https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/46388704_Automated_data_captur
e_technologies_-_RFID

Descriptive Questions

Q2 10 marks each

1
Illustrate the working of Schematic of RFID tag with a neat diagram

What is RFID

RFID, short for Radio Frequency IDentification, is a technology that enables

identification of a tag (that is normally attached with an entity) by using
electromagnetic waves. The function served by RFID is similar to bar code
identification, but line of sight signals are not required for operation of RFID.
Important components of an RFID system are:

i.An RFID reader (also called transceiver) with an antenna and a transceiver,

ii.A transponder (Also called a tag) that includes an antenna and a chip)
RFID Building Blocks:
Tags: A tag is the data carrier and normally contains the ID number, and unique EPC
code programmed into the Tag

Tag Antenna: The tag antenna is connected to the chip in tag. It could be wire or
printed using conductive ink.

Reader Antenna: It is a coil included in plastic or similar case, and normally

measures 12 -18 inches square
Reader: A reader captures the data provided by the tag within the detectable area
of the Reader. There can be one or more tags within the capture area. A reader is
typically capable of reading multiple tags simultaneously.

Savant: This is normally a middleware that interacts with the readers, and
communicate with External databases.

RFID Block Schematic:

A simplified block schematic of an RFID tag (also called transponder) is shown in the
diagram below. Various components of the tag are as shown. Normally, the antenna
is external to the tag chip, and large in size.

The operation of the RFID tag is described below:

Handshaking with the Reader (interrogator):

i. The reader continuously emits RF carrier signals, and keeps observing the
received RF signals for data.
ii. The presence of a tag (for our discussion, we consider only passive tag)
modulates the rf field, and the same is detected by the reader.
iii. The passive tag absorbs a small portion of the energy emitted by the reader,
and starts sending modulated information when sufficient energy is acquired
from the rf field generated by the reader. Note that the data modulation
 (modulation for 0s and 1s) is accomplished by either direct modulation or FSK
or Phase modulation.
iv. The reader demodulates the signals received from the tag antenna, and
decodes the same for further processing.

2
With a neat diagram briefly describe the Scene analysis and proximity method of
localization technique.

Proximity Method
Proximity method [6] can detect object entering a certain area at low cost. The
method is also considered as a robust method to track object against
electromagnetic noise, especially indoors. An interesting or tracking object will be
located once a base station can sense signal from such object which means it has
been in an area covered by such base station. Therefore, we can locate object
proximately, illustrated in figure1 (a). However, proximity method cannot estimate
exact coordination of any objects but the area the objects locate in. Vision & Media
Computing Lab. of Nara institute [7] is a sample of tracking systems using proximity
method by using IR sensors, RF tags, and etc.
(an object is in the circle area but cannot know the exact coordination)(fig content)

Scene Analysis Method

The second method of location tracking system is called scene analysis [6]. As
name, we need to analysis real area in order to measure signal strength of an object
at all coordination of such area and store the data into a database. Once the system
tracks any objects, the signal strength received from such object will be compared
with ones in the database in order to find n nearest coordination and use them to
estimate location of the tracking object. The number of coordination depends upon
a size of area and a size of grid (the smaller size of grid we take, the higher accuracy
we get). This becomes a hard work, especially in a large area and a small size of
grid. However, because the signal is measured on real site, the location estimation
by scene analysis has high accuracy shown in figure1 (b). An example of project
using this method is Microsoft Lab’s RADAR Location System [8, 9].

(Estimated location calculated from 4 nearest coordination)(fig content)

3
Write short notes on Apache Storm

What is Apache Storm?

Apache Storm is a distributed real-time big data-processing system. Storm is
designed to process vast amount of data in a fault-tolerant and horizontal scalable
method. It is a streaming data framework that has the capability of highest
ingestion rates. Though Storm is stateless, it manages distributed environment and
cluster state via Apache ZooKeeper. It is simple and you can execute all kinds of
manipulations on real-time data in parallel.
Apache Storm is continuing to be a leader in real-time data analytics. Storm is easy
to setup, operate and it guarantees that every message will be processed through
the topology at least once.
Apache Storm Benefits
Here is a list of the benefits that Apache Storm offers −
● Storm is open source, robust, and user friendly. It could be utilized in small
companies as well as large corporations.
● Storm is fault tolerant, flexible, reliable, and supports any programming
language.
● Allows real-time stream processing.
● Storm is unbelievably fast because it has enormous power of processing the
data.
● Storm can keep up the performance even under increasing load by adding
resources linearly. It is highly scalable.
● Storm performs data refresh and end-to-end delivery response in seconds or
minutes depends upon the problem. It has very low latency.
Architecture
Apache Storm has the cluster with some specific components, each component
works with some functions together assists “The Apache Storm: Architecture”.
There are two types of nodes that are present in architecture:
Master node(Nimbus)
The Master node comprises nimbus, nimbus acts as a daemon for the master node.
Worker node(Supervisor)
The Worker node comprises of a supervisor, the supervisor acts as a daemon for
the worker node.

Components of Apache Storm

Tuple: Tuple is the main data structure in Storm. It is a list of ordered elements. By
default, a Tuple supports all data types
Stream: Stream is an unordered sequence of tuples.
Spouts: Source of stream. Generally, Storm accepts input data from raw data
sources like Twitter Streaming API. Otherwise you can write spouts to read data
from data sources.
Bolts: Bolts are logical processing units. Spouts pass data to bolts and bolts process
and produce a new output stream. Bolts can perform the operations of filtering,
aggregation, joining, interacting with data sources and databases.

Example :
Let’s take a real-time example of “Twitter Analysis” and see how it can be modelled
in Apache Storm. The following diagram depicts the structure.

The input for the “Twitter Analysis” comes from Twitter Streaming API. Spout will
read the tweets of the users using Twitter Streaming API and output as a stream of
tuples. A single tuple from the spout will have a twitter username and a single
tweet as comma separated values. Then, this steam of tuples will be forwarded to
the Bolt and the Bolt will split the tweet into individual word, calculate the word
count, and persist the information to a configured datasource. Now, we can easily
get the result by querying the datasource.
4 Illustrate how Energy-efficiency in MAC protocols is maintained. Highlight preamble
sampling protocol.
5
Illustrate the working of RFID middleware architecture. Give its importance
RFID middleware
The middleware refers broadly to software or devices that connect RFID readers
and the data they collect, to enterprise information systems. RFID middleware helps
making sense of RFID tag reads, applies filtering, formatting and logic to tag data
captured by a reader, and provides this processed data to back-end applications

Importance:
RFID middleware serves in managing the flow of data between tag readers and
enterprise applications, and is responsible for the quality, and therefore usability of
the information. It provides readers connectivity, context-based filtering and
routing, and enterprise / B2B integration.All of these middleware designs aim at
providing a scalable solution for gathering, filtering, and providing clean RFID data
to the end-user.
When designing a RFID middleware solution, the following issues need to be
considered:

1. Multiple hardware support: The middleware must provide a common

interface to access different kinds of hardware offering different features.
2. Synchronization and scheduling: There should be intelligent scheduling and
synchronization among all the processes of the middleware.
3. Real-time handling of incoming data from the RFID readers: The middleware
should handle the huge amount of data captured by the connected readers in
real time without read misses.
4. Scalability: The middleware design must allow easy integration of new
hardware and data processing features.

