MINI – PROJECT

ON
“SOAP TABLET”
Submitted to

Dr. A.P.J ABDUL KALAM Technical University, Lucknow U.P.

(SESSION 2021-2022)

For the partial fulfillment of Degree in

Masters of Business Administration
Department of Management Studies

R.S.D. ACADEMY (COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT & TECHNOLOGY),

MORADABAD
(Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University Lucknow)

Project Guide: Project Head:

Dr. Mayank Sharma Dr. Vinod Kumar
(Director)

Project Incharge: Submitted by:

Mr. Mukul Saxena ANMOL POKHRIYAL
( Course Co-ordinator ) MBA: 2 Semester
Roll No. :- 2004100700005
 CONTENT

 Acknowledgement
 Executive Summary
 INTRODUCTION
 IMPORTANCE OF SOAP TABLETS
 FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS OF SOAP TABLETS
 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SOAP TABLETS
 CONCLUSION
 LIMITATIONS
 DISADVANTAGES
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of a number of people without whose

help this mini project could not be completed.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr. Vinod Kumar and Dr. (Mrs.) G.

Kumar (Chair Persons) R.S.D. Academy.

I have been assisted by project in-charge Mr. Mukul Saxena who deserves special
thanks for his valuable boost and co-operation by which I could see my efforts of
making the project.

I express my profound sense of gratitude to my project guide Mr./Ms.(Dr.

Mayank Sharma) for giving encouragement in taking up the project.

I am also thankful to all my faculties for motivating and librarian for making
available to me the important books in the library and the necessary guidance for
this project.

At last but not least, I express my thanks to my parents, who provided me support
throughout this project. They have been a perennial source of inspiration for me.

I am too small so thank GOD for anything and everything.

Anmol Pokhriyal
2004100700005
 Executive summary
The object of my invention is to provide means whereby workmen and others
whose hands are exposed to grease or grime may be supplied with individual
tablets of cleansing material such, for example, as compositions containing
soap, bran, sawdust, oatmeal, linseed meal, and other materials capable of
being combined with soap in dry form and of expanding immediately when
wet to disintegrate the tablet and make all portions thereof available for
immediate use.

Heretofore attempts have been made to provide cakes of soap containing

quantities of sawdust, bran, or similar materials combined in such a manner
that the soap cakes could be used` as ordinary cakes of soap are used, portions
of the material being washed from the exterior surface of the cake or rubbed
away by contact with the hands or with a wet cloth. The cake of soap was
successively used, however, and therefore, became soiled or impregnate with
grease and grime, and in some cases became-a vehicle for the transmission of
disease. It was also found that vegetable or organic material such as sawdust,
bran, etc. is subject to rapid decay under such conditions and quickly becomes a
much more active agent in the transmission of disease than the ingredients of
ordinary soap or of soap containing mineral abrasive g materials such as
powdered pumice stone.
 INTRODUCTION
My invention relates to improvements in grease removing detergents, and
processes of manufacturing the same.

The object of my invention is to provide means whereby workmen and others

whose hands are exposed to grease or grime may be supplied with individual
tablets of cleansing material such, for example, as compositions containing
soap, bran, sawdust, oatmeal, linseed meal, and other materials capable of
being combined with soap in dry form and of expanding immediately when
wet to disintegrate the tablet and make all portions there of available for
immediate use.

Heretofore attempts have been made to provide cakes of soap containing

quantities of sawdust, bran, or similar materials combined in such a manner
that the soap cakes could be used` as ordinary cakes of soap are used, portions
of the material being washed from the exterior surface of the cake or rubbed
away by contact with the hands or with a wet cloth. The cake of soap was
successively used, however, and therefore, became soiled or impregnate with
grease and grime, and in some cases became-a vehicle for the transmission of
disease. It was also found that vegetable or organic material such as sawdust,
bran, etc. is subject to rapid decay under such conditions and quickly becomes a
much more active agent in the transmission of disease than the ingredients of
ordinary soap or of soap containing mineral abrasive g materials such as
powdered pumice stone.
For the above reasons, the use of organic materials in cakes of soap has
been largely abandoned although it -has been continued in liquid and semi-
liquid soaps into which the workmen dip their fingers preparatory to washing
their hands. or during the washing process. These liquid and semi-liquid
soaps are also objectionable because the organic material interferes with the
discharge of the liquid through a `nozzle and where the ordinary practice is
followed of dipping the lingers into the l1qu1d or paste, fouling of the contents
of the is inevitable and decay of the organic material occurs. They 'use of such
soaps has been continued, however, for the reason that -the fouling is neither so
manifest as it is were solid cases. of soap are used and for the further reason
that quantities of the organic detergent are made immediately effective,
whereas in a cake of soap, they tend to adhere to the cake, leaving only the
dissolved soap upon the hands.
IMPORTANCE OF SOAP TABLETS
Soap and detergent, substances that, when dissolved in water,
possess the ability to remove dirt from surfaces such as the
human skin, textiles, and other solids. The seemingly simple
process of cleaning a soiled surface is, in fact, complex and
consists of the following physical-chemical steps:

