BSBM FM 2-1

Division of Ethics

1. Metaethics

The term "meta" means after or beyond, and, consequently, the notion of metaethics involves a
removed, or bird's eye view of the entire project of ethics. We may define metaethics as the study of
the origin and meaning of ethical concepts. When compared to normative ethics and applied ethics,
the field of metaethics is the least precisely defined area of moral philosophy. It covers issues from
moral semantics to moral epistemology. Two issues, though, are prominent: (1) metaphysical issues
concerning whether morality exists independently of humans, and (2) psychological issues
concerning the underlying mental basis of our moral judgments and conduct.

2. Normative Ethics

Normative ethics involves arriving at moral standards that regulate right and wrong conduct. In a
sense, it is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper behavior. The Golden Rule is a classic example
of a normative principle: We should do to others what we would want others to do to us. Since I do
not want my neighbor to steal my car, then it is wrong for me to steal her car. Since I would want
people to feed me if I was starving, then I should help feed starving people. Using this same
reasoning, I can theoretically determine whether any possible action is right or wrong. So, based on
the Golden Rule, it would also be wrong for me to lie to, harass, victimize, assault, or kill others. The
Golden Rule is an example of a normative theory that establishes a single principle against which we
judge all actions. Other normative theories focus on a set of foundational principles, or a set of good
character traits.
The key assumption in normative ethics is that there is only one ultimate criterion of moral conduct,
whether it is a single rule or a set of principles. Three strategies will be noted here: (1) virtue
theories, (2) duty theories, and (3) consequentialist theories.

a. Virtue Theories

Many philosophers believe that morality consists of following precisely defined rules of conduct, such
as "don't kill," or "don't steal." Presumably, I must learn these rules, and then make sure each of my
actions live up to the rules. Virtue ethics, however, places less emphasis on learning rules, and
instead stresses the importance of developing good habits of character, such as benevolence
(see moral character). Once I've acquired benevolence, for example, I will then habitually act in a
benevolent manner. Historically, virtue theory is one of the oldest normative traditions in Western
philosophy, having its roots in ancient Greek civilization. Plato emphasized four virtues in particular,
which were later called cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. Other important
virtues are fortitude, generosity, self-respect, good temper, and sincerity.

b. Duty Theories

Many of us feel that there are clear obligations we have as human beings, such as to care for our
children, and to not commit murder. Duty theories base morality on specific, foundational principles
of obligation. These theories are sometimes called deontological, from the Greek word deon, or duty,
in view of the foundational nature of our duty or obligation. They are also sometimes
called nonconsequentialist since these principles are obligatory, irrespective of the consequences
that might follow from our actions. For example, it is wrong to not care for our children even if it
results in some great benefit, such as financial savings. There are four central duty theories.

c. Consequentialist Theories

It is common for us to determine our moral responsibility by weighing the consequences of our
actions. According to consequentialism, correct moral conduct is determined solely by a cost-benefit
analysis of an action's consequences:
Consequentialism: An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable
than unfavorable.

3. Applied Ethics

Applied ethics is the branch of ethics which consists of the analysis of specific, controversial moral
issues such as abortion, animal rights, or euthanasia. In recent years applied ethical issues have
been subdivided into convenient groups such as medical ethics, business ethics, environmental
ethics, and sexual ethics. Generally speaking, two features are necessary for an issue to be
considered an "applied ethical issue." First, the issue needs to be controversial in the sense that
there are significant groups of people both for and against the issue at hand. The issue of drive-by
shooting, for example, is not an applied ethical issue, since everyone agrees that this practice is
grossly immoral. By contrast, the issue of gun control would be an applied ethical issue since there
are significant groups of people both for and against gun control.

Thomas Aquinas' Ethics:

 ALSO CALLED THE ANGELIC DOCTOR and the Prince of Scholastics, Thomas Aquinas (1225-
1274) is an Italian philosopher and theologianwho ranks among the most important thinkers of the
medieval time period. 

In Ethics, Aquinas depends so heavily on Aristotle. Like the Greek philosopher, Aquinas believes
that all actions are directed towards ends and that happiness is the final end.Aquinas also thinks that
happiness is not equated with pleasure, material possessions, honor, or any sensual good, but
consists in activities in accordance with virtue. A person needs a moral character cultivated through
the habits of choice to realize real happiness. But like Augustine, Aquinas declares that this ultimate
happiness is not attainable in this life, forhappiness in the present life remains imperfect. True
happiness,then, is to be found only in the souls of the blessed inheaven orin beatitude with God.