RFID middleware components

RFID middleware is generally composed of four major layers:

● Reader Interface
● Data Processor and Storage
● Application Interface
● Middleware Management

Architecture:
RFID middleware has four layers of functionality: reader API, data management,
security, and integration management.

RFID middleware has four layers of functionality: reader API, data management,
security, and integration manage-ment. The reader API provides the upper layer of
the interface interacting with the reader. Mean-while, it supports exible
interaction patterns (e.g., asynchronous subscription) and an active “context-ware”
strategy to sense the reader. The data management layer mainly deals with ltering
redundant data, aggregating duplicate data, and routing data to appropriate
destination based on the content. The integration layer provides data connectivity
to legacy data source and supporting systems at different integration levels and
thus can be further divided into three sub-layers as specied in Leaver (2005):
application integra-tion, partner integration, and process integration. The
application integration provides varieties of reliable connection mechanisms (e.g.,
messaging, adaptor, or the driver) that connect the RFID data with existing
enterprise systems such as ERP or WMS. The partner integration enables the RFID
middleware to share the RFID data with other RFID systems via other system
communication components (e.g., the Data Exchange Broker in Figure 3). The
process integration provides capability to orchestrate the RFID-enabled business
process. The security layer obtains input data from the data management layer,
 and detects data tampering which might occur either in the tag by a wicked RFID
reader during the transportation or in the backend internal database by malicious
attacks. The overall architecture of RFID middle-ware and its related information
systems in an organization are depicted in Figure 3.The backend DB component
stores the com-plete record of RFID items. It maintains the detailed item
information as well as tag data, which has to be coherent with those read from
the RFID.the data-tampering sources where malicious attacks might occur to
change the nature of RFID item data by circumventing the protection of an
organization’s rewall. The WMS integrates mechanical and human activities with an
information system to effectively manage warehouse business processes and direct
ware-house activities. The WMS automates receiving, put-away, picking, and
shipping in warehouses, and prompts workers to do inventory cycle counts. The
RFID middleware employs the integration layer to allow real-time data transfer
towards the WMS. The data exchange broker is employed in this architecture to
share, query, and update the public data structure and schema of RFID tag data by
exchanging XML documents. Any update of the data structure will be reected and
propagate to all involved RFID data items stored in the backend database. From
the standardization view.It enables users to exchange RFID-related data with
trading partners through the Internet. From the implementation angle, it might be
a virtual Web services consumer and provider running as peers in the distributed
logistics network

6
Classify the tag classes with a neat table and explain the capabilities of each tag.

RFID tags can be classified using three schemes.

1. First, the tags can be classified based on their ability to perform radio
communication active, semi-active (semi-passive), and passive tags.
2. Second, the tags can be classified based upon their memory read-only,
read-write or write-once, and read-many.
3. Finally, the tags can also be classified based on the frequency in which they
operateLF, HF or UHF
4.
Active vs. Semi-Active (or Semi-Passive) vs. Passive RFID tags(Category 1)
Active Tags
have a battery that provides necessary energy to the microchip for trans-mitting a
radio signal to the reader. These tags generate the RF energy and apply it to the
antennae and transmit to the reader instead of reacting back a signal from the
reader (Lyngsoe, n.d.). These batteries need to be recharged or replaced once they
are discharged. Some tags have to be disposed off when the batteries run out of
power These tags have a read range of several 100 meters

Semi-Active Tags (or semi-passive or bat-tery-assisted)

also contain a battery, which is used to run the circuitry on the microchip, however
it still relies on the reader’s mag-netic eld to transmit the radio signal (i.e.,
information). These tags have a larger range because all the energy supplied by the
reader can be reflected back to the reader These tags have a read range up to 100
meters and may cost a dollar or more

Passive Tags
completely rely on the energy provided by the reader’s magnetic eld to transmit
the radio signal to and from the reader. It does not have a battery. As a result,
the read range varies depending upon the reader used (Lyngsoe, n.d.). A
maximum distance of 15 meters (or 50 feet) can be achieved with a strong
reader antennae and RF-friendly environment

Read-Write vs. Read-Only RFID Tags•

Read-only tags:
The reader can only read data stored on such tags. The data cannot be modied in
any manner
Write-once read-many (WORM):
The owner of the tag can program the data by writing the content on the tag. Data
stored on this tag can be written only once, however it can be read many times
Read-write tags:
Data stored on such tags can be easily edited when the tag is within the range of
the reader. Such tags are more expensive and are not often used for com-modity
tracking. These tags are reusable; hence they can be reused within an organization

LF vs. HF vs. UHF vs. Microwave Frequency RFID Tags

Low Frequency (LF)
In LF range, RFID tags operate at 125 kHz or 134.2 kHz frequency
 Tags in this range are not affected by me-tallic surroundings and hence are ideal for
identifying metal objects like vehicles, tools, containers, and metallic equipments

High Frequency (HF)

In the HF range, RFID tags operate at 13.56 MHz
HF tags can penetrate through most materials including water and body tissues,
however they are affected by metal surroundings

Ultra High Frequency (UHF)

In the UHF range, RFID tags operate at 433 MHz,Multiple tags can be read
simultaneously, for example, at least 200 tags

7
With a neat diagram. briefly highlight the RFID Middleware and its Components.
RFID middleware components
RFID middleware is generally composed of four major layers:

● Reader Interface
● Data Processor and Storage
● Application Interface
● Middleware Management

RFID middleware components

 Reader interface
The reader interface is the lowest layer of the RFID middleware which handles the
interaction with the RFID hardware. It maintains the device drivers of all the devices
supported by the system, and manages all the hardware related parameters like
reader protocol, air interface, and host-side communication.

Data processor and storage

The data processor and storage layer is responsible for processing and storing the
raw data coming from the readers.

Application interface
The application interface provides the application with an API to access,
communicate, and configure the RFID middleware.

Middleware management
The middleware management layer helps managing the configuration of the RFID
middleware, and provides the following capabilities:

Add, configure, and modify connected RFID readers;

Modify application level parameters such as filters, and duplicate removal timing
window; Add and remove services supported by the RFID middleware.

8 Categorize reader driven anti-collision algorithms with brief explanations of each

category.
9
Compare the Apache Spark and Apache storm frameworks with neat diagrams
and highlight the difference between the two frameworks
11. Apache Spark Supports lesser languages like Java, Scala.
Apache Storm supports multiple languages, such as Scala, Java, Clojure.
12. One major key difference between the frameworks Spark and Storm is that
Spark performs Data-Parallel computations, whereas Storm occupies Task-Parallel
computations.