Wetting of the surface and, in the case of textiles, penetration of

the fibre structure by wash liquor containing the detergent.
Detergents (and other surface-active agents) increase the
spreading and wetting ability of water by reducing its surface
tension—that is, the affinity its molecules have for each other in
preference to the molecules of the material to be washed.
Absorption of a layer of the soap or detergent at the interfaces
between the water and the surface to be washed and between the
water and the soil. In the case of ionic surface-active agents
(explained below), the layer formed is ionic (electrically polar) in
nature.

Dispersion of soil from the fibre or other material into the wash
water. This step is facilitated by mechanical agitation and high
temperature; in the case of hand soap, soil is dispersed in the
foam formed by mechanical action of the hands.

Preventing the soil from being deposited again onto the

surface cleaned. The soap or detergent accomplishes this by
suspending the dirt in a protective colloid, sometimes with the
aid of special additives. In a great many soiled surfaces, the dirt
is bound to the surface by a thin film of oil or grease. The
cleaning of such surfaces involves the displacement of this film
by the detergent solution, which is in turn washed away by rinse
waters. The oil film breaks up and separates into individual
droplets under the influence of the detergent solution.
Proteinic stains, such as egg, milk, and blood, are difficult to
remove by detergent action alone. The proteinic stain is non
soluble in water, adheres strongly to the fibre, and prevents the
penetration of the detergent. By using proteolytic enzymes
(enzymes able to break down proteins) together with detergents,
the proteinic substance can be made water-soluble or at least
water-permeable, permitting the detergent to act and the proteinic
stain to be dispersed together with the oily dirt. The enzymes
may present a toxic hazard to some persons
habitually exposed.

If detached oil droplets and dirt particles did not become

suspended in the detergent solution in a stable and highly
dispersed condition, they would be inclined to flocculate, or
coalesce into aggregates large enough to be redeposited on the
cleansed surface. In the washing of fabrics and similar materials,
small oil droplets or fine, deflocculated dirt particles are more
easily carried through interstices in the material than are relatively
large ones. The action of the detergent in maintaining the dirt in a
highly dispersed condition is therefore important in preventing
retention of detached dirt by the fabric.

To perform as detergents (surface-active agents), soaps and

detergents must have certain chemical structures: their

molecules must contain a hydrophobic (water-insoluble)

part, such as a fatty acid or a rather long chain carbon group,

such as fatty alcohols or alkyl benzene. The molecule must also

contain a hydrophilic (water-soluble) group, such as ―COONa,

or a sulfa group, such as ―OSO3Na or ―SO3Na (such as in fatty

alcohol sulphate or alky or a long ethylene oxide chain in non-

ionic synthetic detergents.

This hydrophilic part makes the molecule soluble in water. In

general, the hydrophobic part of the molecule attaches itself to the

solid or fibre and onto the soil, and the hydrophilic part

attaches itself to the water.

The first detergent (or surface-active agent) was soap. In a

strictly chemical sense, any compound formed by the reaction

of a water-insoluble fatty acid with an organic base, or an alkali

metal may be called a soap. Practically, however, the soap

industry is concerned mainly with those water-soluble soaps that

result from the interaction between fatty acids and alkali metals.

