Jamia Millia Islamia

(A Central University)

Name-Mohd.Aqib
Faculty- LAW
(BA.LLB) Semester-1
Subject-Political Science
Project Name-Nation and Nationalism

Outline

1. Introduction
2. Political Dimension of Nation
3. Political Presentation of Nationalism
4. Nationalism in India
 Nation and Nationalism

Introduction
The concept of “nation” is historically older than nationalism as a political
movement. The English word nation comes from the Latin word NASCI, which
literally means “to be born.” term Nation was first used in 1970s to refer the
indigenous people of Canada other than the Inuit and Métis, a collection of over 630
bands.1. All too frequently , the term ‘nation’ is confused with ‘country’ or’state’. All
these three terms have acquired various meanings which created confusion and
misunderstanding. But etymologically they have meanings which are quite different
than what acquired in common usage2. The word has gradually taken the meaning of
large group of people with a common ancestry. The idea of nation takes shape in
relation with cultural, political, and psychological factors. Language, religion, history,
literature, folkloric themes (epics, myths, legends), and customs are the elements
creating bonds among a group of people that transform a nation. Indeed, there is no
consensus among scholars and researchers on the subjective and objective factors for
the definition of nation. Anthony Smith (2001) distinguishes the objective factors of
language, religion, customs, territory, and institutions from the subjective category of
attitudes, perceptions, and sentiments. Renan identified the nation as a form of
morality and solidarity that was supported by historical consciousness. On the other
hand, Max Weber agrees that the nation is “obviously an ambiguous term” . But his
way of understanding takes us to the point at which his nation concept becomes a
prestige community unified around a myth of common descent. Weber also
understands the nation as a political project that “tends to produce a state of its own” .
On the other hand, Stalin expounded on the nation as a combination of subjective and
objective elements. According to Stalin, “A nation is a historically constituted, stable
community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic
life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture” (quoted in
Franklin, 1973,). From a different perspective, Greenfeld (1992) states that “social,
1
Andrew Heywood, Political Theory An Introduction, 93 (St Martin’s Press LLC,175Fifth
Avenue, New York, NY 10010, 4th edition, 2015)
2
R.C. Agarwal, Political Theory, 82 (S.Chand and Companany PVT. LTD. Ram Nagar, New
Delhi, 8th edition, 2016)
political, and cultural in the narrow sense, or ethnic qualities, acquire a great
significance in the formation of every specific nationalism”

Definiton:

According to Lord Bryce,”Nation is a nationality which has organize itself into a

political body independent or desiring to be independent”3

The idea of a nation as a cultural entity dates back to 18th-century German political
thinkers. Johann Gottfried von Herder, a critic, poet, and philosopher, was the first
author to mention that each nation had a cultural distinctiveness . He emphasized the
importance of language and asserted that certain ideas of an individual in one
language could not be understood in another language. He demonstrated how epics,
myths, legends, and folk songs build a spirit that can be named volksgeist. Herder
preferred to refer to it as the “spirit of nations” (Geist des volkes). Herder collected
folk songs, which he published in his work Voices of the People in Their Songs to
underline the value of national culture, collective memories, and traditions for a
nation (Herder, 1818). The definition of the German romantic writers was criticized
with the claim that cultural commonalities were not as powerful as in agricultural
societies. On the contrary, modern researchers underlined the role of the industrial
revolution and modernization in the spread of nationalism. Ernest Gellner, a modern
philosopher, defined “nationalism as primarily a political principle that holds that the
political and the national unit should be congruent” . He interpreted the new cultural
cohesion as a product of the industrial revolution promulgated by education and the
division of labor in industry. He conceptualized the culture of the industrial age as
high culture transmitted through education (Gellner, 1983).

German historian Karl Renner added another level to the discussion by demonstrating
how historical destiny transformed “passive people” (passiver Volkheit) into a group
that had become conscious about itself. Another German historian, Friedrich
Meinecke (1919), clarified the modern state-and-culture relation by identifying
Kulturnation as a “largely passive cultural community” and the Staatsnation as an

3
Byce, Impression of South Africa, 33
“active self-determining political nation” . He identified the nation as cultural or
ethnic affiliation versus the nation as political state. Meinecke referred to the
Germans, the Russians, the Irish, the Greeks, and the English as examples of kultur
nation. From this perspective, since culture cannot be learned, it is not possible to
become German by learning the language and adopting the lifestyle and values. You
have to be a native German to perceive the culture. This distinction also implies two
enduring ways of understanding the rise of the nation-state.