Apache Spark Architecture

Apache Storm Architecture

10
List the features of CoAP and explain the different messaging modes of CoAP.

What Is CoAP Protocol?

● As said before, CoAP is an IoT protocol. CoAP stands for Constrained
Application Protocol, and it is defined in RFC 7252.
● CoAP is a simple protocol with low overhead specifically designed for
constrained devices (such as microcontrollers) and constrained networks.
● This protocol is used in M2M data exchange and is very similar to HTTP, even
if there are important differences that we will cover laters.
● Similarly like HTTP COAP provides commands like GET, PUT, POST, DELETE.
● It mainly works on 2 modules : Request Response Module and Messaging
Module.
● Request Response module manages communication channel while
Messaging module manages duplication and reliability of message in
communication.
● Similar to http COAP is also a web transfer protocol and follows a request
response module.

The main features of CoAP protocols are:

● Web protocol used in M2M with constrained requirements

● Asynchronous message exchange
● Low overhead and very simple to parse
● URI and content-type support
 ● Proxy and caching capabilities
● Works on UDP by default with optional support on reliability and also has
unicast and multicast request
● COAP works with HTTP to provide basic support with web. In this way proxies
can be used to access COAP resources via HTTP in a uniform way

COAP has 4 types of messaging nodes:

1. Confirmable
2. Non-Confirmable
3. Piggyback
4. Separate

1. Confirmable
● This type of message defines reliable communication and message
passing
● For each connection message acknowledgement is received making
sure that the message at the receivers end
2. Non -Confirmable
● This type of node provides unreliable communication as there are no
ACK on message passing hence reception is not assured
● So this kind of message is used when the loss of packets or message is
sustainable

3. Piggyback
● This mechanism is advance confirmable messages and is used in
request response model.
● When a query or request is sent to server in a client server
communication server sends the response to the query within the
acknowledgement message itself.
● The Acknowledgement message itself contains the response as well
4. Separate
● In this the ACK message and the response message are sent separately.
● When a query/request is sent to the server in client server communication
On reception of connection message server sends the ACK first making sure
Request is received and ACK is sent first the response to the query is sent
after the acknowledgement message.
● Response might be delayed by the server.
11 Discuss in detail the design and working of Mobile IP (MIP) - IETF
communication protocol - IEEE 802.11 - along with its issues.(done)
12
Explain the need of MIP along with its working.

Why do we need Mobile IP?

Mobile Internetworking Protocol (Mobile IP) is an advanced version of

Internetworking Protocol (IP). IP addresses were designed for the stationary host
that always remains attached to one specific network.

The prefix of the IP address identifies the network to which the host belongs. The
suffix of the IP address identifies the particular host in the corresponding network.

What if the host moved to another network?

Its IP address would no longer be valid and the host would not be able to
communicate with any remote host.
Thus, we need to modify the structure of the IP address. The two proposed
solutions to modify IP address are:

Changing the IP address each time the host enters a new network. This attempt was
not as successful as it has several drawbacks. Every time the computer enters a new
network it has to reboot. We have to keep revising the DNS table to let every host
on the internet have knowledge about changes. Each time we have to change the
configuration files. If the host moves to another network in-between the
transmission of data, the data exchange would be interrupted.

This solution is more feasible here, a host will have two addresses:

1. An original address which would identify the host in the home network.
2. A temporary address (care-of address) that would identify the host in the
foreign network. The care-of address will keep on changing whenever the
host will move to a new network.

The second solution contributes to the design of Mobile IP. It allows a host to move
to another network by maintaining its original IP address and still is able to
communicate with the remote hosts over the internet.
What is MIP?

Mobile IP or MIP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 2002, De-Facto
standard communication protocol. It is created by extending Internet Protocol, IP.

The Mobile IP allows mobile device users to move from one network to another
while maintaining the same permanent IP address.

The architecture of Mobile IP Technology

The components of the Mobile IP and the relationship among them are specified in
the following image:

This is the architecture of Mobile IP technology. It consists of the following

components:

Mobile Node
The Mobile Node is a device or a user or a router that can frequently change their
network positions without changing its original IP address.
Care of Address
The Care of Address or COA is used to define the mobile node's current position or
user.
Corresponding Node
The partner nodes which are used for communication with mobile nodes are called
corresponding nodes.
Foreign Network
Any network other than the home network or the networks on which mobile nodes
have a registered IP is called a foreign network.
Home Network
The home network is the base station network to which the mobile node originally
belongs to.

Working of Mobile IP

1. Agent Discovery

During the agent discovery phase the HA and FA advertise their services on the
network by using the ICMP router discovery protocol (IROP).

Mobile IP defines two methods: agent advertisement and agent solicitation which
are in fact router discovery methods plus extensions.

● Agent advertisement: For the first method, FA and HA advertise their

presence periodically using special agent advertisement messages. These
messages advertisement can be seen as a beacon broadcast into the subnet.
For this advertisement internet control message protocol (ICMP) messages
according to RFC 1256, are used with some mobility extensions.
● Agent solicitation: If no agent advertisements are present or the inter arrival
time is too high, and an MN has not received a COA, the mobile node must
send agent solicitations. These solicitations are again bases on RFC 1256 for
router solicitations.

2. Registration

The main purpose of the registration is to inform the home agent of the current
location for correct forwarding of packets.
Registration can be done in two ways depending on the location of the COA.

● If the COA is at the FA, the MN sends its registration request containing the
COA to the FA which is forwarding the request to the HA. The HA now set up
a mobility binding containing the mobile node's home IP address and the
current COA.

Additionally, the mobility biding contains the lifetime of the registration which is
negotiated during the registration process. Registration expires automatically after
the lifetime and is deleted; so a mobile node should register before expiration.
After setting up the mobility binding, the HA send a reply message back to the FA
which forwards it to the MN.

● If the COA is co-located, registration can be very simpler. The mobile node
may send the request directly to the HA and vice versa. This by the way is
also the registration procedure for MNs returning to their home network.

3. Tunneling

A tunnel is used to establish a virtual pipe for data packets between a tunnel entry
and a tunnel endpoint. Packets which are entering in a tunnel are forwarded inside
 the tunnel and leave the tunnel unchanged. Tunneling, i.e., sending a packet
through a tunnel is achieved with the help of encapsulation.

Tunneling is also known as "port forwarding" is the transmission and data intended
for use only within a private, usually corporate network through a public network.

13
What do you mean by Resource in the REST framework? What are the tools used
for creating RESTful web services?

Restful Web Services is a lightweight, maintainable, and scalable service that is

built on the REST architecture. Restful Web Service, expose API from your
application in a secure, uniform, stateless manner to the calling client.