In certain cases, however, the salts of fatty acids with

ammonia or with triethanol amine are also used, as in shaving

preparations.
 FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS OF SOAP TABLETS

Pure Water / Bottled Water Business Plan in Nigeria2020/05/29·

3. Feasibility Study Sample Pure water/ bottled water business
plan and which can be used for loan applications, grant
opportunities and competitions. 4.Equipment/Machines you
needed for pure water production. feasibility studies on soap
processing FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT ON
SOAP MAKING (PRODUCTION) Content ..............Suitable
staffing is assured by the availability of many ex-bauxite
personnel accustomed to chemical processing in the plant.

Laundry Soap Production in Nigeria; The Feasibility Report

Soap making business is lucrative and offers reliable and constant

revenue for businessmen and women who are producing and those
marketing soap wholesale or retail. Considering the
estimated national population of 165 million and per capita
consumption of 30 tablets, the national demand for soap is
estimated at 4,950 million tablets per. Soap Making / Production
Business Plan in Nigeria .2019/12/01· Soap Making / Production
Business Plan in Nigeria Feasibility Studies Soap business is a
very lucrative business. This is because soap, no matter
the type is a necessity. Daily, people make use of a variety How
to Write a Good Feasibility Report with Format2020/03/23·
Feasibility Report is a detailed study that examines the
profitability, feasibility, and effectiveness of a proposed
investment opportunity. The report, no matter how elaborate,
should be prepared before one undertakes any business or
Technological process

PROFITABLE SMALL SCALE MANUFACTURE OF

SOAPS & DETERGENTS SOAP INDUSTRIES RAW
MATERIALS Beginning Soaps Raw Materials Builders Perfumes
Optical Brighteners.

Special Soaps Ingredients SOAPSPre-Feasibility StudyPre-

Feasibility Study (Seed Oil Extraction Unit) Small and Medium
Enterprises Development Authority Ministry of Industries &
Production Government of Pakistan HEAD OFFICE 4th Floor,
Building No. 3, Aiwan – e SOAP INDUSTRY - AN
OVERVIEW soap making were known to the ancient
Egyptians, Chinese and Indians. It is very F- interesting to note
that in India, people were using some seeds of plants as soap.
During the second century, soap was manufactured the
soap ...A FEASIBILITY REPORT ON LIQUID SOAP
PRODUCTION2019/05/14· A FEASIBILITY REPORT ON
LIQUID SOAP PRODUCTION May 13, 2019, 0 136 Share on
Facebook Tweet on Twitter Post Views: 726 CHAPTER ONE 1.0
INTRODUCTION It is an established fact that Banking
industry ...
Bathing Soap Production in Nigeria; The Feasibility
Report ...2017/10/02· This report seeks to examine the financial
viability or otherwise of establishing a toilet soap production plant
in Lagos, Nigeria. The production capacity of the proposed plant
is 100 kg of 125 g tablets of toilet per hour and comprises of the
mixer, plodders/extruders, and soap stamper. feasibilityreport on
soap production - BINQ MiningFeasibility report on soap making
- The Q&A wiki Example of soap making feasibility?

University of Nigeria2.1 Project Feasibility Analysis Flow

Chart 24A 5.1 Distribution Channel 5.2 Recommended
inventory Control Card 5.3 Kettle for Soap Making 5.4 batch
Reactor for Soap -Making 5.5 Production Flow Chart 5.6 b.
7FINAL-Business-Feasibility- 2.docx - 1 CHAPTER I ...View
FINAL-Business-Feasibility-2.docx from CBA 1111 at
University of Nueva Caceres - Bataan. 1 CHAPTER I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY A. Name of the Product Kamias Soap
The kamias skin soap is made of Feasibility Study of Production
Quarry in Nigeria feasibility report study on soap making in
nigeria Sample of Feasibility Report on Soap Making - tivlabs.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SOAP TABLETS

Soap has been known for at least 2,300 years. According to Pliny
the Elder, the Phoenicians prepared it from goat’s tallow and
wood ashes in 600 BCE and sometimes used it as an article of
barter with the Gauls. Soap was widely known in the Roman
Empire; whether the Romans learned its use and manufacture
from ancient Mediterranean peoples or from the Celts,
inhabitants of Britannia, is not known. The Celts, who produced
their soap from animal fats and plant ashes, named the product
saipo, from which the word soap is derived. The
importance of soap for washing and cleaning was apparently not
recognized until the 2nd century CE; the Greek physician
Galen mentions it as a medicament and as a means of
cleansing the body. Previously soap had been used as medicine.
The writings attributed to the 8th-century Arab savant
JābiribnHayyān (Geber) repeatedly mention soap as a cleansing
agent.

