Past Modal Verbs [Modal + have + Verb 3]

Modal verbs can be used in two forms:

a. Modal verb + Base Form (to refer to the present or the future except could)
b. Modal verb + have + Verb 3 (to refer to the past)

Example: Why didn’t Omar come to class?

1. Very Possible (high probability): must, must not
[+] He must have overslept.
(If we’re 100% sure of this, then we’ll say: He overslept.)
[-] He must not have set an alarm for the class.
(= I’m almost sure that he didn’t set an alarm for the class.)
Note: The modal verb ‘must not have’ isn’t commonly used in English. Usually, the opposite
of ‘must have’ is ‘can’t have/couldn’t have’.

2. Possible (50% probability): may (not), might (not), could

[+] He may/might/could have stayed up all night preparing the presentation.
[-] He may/might not have had enough sleep.

3. Impossible (0% probability): couldn’t, can’t

He couldn’t/can’t have forgotten about the lesson.

4. Talking about Others’ Mistakes: should, shouldn’t, ought to, ought not to
[ + ] He should/ought to have asked someone to wake him up.
[-] He shouldn’t/ought not to have stayed up all night.
Note: In American English, they don’t use the negative form of ought to.

5. Regrets: I/We should, I/We shouldn’t

[+] I should have saved the money for something more important.
[-] I shouldn’t have spent all my money yesterday.