What do you mean by Resource:

Resources – The first key element is the resource itself. Let assume that a web
application on a server has records of several employees. Let’s assume the URL of
the web application is http://demo.guru99.com. Now in order to access an
employee record resource via REST services, one can issue the command

Restful Methods

Let’s assume that we have a RESTful web service is defined at the location.
http://demo.guru99.com/employee . When the client makes any request to this
web service, it can specify any of the normal HTTP verbs of GET, POST, DELETE and
PUT. Below is what would happen If the respective verbs were sent by the client.
1. POST – This would be used to create a new employee using the RESTful web
service
2. GET – This would be used to get a list of all employee using the RESTful web
service
3. PUT – This would be used to update all employee using the RESTful web
service
4. DELETE – This would be used to delete all employee using the RESTful
services

RESTFul Principles and Constraints

RESTFul Client-Server
This is the most fundamental requirement of a REST based architecture. It means
that the server will have a RESTful web service which would provide the required
functionality to the client.

2. Stateless
The concept of stateless means that it’s up to the client to ensure that all the
required information is provided to the server. This is required so that server can
process the response appropriately. The server should not maintain any sort of
information between requests from the client
3. Cache

The Cache concept is to help with the problem of stateless which was described in
the last point. Since each server client request is independent in nature, sometimes
the client might ask the server for the same request again. This is even though it
had already asked for it in the past. This request will go to the server, and the server
will give a response. This increases the traffic across the network. The cache is a
concept implemented on the client to store requests which have already been sent
to the server. So if the same request is given by the client, instead of going to the
server, it would go to the cache and get the required information. This saves the
amount of to and fro network traffic from the client to the server.
4. Layered System
The concept of a layered system is that any additional layer such as a middleware
layer can be inserted between the client and the actual server hosting the RESTFul
web service (The middleware layer is where all the business logic is created.

Tools & Technologies used to develop REST Web Service

JAX-RS - Set of annotations and interfaces provided by Java.
 Jersey - Implementation of the JAX-WS.
Eclipse - Integrated Development Environment (Editor)
Maven - Generating project structure and build tool.
Apache Tomcat - Used for deploying the application.

14
Explain the working of Network layer handoff in MIP and discuss the working of
passive and active scanning in the same.

Handoff management is the process by which a mobile node keeps its connection
active when it moves from one access point to another. There are three stages in a
handoff process. First, the initiation of handoff is triggered by either the mobile
device, or a network agent, or the changing network conditions. The second stage is
for a new connection generation, where the network must find new resources for
the handoff connection and perform any additional routing operations. Finally,
data-flow control needs to maintain the delivery of the data from the old
connection path to the new connection path according to the agreed-upon QoS
guarantees. Depending on the movement of the mobile device, it may undergo
various types of handoff. In a broad sense, handoffs may be of two types: (i)
intra-system handoff (horizontal handoff) and (ii) inter-system handoff (vertical
handoff). Handoffs in homogeneous networks are referred to as intra-system
handoffs. This type of handoff occurs when the signal strength of the serving BS
goes below a certain threshold value. An inter-system handoff between
heterogeneous networks may arise in the following scenarios (Mohanty, 2006) - (i)
when a user moves out of the serving network and enters an overlying network, (ii)
when a user connected to a network chooses to handoff to an underlying or
overlaid network for his/her service requirements, (iii) when the overall load on the
network is required to be distributed among different systems.

The design of handoff management techniques in all-IP based next-generation

wireless networks must address the following issues: (i) signaling overhead and
power requirement for processing handoff messages should be minimized, (ii) QoS
guarantees must be made, (iii) network resources should be efficiently used, and
(iv) the handoff mechanism should be scalable, reliable and robust.
Mobile IP protocol has three steps: (i) agent discovery, (ii) registration, and (iii)
routing and tunneling.

Agent discovery: An MN is able to detect whether it has moved into a new subnet
by two methods – agent advertisement and agent solicitation. In the agent
advertisement method, FAs and HAs advertise their presence periodically using
agent advertisement messages. These advertisement messages can be seen as
beacon broadcasts into the subnets. An MN in a subnet can receive agent
advertisements. If no agent advertisement messages are found or the inter-arrival
time is too high, the MN may send agent solicitations. After the step of agent
advertisement or solicitation, the MN receives a CoA. The CoA may be either an FA
or a co-located CoA (Perkins, 2008). A co-located CoA is found by using Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) or Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP).

Registration: After the MN receives its CoA, it registers it with the HA. The main
objective of the registration is to inform the HA about the current location of MN.
The registration may be done in two ways depending on the location of the CoA. If
the CoA is the FA, the MN sends its registration request to the FA which in turn
forwards it to the HA. If the CoA is co-located, the MN may send the request
directly to the HA.

Routing and tunneling: When a CN sends an IP packet to the MN, the packet is
intercepted by the HA. The HA encapsulates the packet and tunnels it to the MN’s
CoA. With FA CoA, the encapsulated packet reaches the FA serving the MN. The FA
decapsulates the packet and forwards it to the MN. With co-located CoA, the
encapsulated packets reach the MN, which decapsulates them. In Figure 1, the
tunneling (step b) ends at the MN instead of at the FA.
working of passive and active scanning in the same.

In Passive Scanning, WLAN station moves to each channel as per channel list and
waits for beacon frames. These frames are buffered and are used to decode and
extract information about BSSs.

This passive scanning will save battery power as it does not need to transmit. As
shown in the fig-1 WLAN client receives beacon frames from three access points
and hence it will declare that it has found only three BSSs.

Station plan active role in Active Scanning. On each of the channels. probe request
frames are used to obtain responses from the network of choice. In active scanning
station finds out network rather than waiting for network to announce its
availability to all the stations.
15
Design an IOT based application for an air pollution monitoring system. Draw
block diagram with the required sensors and the IOT platform. Also suggest the
type of communication protocol with the justification.

Components
1) Arduino UNO:- Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the
ATmega328P
2) MQ135 sensor:- The MQ135 sensor can sense NH3, NOx, alcohol, Benzene,
smoke, CO2 and some other gases. It gives the output in form of voltage levels.
3) WIFI Module (ESP8266):- The ESP8266 is a low-cost Wi-Fi chip with full TCP/IP
stack and MCU (microcontroller unit) capability
4) Buzzer:- A Buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device Whenever the air
pollution goes above the threshold level the Buzzer starts beeping indicating
Danger.
5) LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):- This is a basic (16x2) 16 character by 2 line display.
Black text on Green background. It is used to indicate the Air and Humidity in PPM.
Fig. 6 shows LCD (16x2)
6) GSM Module:- GSM Module is used to establish communication between a
computer and a GSM system.
7) LPG Sensor:- MQ-6 sensor is a simple-to-use liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
sensor, suitable for sensing LPG (composed of mostly propane and butane)
concentrations in the air.
8) Temperature Sensor:- The LM35 is precision integrated-circuit temperature
sensor, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade)
temperature.
9) Humidity Sensor:- The humidity sensor is of cap

Also suggest the type of communication protocol with the justification.