In Europe, soap production in the Middle Ages centred first at

Marseille, later at Genoa, and then at Venice. Although some soap
manufacture developed in Germany, the substance was so little
used in central Europe that a box of soap presented to the Duchess
of Juelich in 1549 caused a sensation. As late as 1672, when a
German, A. Leo, sent Lady von Schleinitz a parcel containing
soap from Italy, he accompanied it with a detailed description of
how to use the mysterious product.

The first English soapmakers appeared at the end of the 12th

century in Bristol. In the 13th and 14th centuries, a small
community of them grew up in the neighbourhood of Cheapside
in London. In those days soapmakers had to pay a duty on all the
soap they produced. After the Napoleonic Wars this tax rose as
high as three pence per pound; soap-boiling pans were fitted with
lids that could be locked every night by the tax collector to
prevent production under cover of darkness. Not until 1853 was
this high tax finally abolished, at a sacrifice to the state of over
£1,000,000. Soap came into such common use in the 19th
century that Justus von Liebig, a German chemist, declared
that the quantity of soap consumed by a nation was an accurate
measure of its wealth and civilization.

Early Soap Production

Early soapmakers probably used ashes and animal fats.

Simple wood or plant ashes containing potassium carbonate
were dispersed in water, and fat was added to the solution. This
mixture was then boiled; ashes were added again and again as
the water evaporated. During this process a slow chemical
splitting of the neutral fat took place; the fatty acids could then
react with the alkali carbonates of the plant ash to form soap
(this reaction is called saponification).

Animal fats containing a percentage of free fatty acids were used

by the Celts. The presence of free fatty acids certainly helped to
get the process started. This method probably prevailed until the
end of the Middle Ages, when slaked lime came to be used to
causticize the alkali carbonate. Through this process, chemically
neutral fats could be saponified easily with the caustic lye. The
production of soap from a handicraft to an industry was
helped by the introduction of the Leblanc process to produce
soda ash from brine (about 1790) and by the work of a French
chemist, Michel Eugène Chevreul, who in 1823 showed that the
process of saponification is the chemical process of splitting fat
into the alkali salt of fatty acids (that is, soap) and glycerin.

Like taking random showers while you’re out on the road. Wow,
that’s weird, dude. In case you’ve got a good reason for it
(“Mmmm…the fountain looks irresistible”), you may want to
stock up on Soap Tablets, small, round slices of bath cleanser that
you can slip inside the tiniest pockets.

Measuring 12mm in diameter, each bite-sized tablet is designed

for single use, making it a neater alternative to rewrapping a wet,
clammy bar of soap after cleaning up. Of course, if you’re larger
than Butterbean (or dirtier than a pig who rolled in mud for a
week), you may need two (or more) of these little fellows to cover
your entire body, so adjust accordingly.

The Soap Tablet comes in three variants: Original, Rose and

Citrus, each one identifiable by their colors, which are blue, pink,
and yellow, respectively. It literally looks like a piece of
medicine, so careful not to mistake it with your pain reliever, lest
you want to add stomach ache to your list of ailments. Not just
for fans of random baths, it should prove an excellent addition to
your outdoor hygiene pack too, for those few times you decide to
shed the suit and slum it out with mother nature.

The method of producing soap by boiling with open steam,

introduced at the end of the 19th century, was another step toward
industrialization.

Soap and detergent

QUICK FACTS

KEY PEOPLE

William Cooper Procter

William Hesketh Lever, 1st Viscount Leverhulme

Michel-EugèneChevreul
RELATED TOPICS

Cosmetic

Hand sanitizer

Industry

Detergent

Hygiene

Hydrolyzer process

Laundry soap

Saponification

Salting out

Semiboiled method

Early synthetic detergents

If turkey-red oil—i.e., sulfated castor oil, still used in textile and leather
industries today—is considered the first synthetic detergent, the industry began
during the 19th century.