Nationalism is a modern ideology that tries to explain the individual’s devotion to the
nation state by neglecting other interests. It has taken many different shapes in various
geographies, cultures, histories, and political systems.Nationalism basically means
feeling of oneness. Laki call Nationalism as “a spiritual feeling.” 4Even in a particular
location, nationalism has transformed from one form to another throughout history.
The core of nationalism is nation. What constitutes a nation is a question scholars are
still trying to clarify by using approaches developed throughout the ages. Not only
political science but also other branches of the humanities are trying to understand the
concepts of nation and nationalism. The current technological innovations and rapid
globalization have added new dimensions to nationalism and its movements. Each day
brings a new peculiarity of nationalism.

The various definitions recall the story in which a group of blind men touch an
elephant to learn what it is like. Each one touches a different part, but only one part,
such as the side or the tusk. They then compare notes on what they felt and learn they
are in complete disagreement. All attempts to define nationalism are similar: They
come from the perspective of the scholars’ disciplines, and like the blind men, each
discipline touches only one aspect of nationalism. As a result, a remarkable amount of
research has been published regarding nationalism, but theoretical progress has been
limited.

The first appearance of European nationalism has been a topic of discussion. In 1648,
at the end of the Thirty Years’War, the European powers signed the Treaty of
Westphalia in Munster and Osnabruck, ending interference in each other’s domestic
politics. The principle rule—cuius regio, eius religio (whose realm, his religion)— of

4
Dr .S.R. Myneni, Political Science, 49 (Allahabad Law Agency Law Publishers, Faridabad,
3rd edition, 2008)
the treaty confirmed that the ruler’s faith became the official religion of his state. The
states formed on this principle were accepted as preliminary examples of the nation-
state in the political science literature. Unlike other researchers who have taken the
French revolution as a first example, Greenfeld (1992) argues that “the original
modern idea of the nation emerged in sixteenth century England, which was the first
nation in the world (and the only one with the possible exception of Holland, for
about two hundred years)” .

II. Political Dimension of Nations

The political allegiance, citizenship, and homogeneous population that form the
nation are products of the modern age. A nation is a group of people bonded to each
other by citizenship under the authority of a political construction that ignores
cultural, ethnic, and other loyalties. In this sense, Andrew Heywood basically
considers the nation as a psycho political construction. But it also has a historical
progress dating back to the French revolution, when the transition from monarchic
structures, in which the individuals were subjects of the crown, to the constitutional
state, which promoted participatory rule, took place. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
conceptualized the participations of the people with the term general will. In Social
Contract, Rousseau wrote, “Each of us puts his person and all his power in common
under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we
receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole” 5. In these lines, he explains
general will not only as one of the principles of the nation but also as a condition for
the formation of the nation-state. Nationalism emerged from the national sentiments
created within these nation-states. Mainstream researchers understood nationalism as
an output of nation-states. Meinecke created the term state nation to describe an entity
differing from the nation-state. The concept of state-nation was based on Rousseau’s
idea of general will and the nations formed by states. According to Meinecke, the
nation-state gradually evolved from an individual culture. As a result, he concluded
that states were formed from nations.

5
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract, 77,(Create Space Independent Publishing
Platform,2014)
Eric Hobsbawm opposed the idea that nations were basically ethnic groups formed
throughout history. He asserted that nations were superficially formed by nationalism,
and he conceptualized the condition as an “invented tradition.” He presented his
example thusly:

Israeli and Palestinian nationalism or nations must be novel, whatever the historic
continuities of Jews or Middle Eastern Muslims, because the very concept of
territorial states, of the current standard type in their region, was barely thought of a
century ago, and hardly became a serious prospect before the end of World War I.

Benedict Anderson’s research also supports Hobsbawm with his use of the term
imagined communities. Anderson stated that “a nation is an imagined political
community that is imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign.” He also
clarified his approach thusly: “A nation is imagined because the members of even the
smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even
hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion” . He
claimed that education, political communication, and the mass media played a crucial
role in building this imaginary sense. These approaches have also been supported by
Marxism, which believes that the concepts of nation and nationalism belong to the
bourgeoisie. These concepts were constructed as instruments to exploit (rule) other
classes through the creation of loyalty based on the sense of nation, which was more
powerful than the binding power of the working classes.