Types of communication protocol:
● Bluetooth Low Energy
● WiFi
● ZigBee
● Satellite
● Radio Frequency (RF)
● RFID
● Bluetooth
● NFC

Wifi communication protocol should be used:

Why? Wi-Fi module connects the whole process to internet and LCD is used for the
visual Output
WiFi is a wireless local area network (WLAN) that utilizes the IEEE 802.11 standard
through 2.4GhZ UHF and 5GhZ ISM frequencies. WiFi provides Internet access to
devices that are within the range (about 66 feet from the access point).

Pros and Cons of WiFi

Pros:
● Universal smartphone compatibility
● Affordable
● Well protected and controlled
Cons:
● Relatively high power usage
● Instability and inconsistency of WiFi
16
List the features of CoAP and explain the different messaging modes of CoAP.

https://dzone.com/articles/coap-protocol-step-by-step-guide
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1RztcOXLyiW3BTvfLEpbtVk0h7Yg0AwAJ
MODULE 4(done above)

17
Discuss in detail the design and working of Mobile IP (MIP) - IETF
What is Mobile IP?

Mobile IP or MIP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 2002, De-Facto
standard communication protocol. It is created by extending Internet Protocol, IP.

The Mobile IP allows mobile device users to move from one network to another
while maintaining the same permanent IP address.

The architecture of Mobile IP Technology

The components of the Mobile IP and the relationship among them are specified in
the following image:
This is the architecture of Mobile IP technology. It consists of the following
components:

● Mobile Node (MN)

● Home Agent (HA)
● Foreign Agent (FA)
● Home Network (HN)
● Foreign Network (FN)
● Corresponding Node (CN)
● Care of Address (COA)
Mobile Node
The Mobile Node is a device or a user or a router that can frequently change their
network positions without changing its original IP address.
Care of Address
The Care of Address or COA is used to define the mobile node's current position or
user.
Corresponding Node
The partner nodes which are used for communication with mobile nodes are called
corresponding nodes.
Foreign Network
Any network other than the home network or the networks on which mobile nodes
have a registered IP is called a foreign network.
Home Network
The home network is the base station network to which the mobile node originally
belongs to.

Working of Mobile IP
The working of Mobile IP can be described in 3 phases:
Agent Discovery
In the Agent Discovery phase, the mobile nodes discover their Foreign and Home
Agents. The Home Agent and Foreign Agent advertise their services on the network
using the ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).
Registration
The registration phase is responsible for informing the current location of the home
agent and foreign agent for the correct forwarding of packets.
Tunneling
This phase is used to establish a virtual connection as a pipe for moving the data
packets between a tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint.

communication protocol - IEEE 802.11 - along with its issues.

IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and
specifications of wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio
waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by
WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows −
Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are
connected to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
a. Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 b. Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers,
smartphones, etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of
operation−
c. Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices
through access points.
d. Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer
basis in an ad hoc manner.
Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

Security challenges such as identity theft, international credit card fraud,

communications fraud and corporate fraud are some of the main barriers
preventing wireless technologies from growing and overtakingiii the wired
technology position.

Some common configuration errors include missing or weak encryption (WEP –

with weak initialization vector or weak pre-shared keys), default authentication
credentials to the management stations, devices missing the latest firmware and
security patches and incorrect signal tuning leading to signal leakage, among
others.
This hampers the ability of the enterprise to deal with rogue access points, thereby
increasing the likelihood of man-in-the-middle or denial-of-service attacks.
A lot of these weaknesses can be addressed by a robust wireless device
configuration, strong authentication/access requirements, real-time monitoring and
regular wireless surveys. Use of EAP and 802.1x with the AAA protocol can help
prevent the threat from man-in-the-middle and rogue access points.
18
List the conventional-Measurement algorithms that can be used for localization of
the mobile object. Discuss any 3 techniques in detail.

19
Explain 10 most emerging technologies in IoT

https://www.mhlnews.com/technology-automation/article/22051554/top-10-emer
ging-iot-technologies-you-need-to-know

According to Jones, the top 10 emerging IoT technologies are:

1. IoT Security. Security technologies will be required to protect IoT devices and
platforms from both information attacks and physical tampering, to encrypt their
communications, and to address new challenges such as impersonating "things" or
denial-of-sleep attacks that drain batteries.

2. IoT Analytics. IoT business models will exploit the information collected by
"things" in many ways, which will demand new analytic tools and algorithms. As
data volumes increase over the next five years, the needs of the IoT may diverge
further from traditional analytics

3. IoT Device (Thing) Management. Long-lived nontrivial "things" will require

management and monitoring, including device monitoring, firmware and software
updates, diagnostics, crash analysis and reporting, physical management, and
security management. Tools must be capable of managing and monitoring
thousands and perhaps even millions of devices.

4. Low-Power, Short-Range IoT Networks. Low-power, short-range networks will

dominate wireless IoT connectivity through 2025, far outnumbering connections
using wide-area IoT networks.

5. Low-Power, Wide-Area Networks. Traditional cellular networks don't deliver a

good combination of technical features and operational cost for those IoT
applications that need wide-area coverage combined with relatively low bandwidth,
good battery life, low hardware and operating cost, and high connection density.

6. IoT Processors. The processors and architectures used by IoT devices define
many of their capabilities, such as whether they are capable of strong security and
 encryption, power consumption, whether they are sophisticated enough to support
an operating system, updatable firmware, and embedded device management
agents.

7. IoT Operating Systems. Traditional operating systems such as Windows and iOS
were not designed for IoT applications. They consume too much power, need fast
processors, and in some cases, lack features such as guaranteed real-time response.
They also have too large a memory footprint for small devices and may not support
the chips that IoT developers use. Consequently, a wide range of IoT-specific
operating systems has been developed to suit many different hardware footprints
and feature needs.

8. Event Stream Processing. Some IoT applications will generate extremely high
data rates that must be analyzed in real time. Systems creating tens of thousands of
events per second are common, and millions of events per second can occur in
some situations. To address such requirements, distributed stream computing
platforms have emerged that can process very high-rate data streams and perform
tasks such as real-time analytics and pattern identification.

9. IoT Platforms. IoT platforms bundle many of the infrastructure components of an

IoT system into a single product. The services provided by such platforms fall into
three main categories:

● Low-level device control and operations such as communications, device

monitoring and management, security, and firmware updates;
● IoT data acquisition, transformation and management;

10. IoT Standards and Ecosystems. Standards and their associated application
programming interfaces (APIs) will be essential because IoT devices will need to
interoperate and communicate, and many IoT business models will rely on sharing
data between multiple devices and organizations.

20
Describe in detail about the four common methods for measuring distance
estimation technique with a diagram and its formula.
21
Explain the Types of Wireless Sensor Network?