Sigmund Freud (1856—1939)

Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, was a physiologist, medical doctor, psychologist and
influential thinker of the early twentieth century. Working initially in close collaboration with Joseph
Breuer, Freud elaborated the theory that the mind is a complex energy-system, the structural
investigation of which is the proper province of psychology. He articulated and refined the concepts
of the unconscious, infantile sexuality and repression, and he proposed a tripartite account of the
mind’s structure—all as part of a radically new conceptual and therapeutic frame of reference for the
understanding of human psychological development and the treatment of abnormal mental
conditions. Notwithstanding the multiple manifestations of psychoanalysis as it exists today, it can in
almost all fundamental respects be traced directly back to Freud’s original work.
Freud’s innovative treatment of human actions, dreams, and indeed of cultural artifacts as invariably
possessing implicit symbolic significance has proven to be extraordinarily fruitful, and has had
massive implications for a wide variety of fields including psychology, anthropology, semiotics, and
artistic creativity and appreciation. However, Freud’s most important and frequently re-iterated claim,
that with psychoanalysis he had invented a successful science of the mind, remains the subject of
much critical debate and controversy.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century psychologist known primarily for his research into moral
psychology and development. 

PROFESSIONAL LIFE
Lawrence Kohlberg was born in Bronxville, New York on October 25, 1927. Kohlberg enrolled in
the University of Chicago, and with high examination scores, he was excused from many
required courses and received his bachelor’s degree in just one year. He received his PhD in
psychology from the University of Chicago in 1958. 

CONTRIBUTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development were influenced by the Swiss psychologist Jean
Piaget’s stage-based theory of development. Kohlberg expanded on Piaget’s two stages,
identifying six stages of moral development. He argued that correct moral reasoning was the
most significant factor in moral decision-making, and that correct moral reasoning would lead to
ethical behavior. Kohlberg believed that individuals progress through stages of moral
development just as they progress through stages of cognitive development.
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development included three levels and six stages:

 Preconventional Morality:
o Stage one: Obedience and punishment. The child is motivated to avoid
punishment and has little or no independent moral reasoning.  
o Stage two: Individualism and exchange. Individuals are focused on fulfilling their
own self-interests, while acknowledging that different people have different views.  
 Conventional Morality:
o Stage three: Maintaining interpersonal relationships. At this stage, individuals
emphasize the importance of being kind to other people, engaging in “good”
behavior and showing concern for others. This stage includes a strong emphasis
on gaining approval. 
o Stage four: Law and order. The individual is determined to obey the rules,
focusing on the value that the law adds to human life. A person at this stage might
argue that breaking the law is wrong because the law is designed to protect
people. Stage 4 individuals focus on maintaining the social order and upholding
cultural norms. 
 Post-Conventional Morality
 o Stage five: Social contract. People at this stage of development focus on doing
what is best for society as a whole and respecting individual rights. Civil
disobedience would be endorsed by people in both stages of post-conventional
morality. 
o Stage six: Universal principles. At this stage, individuals are focused on upholding
principles of universal justice, fairness, and ethics. They believe in the democratic
process, but also endorse disobeying unjust laws. 
To determine which stage of moral development his subjects were in, Kohlberg presented them
with invented moral dilemmas, such as the case of a man who stole medicine for his sick wife.
According to Kohlberg, few people reach stages five and six; most tend to stay at stage four. 

THE DEONTOLOGICAL AND TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS APPROACH.

One factor we can use to better understand how to apply an ethical theory is to determine whether it
is deontological or teleological. DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS SYSTEMS rely on our sense of duty to
act according to what is right. Therefore, they are very much focused on whether an action is morally
right in and of itself, rather than looking to the consequences, intentions or motives of an action. We
might say that these rules are therefore 'absolute'- they hold complete authority and do not change
to fit different situations, but rather should be applied all the time. An example of a deontological
theory includes Aquinas' Natural Moral Law, since it proposes a set of key 'primary precepts' and
appeals to our duty to follow these , regardless of the situation we may be in; for example the rule
that we must always act to 'preserve life' - i.e. to not kill.

A TELEOLOGICAL THEORY, on the other hand, looks to the consequences or 'end' of an action to
determine whether it is morally right. This comes from the Greek word 'telos' meaning 'ultimate aim'.
A teleological theory can therefore be applied situationally and contextually - we must consider
whether an action in a given situation will produce a desired outcome. In Bentham's theory of
Utilitarianism, for example, all actions that lead to 'pleasure' or 'utility' are morally right. In this case,
we cannot say 'killing is always wrong', but should consider cases separately for their outcomes: for
example in the case of death penalty for a proven serial killer, this may be seen as morally justified
as it reduces overall pain.