Nations somehow evolved into politics and have thereafter been processed under the
rules of politics. As in Meinecke’s definition of political nation, the significance of
citizenship is more intensive than that of ethnicity. Cultural heterogeneity is one of the
common indicators of these countries. The United States and the United Kingdom are
given as the examples of this type of political nation. In this context, Meinecke also
differentiates the terms state nation and nation state. The nation-state refers to the
state that was built on the crystallization of an individual culture. However, the state-
nation is based on Rousseau’s “general will” and is a nation constructed by the state.
The case of the United States fits the state-nation concept. It is hard to build a national
identity that depends on the commonality of a shared cultural and historical past
because of the multiethnic and multicultural characteristics of the United States. U.S.
nationhood formed around the voluntary acceptance of a set of common values,
principles, and goals by all citizens. It is possible to use the melting-pot analogy for
these types of states. Since state-nations are not composed of one individual culture,
they have the challenge of creating an organic unity.

Nationalism and the political nation concepts have generally been understood in the
European context. As a result, the nation-state and national identity have peculiar
problems in the third world, where two major streams have been followed. First,
national identities were built up during their struggles for freedom in national
independence wars against colonial powers. These identities were strongly shaped
under the anticolonial characteristics of that period. Second, national identity was
shaped by territorial boundaries. These borders were usually inherited from the
colonial past. Contemporary maps of the Middle East and Africa provide a clear
example of these divisions. These “nations” have a wide range of ethnicities, but few
commonalities except their shared colonial past. Therefore, to achieve statehood,
“nationhood” had to be built on existing conditions, which rewrite the history,
fabricate a national language, and produce a national education system. Nevertheless,
the differences in ethnic and political identities generate tensions within the nation
and, from time to time, escalate into conflict. The transformation from colonial rule
and empires to nation-states affected the nationalism movements of the 20th century.

III. The Political Presentation of Nationalism

The application of theories on the ground generates varieties of nationalism in

political life. Nationalism seems to have been one of the most progressive and driving
forces of political life in the 20th century. However, the characteristics of nationalism
are generally shaped in the context of and according to the political ideas attached to
it. Nationalism could be progressive, liberating, reactionary, authoritarian,
conservative, democratic, oppressive, left wing, or right wing. In a colony, it emerges
as anticolonial nationalism and promotes the liberation of the people. The major
political presentations of nationalism could be grouped as liberal nationalism,
conservative nationalism, expansionist nationalism, and anticolonial nationalism.
Liberal nationalism, also known as civic or civil nationalism, is different from the
other types of political presentations of nationalism in that liberal nationalism is
characteristically nonxenophobic. The main assumption of liberal nationalism is that
human beings naturally divide into nations that possess a separate and unique identity.
Liberal nationalism supports every nation’s right to self-determination and freedom.
The builder of Italian unification, Giuseppe Mazzini, defined the harmony of
nationhood in his work as “the idea of a sisterhood of nations” . Liberal nationalism is
opposed to oppressive and autocratic multinational empires. . The criticism of liberal
nationalism mainly considers the approach romantic and unsophisticated because it
concentrates only on the progressive side of nationalism while neglecting tribalism,
xenophobia, and racism. Other major critics have focused on the political practices of
nation-states without considering how these coincide with the linguistic, religious, and
ethnic areas within a state’s borders.

Conservative nationalism reached its zenith after World War I with the
establishment of national states, although it could be dated back to Bismarck’s
German nation and Disraeli’s one nation concept. Conservative nationalism brings
social cohesion and public solidarity derived from patriotism into focus and is not
interested in the national self-determination of liberal nationalism. After the
establishment of a nation-state, the political elite of that state try to build a nation
through the creation of a consistent history and language.

One of the major political manifestations of nationalism is expansionist

nationalism. This type has an aggressive character coupled with intentions to extend
its territory. Governments that pursue expansionist policies explain their interest in the
territories either with historical causes or with claims that the existing territory the
nation inhabits is too small or is not able to physically or economically support the
nation’s population. Expansionist nationalism became visible before World War II
with the examples of Germany and Japan. Expansionist nationalism appears with right
wing ideologies and emphasizes the importance of the nation over the individual.
Another nation or race is defined as a threat or enemy, and this fear is used in building
a national identity sustained by a type of negative integration. The sense of the
“other” is the main force and motivation to keep “us” together. The image of the other
is formed by prejudgments and negative feelings.The last step of expansionist
nationalism is to define a natural space for the nation, as in the example of Nazi
Germany’s demand for lebensraum (living space).

Anticolonial nationalism emerged at the end of the struggle against colonial

powers. Early appearances of anticolonial nationalism imitated European forms of
nationalism but displayed peculiar characteristics. Each instance of anticolonial
nationalism was unique and carried a spatial characteristic. Anticolonial nationalism
built on the idea of nationhood by the degree of the exploitation and inequality to
which the nations that had a colonial past were exposed. Socialism and particularly
Marxism– Leninism were embraced in anticolonial nationalism.

