PETROLEUM

ORIGIN, PRODUCTION AND USES

PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a naturally occurring brown or black oil comprising mainly of
hydrocarbons found under the crust of earth on shore or off shore. It is
obtained from the ground either by natural seepage or by drilling well to
various depths.
ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
Although various theories were put forward to explain the
formation of petroleum, only three were widely accepted.
1. Carbide theory
2. Engler theory
3. Modern theory
CARBIDE THEORY
According to carbide theory, hydrocarbons present in petroleum are formed by the
reaction of water with inorganic carbides. Inorganic carbides, in turn, are formed by
the reaction of metal and carbon under high pressure and temperature inside the
earth.

Ca + 2C CaC2 (high T & P)

CaC2 + 2H2O Ca(OH)2 +C2H2

These lower hydrocarbons go under hydrogenation and polymerization to give various

types of hydrocarbons.

C2H2 + H2 C2H4 C2H6 (Hydrogenation)

3C2H2 C2H6 (Polymerisation)
Failure of carbide theory
This theory fails to explain the presence of:
1. Sulphur and nitrogen compound
2. Chlorophyll and haemin
3. Optically active compounds
ENGLER THEORY
According to this theory,
petroleum is of animal origin. He
suggested that petroleum is
formed by the decay and
decomposition of marine animals
under high pressure and
temperature. The sulphur dioxide
given out by the volcanos kills fish
and other sea animals which go on
piling beside volcano and get
decomposed after hundred of
years under the influence of high
pressure and temperature.
Success of Engler theory
Engler’s theory is supported by the following facts:

1. Experimental destructive decomposition of fish oil and other animal fats under
high pressure and temperature give products similar to natural petroleum.
2. Presence of brine or sea water together with petroleum
3. Presence of nitrogen and sulphur compounds
4. Presence of optically active compounds.

Failure of Engler theory

1. Engler’s theory fails to account the presence of chlorophyll in petroleum.

2. It does not explain the presence of coal deposits in the vicinity of the oil fields.
MODERN THEORY

1. According to the modern theory,

petroleum is believed to be formed from
the decomposition of marine animals as
well as of vegetable organisms of
prehistoric forests.

2. Prehistoric forests and sea animals got

buried under the crust of the earth due
to some earthquakes and upheavals.

3. High Temperature & Pressure in earth's

crust causes the degradation of biological
matter in to petroleum.
Success of Modern theory
This theory successfully explain the flaws present in previous theories like:

1. Presence of brine &coal in the vicinity of petroleum.

2. Presence of chlorophyll & N and S compounds.

3. Presence of fossils in the petroleum.

COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM

Carbon: 84-87%
Hydrogen: 11-15%
Oxygen: 0.3-1.8%
Sulphur: 0.1-3%
Nitrogen: 0.1-1.5%
The principal components of petroleum are hydrocarbons (paraffins, naphthene,
aromatics, olefins etc.), small amounts of sulphur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds as
impurities and some inorganic compounds and metals (vanadium and platinum in
traces). Sulphur compounds found in petroleum are hydrogen sulphide, thiophenes,
mercaptans. Oxygen occurs in combined form in alcohols, phenols, resins and organic
acids present in petroleum. Nitrogen compounds inclyde pyridines, quinolines, pyroles
etc. Inorganic compounds present in petroleum are salt, clay and sand etc.
REFINING OF PETROLEUM CRUDE
Crude oil as it comes out of the well may contain
• up to 25% water
• salts (Mgcl2, Cacl2, NaCl etc.) up to 2000-5000 mg/liter
• Sediments such as silt, sand, drilling mud, iron oxide, sulphide etc. (1-1.5%)
For refining crude oil, salt content should be less than 50 mg/liter and water less than 0.3%.
Several problems that can be
caused by these impurities:
1. Corrosion in the atmospheric
distillation system
2. Increased consumption of
NH3 to neutralize HCl
3. Erosion
4. Plugging of equipment
5. Fouling of heat transfer
surfaces
6. Product degradation
7. Trace metal in distillates
8. Excessive water
METHODS FOR
DEHYDRATION OF CRUDES
Dehydration of crudes is practiced in two stages:

1. At the site of oil field

2. Later, in the refinery
Methods:
1. Chemical treatment- Salt is removed by settling or adding of chemicals or both.
But crudes possessing emulsifying characteristics are not responsive to the settling
method and demand demulsifying agents.
2. Gravity settling- The crude mixture is allowed to stand at 75-80 degrees Celsius at
a pressure of 15kgf/cm2 in huge tall tanks.
3. Centrifugal separation- Good separation results when crude is allowed to stand
for 48 hours.
4. Electric desalter
Disadvantages of
first 3 methods
1. Settling techniques are not effective and
are time consuming.
2. Continuous operations not possible.
3. Centrifugal operation not economical.

All these have given way to electric desalting.

Advantages of
electric desalter
1. Simultaneous desalting and dehydration
is achieved in this unit.
2. Power consumption is very small- order
of 0.01kWh per barrel.
ELECTRICAL DESALTER
Desalting is the first refining process applied to crude oil. The process removes salt,
water and solid particles that would otherwise lead to operational problems during
refining such as corrosion, fouling of equipment, or poisoning of catalysts.

This is accomplished by washing the oil with water, coalescing small water droplets
with electrostatic field forces into drops large enough to settle through the oil to form
a bottom water phase and separating the oil and water.
Principle: An electrical field is used to excite droplets of brine within the bulk oil
phase so that they collide with other droplets and coalesce into larger globules that
separate under gravity.
STABILIZATION OF CRUDE OIL
The stabilization process is a form of partial distillation which sweetens "sour" crude oil
(removes the hydrogen sulfide) and reduces vapor pressure, thereby making the crude
oil safe for shipment in tankers. Stabilizers maximize production of valuable
hydrocarbon liquids, while making the liquids safe for storage and transport, as well as
reduce the atmospheric emissions of volatile hydrocarbons. Stabilizer plants are used
to reduce the volatility of stored crude oil and condensate.
TRANSPORTATION OF CRUDE OIL

After stabilization , crude

oil is ready to transport to
distillation columns which
is mostly transported
through pipelines. In cases
where oil fields are far
others transport mediums
like railways, roadways and
seaways are used.
FRACTIONAL
DISTILLATION
Distillation is the process of separating various components of a
mixture which have a difference in their boiling point. Fractional
distillation is primarily used when the difference in boiling points
between the various components is comparatively less.