The first synthetic detergents for general use, however, were produced by the
Germans in the World War I period so that available fats could be utilized
for other purposes. These detergents were chemicals of the short-chain
alkylnaphthalene - sulfonate type, made by coupling propyl or butyl alcohols
with naphthalene and subsequent sulfonation, and appeared under the name of
Nekal. These products were only fair detergents but good wetting agents
and are still being produced in large quantities for use in the textile industry.
In the late 1920s and early ’30s, molecules consisting of long-
chain alcohols were sulfonated and sold as the neutralized
sodium salts without any further additions except for sodium
sulfate as an extender. In the early ’30s molecules consisting
of long-chain alkylaryl sulfonates (with benzene as the aromatic
nucleus and the alkyl portion made from a kerosene fraction)
appeared on the market in the United States. Again, these were
available as the sodium salts extended with sodium sulfates.
Both the alcohol sulfates and the alkylaryl sulfonates were sold
as cleaning materials but did not make any appreciable
impression on the total market. By the end of World War II, the
alkylaryl sulfonates had almost completely swamped the sales of
alcohol sulfates for the limited uses to which they were applied
as general cleaning materials, but the alcohol sulfates were making
big inroads into the shampoo and fine detergent fields.

Historically, synthetic detergents began as mainly a substitute

for fat-based soap but developed into a sophisticated product,
superior in many respects to soap.

Soap forms a scum or precipitate in hard water, leaving a ring

around the bathtub, a whitish residue on glassware, and a sticky
curd in the rinse water of the laundry tub. Not so easily
perceived is the relation of this hard-water scum to a dull,
lustreless condition of hair after shampooing, yellow spots on
laundry after ironing, and a heavy usage of soap in the
household. All these effects point to a serious defect of soaps,
namely, their reaction with the calcium and other metal salts
present in hard water to give a precipitate that constitutes the
hardness of the water. Soaps also react with traces of acidic
compounds to form a precipitate.
On the other hand, the synthetic detergents generally are
unaffected or very little affected by metal salts or acids; although
they may react chemically with them, the resulting compounds
are either soluble or remain dispersed in colloidal form in
the solution. Other useful properties of the synthetics, such as
solubility in cold water and flexibility in formulation,
also contributed to their rapid replacement of soap products.

Soap Manufacturing Processes and Products

Hot caustic alkali solution, such as caustic soda (sodium

hydroxide), acts on natural fats or oils, such as tallow or vegetable
oil, to produce sodium fatty acid salt (soap) and glycerin (or
glycerol). This saponification reaction is the basis for all
soapmaking. If industrially produced fatty acids are used in place
of natural fats or oils, the reaction with caustic soda yields soap
and water instead of soap and glycerin.
Raw materials and Additives

The major raw materials for soap manufacture are fat and alkali.
Other substances, such as optical brighteners, water softeners,
and abrasives, are often added to obtain specific
characteristics.

Alkali

Sodium hydroxide is employed as the saponification alkali for

most soap now produced. Soap may also be manufactured with
potassium hydroxide (caustic potash) as the alkali. Potassium
soaps are more soluble in water than sodium soaps; in
concentrated form, they are called soft soap. Although soft soaps
are declining in importance, potassium soap is still produced in
various liquid concentrations for use in combination with sodium
soaps in shaving products and in the textile industry.

Certain alkaline materials (builders) are almost universally

present in laundry soaps, functioning to increase detergency.
The most important are sodium silicate (water glass), sodium
carbonate (soda ash), sodium perborate, and various phosphates.

Fats And Oils

Fatty raw materials for soap manufacture include animal and

vegetable oils and fats or fatty acids, as well as by-products of
the cellulose and paper industry, such as rosin and tall oil. Four
groups of these raw materials can be distinguished according to
the properties of the soap products they yield:

Hard fats yielding slow-lathering soaps include tallow, garbage

greases, hydrogenated high - melting-point marine and vegetable
oils, and palm oil. These fats yield soaps that produce
little lather in cold water, more in warm water; are mild on the
skin; and cleanse well. This is the leading group of fats used in
the international soap industry, with tallow the most
important member.

Hard fats yielding quick-lathering soaps include coconut oil, palm-

kernel oil, and babassu oil. (Palm-kernel oil is extracted from the
kernel of the fruit of the oil palm, whereas palm oil, listed above
in 1, is expressed from the pericarp or outer fleshy portion of the
fruit.) These fats are not very sensitive to electrolytes, such as salt;
thus, they are suitable for manufacture of marine soap, which
must lather in seawater. This is the second most important group
of soap fats, with coconut oil the most used.