WSN is a wireless network that consists of base stations and numbers of nodes
(wireless sensors). These networks are used to monitor physical or environmental
conditions like sound, pressure, temperature, and cooperatively pass data through
the network to the main location as shown in the figure.

Types of Wireless Sensor Networks

Depending on the environment, the types of networks are decided so that those
can be deployed underwater, underground, on land, and so on. Different types of
WSNs include:

1. Terrestrial WSNs
2. Underground WSNs
3. Underwater WSNs
4. Multimedia WSNs
5. Mobile WSNs

1. Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks: Terrestrial WSNs are used for

communicating base stations efficiently, and comprise thousands of wireless sensor
nodes deployed either in an unstructured (ad hoc) or structured (Pre-planned)
manner.In WSNs, the battery power is limited, however, the battery is provided
with solar cells as a secondary power source. The conservation of energy of the
WSNs gets by using low duty cycle operations, optimal routing, minimizing delays,
and so on.

2. Underground Wireless Sensor Networks: In terms of deployment, maintenance,

equipment cost considerations, and careful planning, underground wireless sensor
networks are more expensive than terrestrial WSNs.

The Underground Wireless sensor networks UWSNs comprises several sensory

nodes that are hidden in the ground to observe underground conditions.
 Additional sink nodes are located above the bottom to transfer information from
the sensor nodes to the base station, These underground WSNs deployed into the
ground are difficult to recharge.

3. Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks: About more than 70% of the earth’s
planet is occupied with water. These networks contain several sensor nodes and
vehicles deployed underwater. Autonomous underwater devices and vehicles are
used to collect data from these sensor nodes.

A challenge of underwater communication may be a long propagation delay, and

bandwidth and sensor failures. Underwater, WSNs are equipped with a limited
battery that can’t be recharged or replaced.

4. Multimedia Wireless Sensor Networks: Multimedia wireless sensor networks are

proposed to enable tracking and monitoring of events in the sort of multimedia, like
video, imaging, and audio.

These networks contain low-cost sensor nodes equipped with cameras and
microphones. These sensory nodes of Multimedia WSNs are interconnected
together over a wireless connection for data retrieval, data compression, and
correlation.

5. Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks MWSNs: Mobile WSNs networks comprise a

group of sensor nodes that can be moved on their own and can be interacted with
the physical environment. The mobile nodes can also compute sense and
communicate respectively.

Mobile wireless sensor networks are way more versatile than static sensor
networks. The benefits of Mobile WSNs over Static WSNs include better and
improved coverage, superior channel capacity, better energy efficiency, and so on.

22
Explain the working principle of UHF RFID System
How does a UHF RFID System Work?

The RFID reader emits radio waves of specific frequencies through RFID antennas.
The waves "give energy" to the tags so that they can communicate by emitting a
unique ID. They do not need batteries and can be used for many years. The reader
processes the data so that we can integrate them into our application and give
them meaning. The typical reading range is 0-12 meters. Gen2 UHF RFID systems
consist of: readers, antennas, printers, and RFID tags or labels. In this article I will
define with a brief explanation each of the main elements when implementing an
RFID project.

RFID ANTENNAS

RFID Antennas are responsible for emitting and receiving waves that allow us to
detect RFID chips. When an RFID chip crosses the antenna field, it is activated and
emits a signal. The antennas create different wave fields and cover different
distances.
Antenna Type: Circular polarization antennas work best in environments where the
orientation of the tag varies.

Overcast angle and gain: Using antennas with gains of between 8.5-10 dbi or more,
will allow us to emit more power and obtain a higher reading ratio.

Number of Antennas: Standard high-performance readers have 2 ports, 4 ports or 8

ports.

RFID READERS

There are multiple types of readers; Fixed RFID, portable rfid readers, rfid readers
for Smartphone and USB readers. To read a high density of tags or requirements of
100% accuracy in detection, the best fixed RFID readers are: Impinj R420,
ThingMagic M6e, Zebra FX9500.

Reading area: Fixed readers serve mainly to cover a specific area: one point by a
doorway, a machine, on a conveyor belt, in a crate, etc.

Ratio of reading: the emission power and reading capacity requirements are
determined by the number of tags to detect in a specific time.

The type of rfid reader: many times the question is whether to use a fixed reader or
a portable reader.

USB Readers: These readers give excellent results when we need to record or read
very few tags at different points during the manufacturing processes or for
validation of documents in offices. Two clear examples are the Nordic Stix and the
ThingMagic USB Reader.

RFID LABELS AND TAGS

The essential factors are: size, orientation, reading angle, area the are located and
the type of chip.

Size: the size of the chip is a very important factor, for the simple reason that the
more antenna the RFID tag, has the better the sensitivity and the detection
Orientation and reading angle: If we have circular antennas we do not have to
worry about much about orientation.

Integrate Circuit (IC): These are the internal chips of the RFID tag.

Location area: it is very important to take into account where the applied tag will go
so that the rfid solution is successful and meets the necessary reading ranges.

The use of UHF technology spans many markets; including retail, healthcare, life
science, pharmaceutical, anti-counterfeiting, transportation, and manufacturing.

Working principle

UHF tags working is based on the electromagnetic coupling ( far field coupling)

Consider in UHF, the distance between the reader and the tag is few meters so
coupling between the reader and coil will be the far field coupling. RFID reader
continuously sends the waves at a particular frequency towards the tag. In
response, the tag is sending weak signal to RFID reader. This week signal will be
sent back to RFID reader which is known as back scattered signal. The Intensity of
the back scattered signal is depending upon the load matching across the coil. By
changing the condition of load we can change intensity of back scattered signal. If
we can change the condition of data that is stored in RFID tag then data can be
send back to RFID reader. In far field coupling RFID and tag is few so initial stage
signal send by reader should be strong.
23
Explain the impact of RFID Technology in SCM and Logistic Application.

https://www.peerbits.com/blog/rfid-applications-in-supply-chain-management-and
-logistics.html

How do businesses incorporate RFID into the supply chain?

Generally, the supply chain consists of four main processes which are as follows:

Integration

RFID tags allow organizations to capture data for goods in transit and share it with
other supply chain partners effortlessly. That is why RFID is a worthy investment for
businesses that want to expand their reach and clientele.

Operations

RFID scanners help companies easily monitor the movement of goods in

warehouses. Inventory management becomes significantly more efficient since
companies receive real-time information about warehouse activities.

Purchasing

Manufacturing the goods without raw materials is a tough nut to crack. That’s what
makes purchasing essential for the supply chain process. Implementation of RFID
technology into your supply chain management gives you real-time visibility over
semi-finished materials and in-stock raw materials.
Distribution

Imagine that in the severe weather near your suppliers. Have they passed through
the zone of danger, or do you need to come up with a contingency plan?

The word logistics means the coordination and movement of goods from one place
to another.

For transport companies, it’s crucial to control quality, manage budget and achieve
agreed-upon service levels. And good logistics make this possible, whether it’s the
distribution of finished goods to warehouses, supplying raw materials to
manufacturers, or distribution of individual items to consumers.

