Name –Riaz Mehadi

ID – 1931746042
Section – 8

1. Explain and evaluate the four critical principles of ethics.

Answer - There are four Critical Principles of Ethics:-

A. Ego-based Principle (Ethical or Psychological Egoism): The majority of human

activity is egocentric and selfish. Even when a man contributes to an organization, his
primary purpose is to increase his ego's fame. Adam Smith, on the other hand, noticed
that certain consequences of human greed may improve society by meeting people's
wants. There is, however, a distinction to be made between selfishness and
self-centeredness. While the latter is motivated by personal desire, it is not harmful to
others' interests. Selfishness, on the other side, is the pursuit of personal benefits at the
expense of others.

B. Rule-based Principle :- In this view, ethical behavior should be guided by a set of

ethical principles. The consequences are less important in this circumstance than the
open action. For example, regardless of the repercussions, the adage "always speak
the truth" is crucial. In this scenario, the open action is more significant than the
repercussions. Whether the repercussions are favorable or terrible, a maxim like
"always speak the truth" is essential.

C. End-based Principle :- This ethical principle is founded on the concept of action

consequences. As a result, an action is only carried out when it yields some favorable
outcomes or usefulness. This is also known as utilitarianism or consequentialism.

D. Care-based Principle :- In ethics, it is regarded as the golden rule. In this rule, an

agent's actions are guided by compassion and caring. As a result, if an accident victim
is laying on the road, your participation may be less useful because it will take time and
money to provide him with the appropriate medical attention, and the repercussions
may include dealing with a police case. As a result, utility and consequence-based
ethics will advise against caring for the victim. In this scenario, the only ethical
considerations are care and compassion.

2. Critically analyze the moral development theory of Lawrence Kohlberg.

Answer - The Kohlberg hypothesis of moral development examines how children

acquire morality and moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg's approach, moral logic is
essentially concerned with seeking and discovering. Children's morality and moral
reasoning grow in six phases, according to the Kohlberg theory of moral development.
Kohlberg also claims that moral logic is essentially concerned with identifying and
fulfilling needs and desires. Kohlberg conducted a roughly 20-year longitudinal and
cross-sectional study in the 1950s to better understand the pattern of moral growth
among American males. There are three broad levels of morality development,
according to him. Each level, however, can be broken into two sections. Kohlberg
reasons that when there is a cognitive disequilibrium (CD), a person feels the need to
pass on to another stage of moral development. The CD occurs when one does not
understand the behaviour of another group in relation to his own group.

Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral psychology.

While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory have been critiqued
for a number of reasons:

● Kohlberg established that moral development does not necessarily occur in a

chronological sequence, which is why the chronological order is ineffective.

● Even if some sequence of progress can be observed in moral development, the

stages themselves could overlap, or be skipped. Some later stages may come earlier.
Thus, stage four (law and order orientation) may come much earlier when a person
understands the importance of law and order. This knowledge is imbibed from family
and friends .

● Kolberg ignores the male pattern of morality formation, and the consequence is
one-sided. Carol Gilligan elaborates on this point.
3. Explain and evaluate utilitarianism as an important theory of ethics for
common people.

Answer - Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong by focusing
on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.

According to utilitarianism, the most ethical choice is the one that will result in the
greatest good for the largest number of people. It is the only moral framework within
which military force or conflict may be justified. Because of the way it accounts for costs
and benefits, it is also the most prevalent approach of moral reasoning utilized in
business.

However, because we cannot predict the future, it’s difficult to know with certainty
whether the consequences of our actions will be good or bad. This is one of the
limitations of utilitarianism.

Justice and individual rights are similarly difficult to account for under utilitarianism.
Assume there are four persons in a hospital who rely on organ transplants to save their
lives: a heart, lungs, kidney, and liver. If a healthy person comes into a hospital, his
organs may be removed in order to save four lives at the cost of one. This, perhaps,
would result in the most good for the greatest number of people.But few would consider it
an acceptable course of action, let alone the most ethical one.

So, although utilitarianism is arguably the most reason-based approach to determining

right and wrong, it has obvious limitations.

From the above discussion ,we can conclude that utilitarianism an important theory of
ethics for common people.
4. When should whistleblowers be given and not be given protections? Discuss.

Answer :- Whistleblowers are employees or former employees in the public or private

sector who expose, or blow the whistle on, illegal conduct that could affect public safety,
cause wasteful spending of tax dollars, result in gross mismanagement, or violate
governmental norms of public accountability.

In a paper written by Brown and Williamson , the following twelve guidelines have been
offered as a precautionary measure before one decides to blow the whistle.

● It is necessary to make sure that the situation justified whistleblowing in spite of the
potential risks involved.
● Examine your motive for whistle blowing. Is it strong and justified under the given
situation?
● Prepare beforehand all the documentary evidence and information. You may have to
produce them in a court of law.
● Clearly understand the category of wrong-doing and the person to whom it should be
reported.
● State your allegation specifically and clearly.
● Be ready with facts always.
● First report the case to the internal supervisor, and if he does not pay any heed, report
it to the external authority (maybe newspapers).
● Decide whether you want to disclose your identity or not. Study the risk.
● Decide whether you should resign or not before whistle blowing. One should take into
account all the possible consequences and risks involved in whistleblowing.
● Follow proper guidelines for reporting such cases of wrong-doing.

Depending on the situation of the case for which WB is resorted to, protection may or
may not be justified. Protection to the whistle blower is justified under the following
situations:
● The whistleblower is fighting for a morally right cause.
● He is fighting for a common cause which affects his colleagues and the public.
● Protection can be given by keeping his name and identity secret.
● Legal protection can be given if he is fighting a socially and morally just cause.
● In case of any punishment imposed upon him by his firm, the government can take
action against the firm if the latter is right. However, protection should not be granted to
a whistleblower under the following situations (Ewing, 1977).
● If the whistleblower has divulged the confidential matter of the company which is
supposed to be kept secret for the sake of business.
● When the accusation is not convincing about the wrong-doing of the company and
when that accusation is damaging to the company.
● When the accusations are irrelevant to the policy and practices that may appear to be
irresponsible or illegal.
● Whistle blower relating to a manager’s competence in daily work decisions has
nothing to do with legality or ethicality. So this type of accusation is not to get any
protection from any quarter.
● Whistleblower against the decision of the management to transfer, demote or
discharge, if rightly done, is not legal or moral. Hence, the whistleblower should not be
protected.