Oils yielding soaps of soft consistency, such as olive oil, soybean

oil, and groundnut (peanut) oil, are most important here, and
linseed and whale oils also belong to the group, as do some
semidrying or drying oils. Because these oils readily undergo
changes in air or light or during storage, soaps made from them
may become rancid and discoloured.

Rosin and tall oil (a resinous by-product of the manufacture of

chemical wood pulp) form a group in themselves. Rosin is used in
laundry soap, less expensive bath soaps, and specialty soaps in
various industries. Tall oil is mainly used in liquid soap.

Optical Brighteners

Now an integral part of all washing powders, optical brighteners

are dyestuffs absorbed by textile fibres from solution but not
subsequently removed in rinsing. They convert invisible
ultraviolet light into visible light on the blue side of the spectrum,
causing the fibre to reflect a greater proportion of visible light and
making it appear brighter. Furthermore, since the tone of the extra
light reflected is on the blue side of the spectrum, this blue-
violet tinge will complement any yellowishness present on the
fibre to make it look whiter as well as brighter.
The chemical structures of optical brightening agents are
complicated; many formulas are trade secrets.

Although the action of optical brighteners resembles old-style

laundry blueing in some ways, the two methods must not be
confused. In the old method, a blue dye or pigment is adsorbed
onto the fibre; this blue tends to absorb yellow light falling on
it, reflecting light richer in blue. With blueing, however, the
fabric absorbs some of the light falling on it and hence reflects
less light than it receives. Thus, the fabric looks whiter, not
brighter.

Sequestering Or Chelating Agents

EDTA (ethylene diaminetetra acetic acid) or its sodium salt has

the property of combining with certain metal ions to form a
molecular complex that locks up or chelates the calcium ion
so that it no longer exhibits ionic properties. In hard water,
calcium and magnesium ions are thus inactivated, and the water
is effectively softened. EDTA can form similar complexes
with other metallic ions.

Soap Production Processes

Several techniques are employed in making soap, most of which

involve heat. Processes can be either continuous or on a batch
basis.

Boiling Process

Still widely used by small and medium-sized producers is the

classical boiling process. Its object is to produce neat soap in
purified condition, free from glycerin. Neat soap is the
starting material for making bars, flakes, beads, and
powders. The boiling process is conducted in a series of steps
called changes; these occur in the kettle (called the pan in Great
Britain).

In the first step, melted fats are placed in the kettle, and
caustic soda solution is added gradually. The whole mass is
then boiled with open steam from perforated coils within the
kettle. The saponification reaction now takes place; the mass
gradually thickens or emulsifies as the caustic soda reacts with the
fat to produce both soap and glycerin.

To separate the glycerin from the soap, the pasty boiling mass is
treated with brine. Contents of the kettle salt out, or separate, into
an upper layer that is a curdy mass of impure soap and a lower
layer that consists of an aqueous salt solution with the glycerin
dissolved in it. Thus, the basis of glycerin removal is the
solubility of glycerin and the insolubility of soap in salt
solution. The slightly alkaline salt solution, termed spent lye, is
extracted from the bottom of the pan or kettle, and subsequently
treated for glycerin recovery.

The grainy, curdy mass of soap remaining in the kettle after the
spent lye has been removed contains any unsaponified fat (usually
traces that escaped reaction during saponification) plus
dirt and colouring matter present in the original oils. During
the next step, called strong change, strong caustic solution is
added to the mass, which is then boiled to remove the last
of the free fat.

The final stage, called pitching and settling, transforms the mass
into neat soap and removes dirt and colouring matter. After the
strong change, the soap may be given one or more
saltwater washes to remove free alkali, or it may be pitched
directly. Pitching involves boiling the mass with added water
until a concentration is attained that causes the kettle
contents to separate into two layers. The upper layer is neat
soap, sometimes called kettle soap, of almost constant
composition for a given fat (about 70 percent soap, 30 percent

water); the lower, called nigre, varies in soap content from 15

percent to 40 percent. Since colouring matter, dirt, salt, alkali, and
metal soaps are soluble in nigre but relatively insoluble
in neat soap, and since most of the impurities are dense and
tend to settle, the nigre layer takes these from the neat soap.