RFID in supply chain management and logistics

Supply chain management and logistics are considered as the most fertile field as
far as the applications of RFID is concerned.

RFID in the supply chain plays a major role in enhancing the visibility right from the
point of manufacturing, via supply chain, and most significantly from the back room
to the floor, and ultimately to the exit door.

RFID has a major say when it comes to inventory management, warehouse

management, and retail sector. Let’s see in detail about them all.

Inventory management
● Inventory management is an important element of supply chain
management. It includes various aspects like monitoring, administering,
controlling, storing, and ultimately using the materials for the sale of a
product.
● Inaccuracy in inventory management is inevitable and is prevalent in many
industries.
● The inaccuracy is nothing but the mismatch between the inventory records
and the actual amount of product available for the sale.
● RFID technology can provide numerous benefits to improve the inventory
management system. RFID tags have the capability to read through an item.
 ● Moreover, the person can scan several items at a time. These properties of
RFID help to speed up the inventory management process and reduces
human errors thus rendering a high inventory accuracy.

Warehouse management
● Warehouses are simply storage area where you store different products
received from the suppliers. These products are then distributed to the
customers.
● Recently, RFID has emerged as a technology that supports warehouse
management system for simpler supply chain and greater product
intelligibility.
● With RFID technology you can automate important tasks which take place
during receiving and shipping processes.
● RFID also increases efficiency of identification and validation activities along
with reducing human errors.
● RFID ensures identification of products at an instant and greater control over
items in the warehouse.
● Due to this the supply chains now have a greater information flow as
compared to the material flow. This further reduces currency cost.
● Peerbits have developed a solution for warehouse management system using
RFID technology. Click on the below video to see how it works.

Retail sector
● RFID technology has already started to revolutionize the retail sector.
Wal-Mart a behemoth in retail sector is experimenting with the passive RFID
tags of passive types to meet high consumer demand.
● RFID increases the product visibility in the retail inventory that helps in better
inventory control and improved customer satisfaction.
● This is highly relevant in larger stores that have facilities for customers
searching for their chosen products online and the store has the current
stock available for sale.

Secondly, RFID provides enhanced product identification by storing distinctive

identification numbers.
Q3 5 marks each

1 List and explain the RFID applications?

Asset Tracking:
Static or in-motion assets tracking or locating, like a healthcare facility, wheelchairs
or IV pumps in, laptops in a corporation and servers in a data center, was not so easy
task.
People Tracking:
People tracking system are used just as asset tracking system. Hospitals and jails are
most general tracking required places.

Hospital uses RFID tags for tracking their special patients. In emergency patient and
other essential equipment can easily track. It will be mainly very useful in mental
care hospitals where doctors can track each and every activity of the patient.
Document tracking:
This is most common problem. Availability of large amount of data and documents
brings lots of problem in document management system. An RFID document-tracking
system saves time and money by substantially reducing:

● Time spent searching for lost document

Government Library:
Many government libraries use barcode and electromagnetic strips to track various
assets. RFID technology uses for reading these barcodes unlike the self-barcode
reader RFID powered barcode reader can read multiple items simultaneously. This
 reduces queues and increases the number of customers using self-check, which in
turn will reduce the staff necessary at the circulation desks.
Healthcare:
Patient safety is a big challenge of healthcare vertical. Reducing medication errors,
meeting new standards, staff shortages, and reducing costs are the plus points of use
of RFID solutions. RFID wristbands containing patient records and medication history
address several of these concerns.

2 Write short note on

RFID Reader

RFID Readers

RFID readers send radio waves to the RFID tags to enquire about their data
contents. The tags then respond by sending back the requested data. The
readers may have some processing and storage capabilities. The reader is
linked via the RFID middleware with the backend database to do any other
computationally intensive data processing. There are two different types of
RFID readers

Classification

RFID readers can be classied using two different schemes. First, the readers can
be classied based on their location as handheld readers and xed readers.
Second, the tags can be classied based upon the frequency in which they
operatesingle frequency and multi-frequency

Fixed Readers vs. Handheld Readers

• Fixed RFID Readers are xed at one loca-tion (e.g., choke point). In a supply
chain and warehouse scenario, the preferred location of a reader can be along
the conveyor belt, dock door antennae or portals, depalletiza-tion stations, or
any other mobile location.
• Portable or Handheld RFID Readers are designed for Mobile Mount
Applications, for example, vehicles in a warehouse or to be carried by
inventory personnel, and so forth.

RFID Tag

RFID tags are small devices consists of an electronic microchip embedded inside and
an antenna. The microchip has the unique identification number of the RFID tag.

Types of Tags

Passive Tags: Does not have a power source, uses power from the reader to operate.

Battery Assisted Passive Tags: Logic circuit chip uses battery power. Need RF signals
from the reader to activate and function.

Active Tags: Uses a power source like battery, does not require power from
source/reader.

RFID Middleware

RFID middleware
The middleware refers broadly to software or devices that connect RFID
readers and the data they collect, to enterprise information systems. RFID
middleware helps making sense of RFID tag reads, applies filtering, formatting
and logic to tag data captured by a reader, and provides this processed data to
back-end applications

Importance:
RFID middleware serves in managing the flow of data between tag readers and
enterprise applications, and is responsible for the quality, and therefore
usability of the information. It provides readers connectivity, context-based
filtering and routing, and enterprise / B2B integration.All of these middleware
designs aim at providing a scalable solution for gathering, filtering, and
providing clean RFID data to the end-user.
3 List and explain the components of RFID

Components of RFID Technology

RFID technology consists of four components such as RFID tags, antenna, RFID
receiver (transceiver) and software.

1. RFID Tag

RFID tags are small devices consists of an electronic microchip embedded inside and
an antenna. The microchip has the unique identification number of the RFID tag.

Types of Tags

Passive Tags: Does not have a power source, uses power from the reader to operate.

Battery Assisted Passive Tags: Logic circuit chip uses battery power. Need RF signals
from the reader to activate and function.

Active Tags: Uses a power source like battery, does not require power from
source/reader.

2. Antenna

RFID antennas are designed to operate at a specific frequency for each applications
in which it operates. These antennas are often mounted on the RFID reader and
easily accessible for tags to tap on it.

3. RFID Reader
 RFID reader is one of the significant hardware component in the RFID system which
read information from the RFID devices/tags and connected to the network to
transfer the information to the database.

4. Software

RFID technology uses specific software depends on service providers. This software
controls the RFID reader, initiate scan and retrieve information from the tags and
stores the information to a local computer or send to the cloud storage.

RFID tags can be erased and re-used using control software.