The topping is the initial distillation of crude oil or petroleum,

and consists in fractioning crude oil into the components:
gasoline, kerosene, diesel, gas oil, light fuel oil, wax, etc. Generally,
it used to make the separation in one single column, which
operates under a pressure slightly higher than the atmospheric
one, possessing side extractions. Nowadays, distillation unit of
crude oil is a fractionation single unit, on contrast with a set of
units that were the first fractionation units.
Understanding the process of fractional distillation
• The crude oil feed to a fractional distillation tower is heated by flow through pipe
arranged within a large furnace.
• The temperature of the trays is progressively cooler from bottom to top.
• As the hot vapors pass upward in the tower, condensation occurs onto the trays
until refluxing (simultaneous boiling of a liquid and condensing of the vapor) occurs on
the trays.
• Vapors pass upward through the tower, whereas the liquids spill onto the tray below,
and so on.
• Until the heat at a particular point is too intense for that fluid to remain in liquid
condition; then it becomes vapor and joins the other vapors passing upward through
the tower.
• Thus, the higher boiling point fractions condense towards the lower part of the
column and the lower boiling point fractions towards the upper part. This allows part
of the refluxing liquid can be collected at various points as side stream product.
The nonvolatile or liquid portion of the feed descends to the bottom of the tower to be
pumped away as a bottom product. The stripping section is the part of the tower below
the point at which the feed is introduced, the more volatile components are stripped
from the descending liquid. Above the feed point, the rectifying section, the
concentration of the less volatile components in the vapor is reduced. The feed to a
tower may be at any point from top to bottom with trays above and below the entry
point, depending on the kind of feedstock and the characteristics desired in the products.
The evaporation, condensing, and scrubbing operation is repeated many times until the
desired degree of product purity is reached. Then, side streams from certain trays are
taken off to obtain the desired fractions.
CONSTRUCTION
• The fractionating tower, contains horizontal steel trays for separating and
collecting the liquids.
• At each tray, vapours from below enter perforations under the bubble caps.
The latter permit the vapours to bubble through the liquid on the tray,
causing some condensation at the temperature of that tray.
• An overflow pipe drains the condensed liquids from each tray back to the
tray below, where the higher temperature causes re-evaporation.
• The evaporation, condensing, and scrubbing operation is repeated many
times until the desired degree of product purity is reached.
• The side streams from certain trays are taken off to obtain the desired
fractions.
• Products ranging from uncondensed fixed gases at the top to heavy fuel oils
at the bottom can be taken continuously from a fractionating tower.
• The distillation process separates the major constituents of crude oil into so-
called straight-run products.
 VACUUM DISTILLATION
• In order to further distill the residuum or topped crude from the atmospheric tower at higher
temperatures, reduced pressure is required to prevent thermal cracking. The process takes
place in one or more vacuum distillation towers.
• The principles of vacuum distillation resemble those of fractional distillation except that larger
diameter columns are used to maintain comparable vapor velocities at the reduced pressure.
• A typical first-phase vacuum tower may produce gas oils, lubricating-oil base stocks, and heavy
residual for propane deasphalting.
• A second-phase tower operating at lower vacuum may distill surplus residuum from the
atmospheric tower, which is not used for lube-stock processing, and surplus residuum from
the first vacuum tower not used for deasphalting.
• Vacuum towers are typically used to separate catalytic cracking feedstock from surplus
residuum.
USES OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

LIQUIFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)

• Inflammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases, mainly propane and butane.
• Liquified before use and is stored in steel cylinders.
• Important domestic and industrial fuel.
• Also called refinery gas.

GASOLINE (PETROL)
• Fuel for spark ignition internal combustion engine (motor/ aviation)
• Used for dry cleaning of clothes

NAPHTHA
• Used as solvent, paint thinner, blending of motor fuel.
• Its most important use is the production of H2 by its steam reforming.
JET FUEL
• Fuel for jet planes, turbine engines.

LUBRICATING OILS
• Used as a lubricant in machines and engines.

KEROSENE
• Domestic illuminant
• Tractor fuel

DIESEL
• Fuel for diesel engines.

WAX
• It is used for making candles, waxed papers and
cartons, match stick coating, rust prevention, etc.
HEAVY FUEL OIL
• Used as furnace fuel after blending with light fuel oil or naphtha to reduce its viscosity
and improve fluidity and atomisation characteristics.
• It is also cracked to produce gasoline, diesel, gas, light fuel oil, etc.

BITUMEN OR TAR
• Used for road making as binder and for moisture proof coating.

RESIDUAL PITCH
• For making road and as industrial fuel and electrodes.

GAS OIL
• It is gasified for fuel gas production.
• It is a fuel for industrial furnace.
• It is also used as a blend for heavy fuel oil.
INDIAN CRUDE
The major crude oil fields in India are
in Assam (Naharkatiya) and Gujarat
(Cambay and Ankleswar). Bombay
high is producing good amount of
crude oil. The Naharkatiya crudes
have a relative density of 0.857,
sulphur 0.17% and high wax content
(7.8%) and contain very little water
and salt. Characterisation of the
crudes shows that they are of mixed
nature.
SUBMITTED BY
CH18122- Eesha
CH18123- Garva
CH18124- Harsh
CH18125- Heamant
CH18126- Himanshu
CH18127- Jagmehak
CH18128- Ishika