The boiling process is very time consuming; settling takes days.

To produce soap in quantity, huge kettles must be used. For this
reason, continuous soapmaking has largely replaced the old
boiling process. Most continuous processes today employ fatty
acids in the saponification reaction in preference to natural fats
and oils. These acids do not contain impurities and as explained
at the beginning of this section, produce water instead of glycerin
when they react with alkali. Hence, it is not necessary to remove
impurities or glycerin from soap produced with fatty acids.
Furthermore, control of the entire process is easier and more
precise. The fatty acids are proportionally fed into the
saponification system either by flowmeter or by metering pump;
final adjustment of the mixture is usually made by use of a pH
meter (to test acidity and alkalinity) and conductivity-measuring
instruments.

The continuous hydrolyzer process begins with natural fat that

is split into fatty acids and glycerin by means of water at high
temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst, zinc soap.
The splitting reaction is carried on continuously, usually in a
vertical column 50 feet (15 metres) or more in height. Molten fat
and water are introduced continuously into opposite ends of the
column; fatty acids and glycerin are simultaneously withdrawn.
Next, the fatty acids are distilled under vacuum to effect
purification. They are then neutralized with an alkali solution
such as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) to yield neat soap. In
bath- soap manufacture, a surplus of free fatty acid, often in
combination with such super fatting agents as olive oil or
coconut oil, is left or added at the final stage so that there is no
danger of too much alkali in the final product. The entire
hydrolyzer process, from natural fat to final marketable product,
requires a few hours, as compared with the 4 to 11 days necessary
for the old boiling process. The by-product glycerin is purified
and concentrated as the fatty acid is being produced.

Cold and Semiboiled Methods

In the cold method, a fat and oil mixture, often containing a high
percentage of coconut or palm-kernel oil, is mixed with the alkali
solution. Slightly less alkali is used than theoretically required to
leave a small amount of unsaponified fat or oil as a superfatting
agent in the finished soap. The mass is mixed and agitated in an
open pan until it begins to thicken. Then it is poured into frames
and left there to saponify and solidify.

In the semiboiled method, the fat is placed in the kettle and alkali
solution is added while the mixture is stirred and heated but not
boiled. The mass saponifies in the kettle and is poured
from there into frames, where it solidifies. Because these methods
are technically simple and because they require very little
investment for machinery, they are ideal for small factories.

Finishing Operations

Finishing operations transform the hot mass coming from the

boiling pan or from continuous production equipment into the
product desired. For laundry soap, the soap mass is cooled
in frames or cooling presses, cut to size, and stamped. If soap
flakes, usually transparent and very thin, are to be the final
product, the soap mass is extruded into ribbons, dried, and cut to

size. For bath or hand soap, the mass is treated with perfumes,
colours, or superfatting agents, is vacuum dried, then is cooled
and solidified. The dried solidified soap is homogenized (often
by milling or crushing) in stages to produce various degrees of
fineness. Air can be introduced under pressure into the warm
soap mass as it leaves the vacuum drier to produce a floating
soap. Medicated soaps are usually bath soaps with special
additives—chlorinated phenol, xylenol derivatives, and similar
compounds—added to give a deodorant and disinfectant effect.
As mentioned above, shaving creams are based on potassium and
sodium soap combinations.

Finishing Operations

Finishing operations transform the hot mass coming from the

boiling pan or from continuous production equipment into the
product desired. For laundry soap, the soap mass is cooled
in frames or cooling presses, cut to size, and stamped. If soap
flakes, usually transparent and very thin, are to be the final
product, the soap mass is extruded into ribbons, dried, and cut to
size. For bath or hand soap, the mass is treated with perfumes,
colours, or superfatting agents, is vacuum dried, then is cooled
and solidified. The dried solidified soap is homogenized (often
by milling or crushing) in stages to produce various degrees of
fineness. Air can be introduced under pressure into the warm
soap mass as it leaves the vacuum drier to produce a floating
soap. Medicated soaps are usually bath soaps with special
additives—chlorinated phenol, xylenol derivatives, and similar
compounds—added to give a deodorant and disinfectant effect.
As mentioned above, shaving creams are based on potassium and
sodium soap combinations.