To sum up, in the 21st century, the subjective and objective factors of nationalism are
rapidly changing with globalization and technological innovations. Indeed, with its
Internet communication capabilities and mass media, the digital age has made the
world smaller. Now even the untouched spaces on earth have been connected by
global information, which squeezes the local culture in order to accommodate itself.
Indigenous cultures are forming counter reactionary identities, and micro-scale
nationalisms are emerging. In the long run, the number of small nationalities will
probably increase. From the regional perspective, these local nationalisms also unify
and create more powerful regional nationalist movements, as well. Because borders
are changing and new identities are emerging, social scientists of this century are
witnessing how the process of nation building commences and continues in various
parts of the world. Local languages are more apparent and supported by international
organizations. Oral literatures have been published as books, and rituals of culture are
turning into traditions. On the other hand, the concept of the nation is changing,
especially in the sense of ethnicity. Thanks to the advances in DNA research, several
projects now aim to find the genetic sources of various ethnic groups. Today, it is
growing easier to follow the traces of a nation’s birth and development, a trend that
might modify the meaning of nation and nationalism. Social, technological, and
economic challenges are jeopardizing the nation-state concept. It is expected that the
term will deviate slightly from its original meaning. Gellner (1992) has described the
world we are living in as follows:

“a world in which one style of knowledge, though born of one culture, is being
adapted by all of them, with enormous speed and eagerness, and is disrupting many of
them, and is totally transforming the milieu in which men live.”

Nationalism in India

Origin of nationalism in India:

The growth of nationalism in India can be traced back to the period of ancient India. It
can be traced through different stages. They include:
a. Nationalism under ancient India
b. Nationalism in the medieval period.
c. Nationalism in the pre-independence period.
d. Nationalism in the post independent period.

Nationalism in the ancient period:

The origin of nationalism can be traced back to ancient India. People of ancient India
had a sense of loyalty towards their motherland. The Rig-Veda hymns refer to India
as “Bharata Varsha or Bharata Khanda.”

The feeling of nationalism was strengthened in the age of Mauryas and Guptas.
During the age of Mauryas monarchy was the form of government in Vogue. The
supreme power loyalty towards the king itself was considered as nationalism.
Mauryan administration was based on the guidelines of Arthashastra.
The Maurayan Empire was divided into a number of provinces headed by governors.
Such governors had to report to the king.
The contribution of Mauryans to “nationalism” is considered as significant since they
followed “imperial policy and brought a major part of north India under their control.
The age of Guptas and nationalism:
The amalgamation of the Gupta and the Lichhaivi dynasties led to the foundation of
imperial power of Guptas.

Samudra Gupta was the most powerful king among the Guptas and extended his
empire by his remarkable expeditions. Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya succeeded
Samudra Gupta.
During the reign of Guptas, the Gupta Empire crossed the rivers of Punjab and Indus
and carried arms beyond the Hindukush. The Gupta Empire was known for its
supremacy in the north-western frontier.
In southern India there were powerful kingdoms like Satavahanas, Chalukyas,
Pallavas and Cholas.
The idea of nationalism did not receive concrete shape during ancient India;
nationalism was almost equated with Regionalism. Since there were a number of
small provinces. Loyalty towards a province itself was considered as nationalism. In
ancient India regionalism overshadowed the concept of nationalism.

Medieval India and Nationalism:

Medieval India was mainly dominated by the Muslim Rule. Among the Muslim rulers
Mughal rulers made some contribution to the idea of nationalism. Akbar was the most
powerful king among the Mughal kings. A larger part of north India was brought
under the control of the Mughals. The form of government was autocratic monarchy.
The king was the highest temporal authority. He was the source of the entire
administrative law.
During the Mughal rule the imperial authority of the king was respected and loyalty
towards the king was treated as nationalism. Hostility towards the emperor was
punished.
During Medieval India the idea of nationalism gained momentum. There was a
significant increase in the Muslim population. The Muslims occupied significant
positions in the government and they were loyal to the king.
Nationalism during the pre-independence period:
During the British rule the idea of nationalism was further strengthened. The British
came to India for the purpose of trading and occupied the whole of India. The
freedom struggle which took place in India marked concrete idea of nationalism.
The following are certain important phases of freedom struggle which led to the
growth of nationalism in India:

1. Sepoy Mutiny:
It took place in the year 1857. It is also described as the Great revolt of 1857 or the
First War of independence. It was not merely a military mutiny against the British
rule but it assumed the character of a popular rebellion.
The interesting feature of this mutiny was that the sepoys who revolted against the
British proselytism were supported by peasants, traders and other classes of people.
The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah was declared as the emperor of India.
Formation of Indian National Congress:
With the spread of English education an ‘intelligentsia’ class developed in the society.
Concerted action against foreign rule became a common feature of Indian politics. A
body of educated people organized themselves under the guidance of A.O. Hume and
started an organization known as Indian national congress in 1885. It held its first
meeting in Bombay. Year after year the Indian National Congress gained strength and
played a crucial role in creating awareness among people.

