.
Local Area Network
LAN is a computer network widely used for local communication. LAN connects
computers in a small area like a room, building, office or a campus spread up to a few
kilometers. They are privately owned networks, with a purpose to share resources and to
exchange information.

The computers in a LAN are generally connected using cables. LAN is different from
other types of network since they share the network. The different computers connected to a
LAN take turns to send data packets over the cables connecting them. This requires
coordination of the use of the network. Some of the transmission protocols used in LAN are
Ethernet, Token bus, and FDDI ring. Star, Bus, and Ring are some of the common LAN
networking topologies. LAN runs at a speed of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps and has low delays. A
LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology is called Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN).

47
Metropolitan Area Network
MAN is a computer network spread over a city. Cable television network is an
example of MAN.The computers in a MAN are connected using coaxial cables or fiber optic
cables. MAN also connects several LAN spread over a city.

Wide Area Network

WAN is a network that connects computers over long distances like cities, countries,
continents, or worldwide WAN uses public, leased, or private communication links to spread
over long distances. WAN uses telephone lines, satellite link, and radio link to connect. The
need to be able to connect any number of computers at any number of sites, results in WAN
technologies to be different from the LAN technologies. WAN network must be able to grow
itself. Internet is a common example of WAN.

Network topologies
Network topologies outline how devices are connected together and how data is
transmitted from one node to another.
A logical network topology is a visual representation of how devices are connected
and a physical topology details how devices are physically connected.
Network topology can be presented as a map that allows an administrator to see
the physical layout of connected devices. Having the map of a network’s topology on hand
is very useful for understanding how devices connect to each other and the best techniques
for troubleshooting.
There are many different types of topologies that modern enterprise networks are built
on. Established network topologies include 
1. Bus topology
2. Ring topology
3. Star topology
4. Mesh topology
5. Hybrid topology.

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1.Bus Topology:

Bus topology is a type of network where every device is connected to a single cable
which runs from one end of the network to the other. This type of type of topology is often
referred to as line topology. In a bus topology, data is transmitted in one direction only. If the
bus topology has two endpoints then it is referred to as a linear bus topology. Organizations
using this type of topology will generally use an RJ45 cable to link devices together.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
2.Ring Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each
device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to
prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

49
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3.Star Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the
hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
4.Mesh Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology,
They are :
1. Routing
2. Flooding

50
1.Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like
routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing
logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We can
even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
2.Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads
to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected
to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
5.Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
2. Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.

51
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
Computer Network Architecture
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the
software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that
how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:
1. Peer-To-Peer network
2. Client/Server network
1.Peer-To-Peer network
 Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
 Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
 Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
 Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources,
but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

 It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
 If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
 It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
 In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system .
Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in different locations.
 It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
2.Client/Server Network
 Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer
known as Server.
 The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.
 A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
 A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.

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  All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate
its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

 A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back
up the data easily.
 A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
 Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources.
 It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources to the
clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.

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