4 Write Short note on

a. Chef Case
Chef Workstation is the location where users interact with Chef. With Chef
Workstation, users
can author and test cookbooks using tools such as Test Kitchen and interact
with the Chef Infra
Server using the Knife and chef command line tools.
Chef Workstation is the location where users interact with Chef. With Chef
Workstation, users
can author and test cookbooks using tools such as Test Kitchen and interact with the
Chef Infra
Server using the Knife and chef command line tools.
Chef Infra Client nodes are the machines that are managed by Chef. The Chef Infra
Client is
installed on each node and is used to configure the node to its desired state.
Chef Infra Server acts as a hub for configuration data. Chef Infra Server stores
cookbooks,
the policies that are applied to nodes, and metadata that describes each registered
node that
is being managed by Chef. Nodes use the Chef Infra Client to ask the Chef Infra Server
for
configuration details, such as recipes, templates, and file distributions.

b. Case study on Puppet

Puppet
Puppet is a Configuration Management tool that is used for deploying,
configuring and
managing servers. It performs the following functions :
o Defining distinct configurations for each and every host, and continuously
checking and
confirming whether the required configuration is in place and is not altered (if
altered
Puppet will revert back to the required configuration) on the host.
o Dynamic scaling-up and scaling-down of machines.
o Providing control over all your configured machines, so a centralized
(master-server or
repo-based) change gets propagated to all, automatically.
Puppet uses a Master Slave architecture in which the Master and Slave
communicate through a
secure encrypted channel with the help of SSL.

Puppet Case Study

System Administrators usually perform repetitive tasks such as installing
servers, configuring
those servers, etc. They can automate this task, by writing scripts, but it is a
very hectic job
when you are working on a large infrastructure.
To solve this problem, Configuration Management was introduced.
Configuration Management
is the practice of handling changes systematically so that a system maintains its
integrity over
time. Configuration Management (CM) ensures that the current design and
build state of the
system is known, good & trusted; and doesn’t rely on the tacit knowledge of
the development
team. It allows access to an accurate historical record of system state for
project management
and audit purposes. Configuration Management overcame the following
challenges:
o Figuring out which components to change when requirements change.
o Redoing an implementation because the requirements have changed since
the last
implementation.
o Reverting to a previous version of the component if you have replaced with a
new but
flawed version.
o Replacing the wrong component because you couldn’t accurately determine
which
components needed replacing.
Let us understand its importance through a use case.
The best example I know is of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). A software
“glitch”
prevented the NYSE from trading stocks for almost 90 minutes. This led to
millions of dollars of
loss. A new software installation caused the problem. That software was
installed on 8 of its 20
trading terminals and the system was tested out the night before. However, in
the morning, it
failed to operate properly on the 8 terminals.
So there was a need to switch back to the old software. You might think that
this was a failure
of NYSE’s Configuration Management process, but in reality it was a success.
As a result of a proper Configuration Management process, NYSE recovered
from that situation
 in 90 minutes which was pretty fast. Had the problem continued longer, the
consequences
would have been more severe.

5 List and explain all three different localization techniques with a neat
diagram.
6 Describe the mobility and handover management systems in short.

Mobility Managment

With the convergence of the Internet and wireless mobile communications and
with the rapid growth in the number of mobile subscribers, mobility management
emerges as one of the most important and challenging problems for wireless
mobile communication over the Internet. Mobility management enables the
serving networks to locate a mobile subscriber’s point of attachment for
delivering data packets (i.e. location management), and maintain a mobile
subscriber’s connection as it continues to change its point of attachment (i.e.
handoff management). The issues and functionalities of these activities are
discussed in this section.

Handoff Management
Hand-off (or handover) management for maintaining connection with mobile
terminals is a three-stage process. The first stage involves initiation of identifying the
need for hand-off, and at the second stage new resources for the hand-off
connection must be found and any additional routing operations must be performed.
Under the network-controlled hand-off (NCHO), or mobile-assisted hand off (MAHO),
the network takes control of the procedure while the mobile terminal does the job
for the mobile-controlled hand-off (MCHO). The final stage is data-flow control,
where the delivery of the data from the old connection path to the new connection
path is maintained according to agreed-upon service guarantees. The hand-off
management operations are presented in
7 What does NETCONF-YANG mean, explain the device
managements of the same.

Device management steps:

8 Explain the major components of IoT with suitable diagram in short

Here, 4 fundamental components of IoT system, which tells us how IoT works.

i. Sensors/Devices
First, sensors or devices help in collecting very minute data from the surrounding
environment. All of this collected data can have various degrees of complexities
ranging from a simple temperature monitoring sensor or a complex full video feed.

A device can have multiple sensors that can bundle together to do more than just
sense things. For example, our phone is a device that has multiple sensors such as
GPS, accelerometer, camera but our phone does not simply sense things.

ii. Connectivity

Next, that collected data is sent to a cloud infrastructure but it needs a medium for
transport.

The sensors can be connected to the cloud through various mediums of

communication and transports such as cellular networks, satellite networks, Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, wide-area networks (WAN), low power wide area network and many
more.

iii. Data Processing

Once the data is collected and it gets to the cloud, the software performs processing
on the acquired data.

This can range from something very simple, such as checking that the temperature
reading on devices such as AC or heaters is within an acceptable range. It can
sometimes also be very complex, such as identifying objects (such as intruders in
your house) using computer vision on video.

But there might be a situation when a user interaction is required, example- what if
when the temperature is too high or if there is an intruder in your house? That’s
where the user comes into the picture.

iv. User Interface

Next, the information made available to the end-user in some way. This can achieve
by triggering alarms on their phones or notifying through texts or emails.

Also, a user sometimes might also have an interface through which they can actively
check in on their IOT system. For example, a user has a camera installed in his house,
he might want to check the video recordings and all the feeds through a web server.
 However, it’s not always this easy and a one-way street. Depending on the IoT
application and complexity of the system, the user may also be able to perform an
action that may backfire and affect the system.

For example, if a user detects some changes in the refrigerator, the user can remotely
adjust the temperature via their phone.

9 Explain Friis EM wave propagation equation in free space

https://www.elprocus.com/wave-propagation-definition-equation-and-types/

As we know that when an isotropic transmitter is used, power is distributed

equally, average power can be expressed in terms of radiated power as,

The directivity of a test antenna is given by

Assume that the receiving antenna receives all the generated power from

the radio waves without any loss. Let be the maximum power received by

the receiver antenna under a matched load condition. When is the

effective aperture of the receiving antenna, we can write as,

In general, the directivity and effective aperture area for any antenna is

related as

Let be the directivity of the receiving antenna. Then,

Substituting the value in (3) we get,

This equation is known as the Fundamental Equation for free space

Propagation, also known as Friss free space equation. The factor (λ/4πr)2

is called free space path loss which indicates the loss of the signal. Path

loss can be expressed as

We can express the equation (6) in dB as,

Received power can be expressed as

Which, on simplification is given as,

Here distance r is expressed in

kilometer while frequency f is expressed in MHz. This indicates loss due to

wave spreading taking place when it propagates out of the source.

10 Explain the Algorithm steps of Triangulation