2. Civil Disobedience Movement:

The Nagpur session of the Indian national Congress declared attainment of Swaraj by
peaceful and legitimate means. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi the
Congress organization turned into a nationwide mass organisation. In the year 1921
Gandhiji launched the civil disobedience movement which lasted for fourteen months.
He called upon the on people to give up titles and honours given by the government.
People boycotted the law courts and educational institutions. They withdrew from
government services and refused to pay tax.
Thousands of people sacrificed their wealth, position and comfort. The willingness of
people to make any sacrifice for the country’s cause strengthened nationalism. It
received the attention of the whole world.

3. Dandi Satyagaha:
It was launched under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Under this movement
Gandhiji prepared salt with a set of followers. It was a daring attempt to oppose the
British administration which imposed tax on salt.

4. Quit India Movement:

It was launched in the year 1942. The whole of India joined the freedom struggle
under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The entire country adopted the slogan do or
die, now or never. They demanded the British to quit India immediately. It was a great
movement which brought the whole nation together.
Apart from the above stated instances of freedom struggle, national leaders also
contributed to the growth of nationalism.

Nationalism in Modern India:

In the post-independence period Nationalism has assumed a concrete shape. Various
factors have contributed to the strengthening of nationalism which are as follows:

1. Constitution of India:

The Constitution of India is considered as a supreme law of the land. The preamble to
the Constitution clearly declares India as a sovereign, socialist republic nation.

2. National anthem:
Our National Anthem has played a key role in promoting nationalism. Our National
Anthem “Jana -gana-mana” was written by Rabindranath Tagore. It is adopted
throughout India. Every citizen of India has to respect national Anthem. It is sung by
all regardless of the caste, creed or community.
3. Patriotic Songs:
Some popular patriotic songs like Vande Mataram written by Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee and Sare Jaha Se Accha written by Mohammed Iqbal are sung all over
India, which signifies reverence towards the motherland.

4. National Emblem:
Tricoloured Indian flag is considered as an important national emblem. The Tricolour
signifies different aspects. Green stands for prosperity, white stands for peace and
saffron stands for sacrifice. A wheel is found in the midst of tricolor which indicates
costant progress. It is the fundamental duty of every citizen to respect the National
flag. Showing any disrespect to the National flag by tearing burning or mutilating it in
any other form is considered as an offence.

5. National Festivals:
Certain national festivals are celebrated throughout the country. Such festivals are
observed as national holidays. The national festivals of India include the following:
August 15, Independence day,
January 26, Republic day
October 2, Gandhi Jayanti

Though the above stated factors have strengthened nationalism, there are certain
inhibitions to nationalism. Such inhibitions are posing a serious threat to the idea of
nationalism which may be discussed as follows:

1. Separate status to Jammu and Kashmir:

Article 370 of the Constitution has granted a separate legal status to Jammu and
Kashmir. Many enactments are not made applicable to Jammu and Kashmir. Though
Indian government has declared that Jammu and Kashmir is the integral part of India,
terrorism and militant activities have become burning issues which are posing a threat
to nationalism.
2. Parochialism:
Division of states on linguistic basis has created an extreme sense of regionalism.
Parochialism has resulted in narrow thinking which has sidelined nationalism. Inter-
state water disputes and such other problems are coming in the way of nationalism.
3. Multiplicity of Political Parties:
In India there are a number of political parties with different ideologies. Political
leaders are self-centred and opposition parties tend to oppose even the policies made
by the ruling party in the interest of nation.
4. Migration to Foreign Countries:
There are various factors which are forcing the youngsters to migrate to foreign
countries. Such factors include lack of opportunities, Red tapism, Deep rooted
corruption etc., People who have migrated to foreign countries quite often lose their
bond and identity with the motherland.
5. Apathy among masses:
People are often reluctant to express affinity and reverence towards the motherland.
The national festivals of India is gradually losing their significance and they are more
often enjoyed as holidays.
Inspite of these inhibitions India has survived as a nation because of a strong sense of
patriotism.
But unless these inhibitions are overcome a strong sense of nationalism cannot
survive.