Soon after World War II, another raw material, alkylbenzene,

became available in huge quantities. Today it is the most
important raw material for synthetic detergent production;
about 50 percent of all synthetic detergents produced in the United
States and western Europe are based on it. The alkyl molecular
group has in the past usually been C12H24 (tetrapropylene)
obtained from the petrochemical gas propylene. This molecular
group is attached to benzene by a reaction called alkylation,
with various catalysts, to form the
alkylbenzene. By sulfonation, alkylbenzenesulfonate is
produced; marketed in powder and liquid form, it has excellent
detergent and cleaning properties and produces high foam.
Processes

The organic compounds (fatty alcohols or alkylbenzene) are

transformed into anionic surface-active detergents by the
process called sulfonation. Sulfation is the chemically exact
term when a fatty alcohol is used and sulfonation when
alkylbenzene is used. The difference between them is that the
detergent produced from a fatty alcohol has a sulfate molecular
group (―OSO3Na) attached and the detergent produced from
an alkylbenzene has a sulfonate group (―SO3Na) attached
directly to the benzene ring. Both products are similarly
hydrophilic (attracted to water).
 CONCLUSION

A process for the manufacture of soap tablets incorporating minor

amounts of alkaline earth metal alkyl aryl sulphonates, in which
process the tablets are superfatted by the addition to a soap base of
a minor amount of free alkyl aryl sullphonic acid, is disclosed.
Preferably, the alkaline earth metal alkyl aryl sulphonates are
formed in situ in a soap base by the addition to the soap base of
an anhydrous alkaline earth metal oxide-sulphonic acid slurry,
the tablets being formed subsequently from the soap base.
 LIMITATIONS
1. Soap doesn't work well in the hard water as they form scum
instead of lather.
2. This scum sticks to the cloth and makes washing difficult,
sometimes the colour of the fabric also fades away.

3. They are not suitable for some fabric likes silk, wool as the alkalis spoils
the fibre.
 ADVANTAGES

Bar soaps are cost effective. You can buy many bar soaps
in just the equal amount that you need to buy only one
bottle of liquid soap.

Bar soaps prevent wastage. It is easier to know the exact amount

of soap required for washing when using bar soap than when you
use liquid soap. You always tend to take more liquid soap from
its dispenser as it is tough to make the right guess.

Bar soaps are more environmentally friendly cleaning products

as they don't use plastic for packaging. They are packed in
either paper or cardboard that are biodegradable materials. Also,
when taking shower, you need lesser water to wash off the lather
produced by bar soaps as compared to that of liquid soap.

Because of the continued popularity of bar soaps, you can find

a wider range of products available in the market from normal
soaps to especially made soaps for various skin types and even
medicated soaps, natural and handmade soaps. Such a variety is
still not visible for liquid soap selection.
 DISADVANTAGES

Bar soaps tend to harvest germs and bacteria on its wet

surface. However, studies have proved that although bacteria
levels on previously used bar soaps are a little higher than on
unused soaps, there have been no detectable levels of bacteria left
on the skin's surface after using the soap. Other research has
proved that there is only a very little number of bacteria that can
be further minimized if a bar soap is not shared among many
people.
A bar soap turns slimy or mushy in standing water that leads to a mess as well as
to wastage.

Most of the bar soaps are made with laboratory-generated

chemicals and detergents, especially the mass-produced products.
However, that is also the case with liquid soaps.

Many bar soaps have a higher pH level than liquid soaps. Such bar
soaps can be more drying to the skin. However, with increasing
demand, many moisturizing soaps with glycerin, oils and other
moisturizing agents can be easily found in the market.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• AEL: Lane, E.W. 1863-1872. An Arabic-English
Lexicon.Vols.i-v. Edinburgh: Williams and Norgate. Reprint
1980 in 8 Vols. Beirut: Librairie du Liban.

• DUL: delOlmoLete, G. and J. Sanmartín. 2003. A

Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic
Tradition. 2 Vols. Trans. W.G.E Watson. Leiden-Boston: Brill.

• CCP: Frahm, E., Jiménez, E., Frazer, M., and K.

Wagensonner. 2013-. Cuneiform Commentaries Project

• HALOT: Koehler, L., Baumgartner, W. Richardson, M.E.J.

and J.J. Stamm. 1994-2000. Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the
Old Testament. 5 Vols. Leiden: Brill.