1. Deontology is an approach to ethics which adheres to the theory that an end does not justify the
means while teleology is an approach to ethics that adheres to the theory that the end always
justifies the means.
2. Deontology is also known as duty-based ethics while teleology is also known as results-oriented
ethics.
3. Deontology adheres to the Golden Rule which is to do unto others what you want them to do unto
you while teleology does not; rather, it is also referred to as the greatest happiness principle
because it justifies an action if it produces the greatest happiness and least amount of pain.
4. Deontology teaches to be fair and not to use others for selfish reasons while teleology teaches
about doing whatever actions produce a result that is agreeable to a person.
5. Teleology examines past experiences in order to predict the results of a present action while
deontology follows what is morally right based on the values that are instilled in each person.

The relationship of ethics with other sciences and other phases of human life “the
unexamined life is not worth living.” – Socrates

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature and the morality of human conduct. Ethics is
related to other sciences because it also deals with the investigation of the nature of man as a
rational being and a being in relation with other beings. The focus and the locus of ethics is to study
man’s nature and his behavior from the standpoint of morality. The material object of ethics is the
human conduct and the formal object is morality.

Relationship of Ethics with other Sciences

ETHICS AND LOGIC. Ethics is the study of correct action or doing, while logic studies the process
of correct and organized thinking. Doing follows thinking.
(based on perceiving action) – Ethics focus first and foremost on the demands of the subjective
human world, or world of people and relationships. • (in communication) – ethics focuses and studies
people’s feelings and emotional states based on non-verbal information and how things are said.
Logic focused on the demands of the material, nonhuman world, or world of things in one’s
environment. (In communication) – Logic focuses on and studies what is done and said, or the
content of one’s speech. (On intellectual qualities) – Ethics is people- oriented while logic is task-
oriented. Ethics is focused on enhancing relationships, modifying content and forms of speech to
match or contradict what others expect to hear. Logic is focused on not misleading a person and
giving him correct information. (Behavioral relationship) – Ethics shows people’s feelings for their
partners directly through emotions. While logic shows their feelings for their partners by doing things
for them.
The reason for this is that because when an individual think right means he/she will do the right. This
is how Logic is related to Ethics. Logic tells us how to think right so that an individual can do the right
and doing the right with the basis of morality is what we consider as Ethics.

ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY. Psychology studies how man behaves, while ethics studies how man
ought to behave. Psychology is not interested in the morality of human behavior, while ethics is
concerned with man’s moral obligation or the result of his behavior. Ethics is the study of human
behavior from the perspective of morality. Psychology on the other hand, is the scientific study of
mental and behavioral characteristics, associated with a particular kind of behavior.

The relation between these two sciences is based upon the comparison on their basic aim that is to
study man, its nature and its behavior. However, there is a basic difference between Ethics and
Psychology. The science of Psychology is not concerned with the morality of man’s action; this
science is only concern of how man ought to behave.

ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY. Sociology deals with the study of social order while ethics deals with
the study of moral order in the society. There is no social order if there is no moral order. Therefore,
the foundation of any society depends on the moral values of people and their perspective concept
of what is good and bad in human relationships. Society depends on ethics for its underlying
principles. • sociology deals with human relations in a society, but human relations are based on
proper order and proper order comes only with the proper observance of moral laws and principles
which regulate the actions of men and women in a community.

They are related as Ethics is concerned in dealing with the moral order that eventually includes the
social order of society. It was being said that society depends upon the science of Ethics for its
principles. Sociology as a science is concerned with the relationship of humans to his/her fellow
individuals and to his/her society upon the observance on the moral laws and principles that will
eventually regulate man’s action in his/her community.

ETHICS AND ECONOMICS. Economics as a science deals with the study of wages, labor,
production, and distribution of wealth. These involves relationship among individuals. Ex: wages:
between employer and employee; production: between seller and customer. At the heart of these
behavior are moral norms and moral rules that should guides people behavior as they relate with
others.

As economics deals with labor, wages, production, as well as distribution of wealth, Ethics as a
science somehow acts in the different relations in the business processes. This would be based on
justice, charity as well as moral principles that would eventually create a prevailing harmony in the
community. Man can also be considered as an economic being. This consideration involves man in
different economic activities which should be guided with the norms and principles of Ethics.

According to Charles k. Wilber (1986) there are three ways in which ethics enters economics: 1.
Economist have ethical values that help shape the way they do economics. 2. Economic actors
(consumers, workers, business owners) have ethical values that help shape their behavior. 3.
Economic institutions and policies impact people differentially and thus, ethical evaluations, are
important.

ETHICS AND LAW. Ethics and law are closely related ethics deals with morality, and when we
speak morality, we mean primarily the moral law. Law may be defined as crystallized ethics. Laws
are intended to regulate the external actions of man while ethics investigates and probes the internal
disposition of man, such as his motivations and his thoughts. Many acts that would be widely
condemned as unethical are not prohibited by law.

ETHICS AND RELIGION. Ethics is a discipline or set of oral principles and values governing an
individual or institution behavior. •religion generally refers to the service and worship of god (or some
other object) and is typically expressed as a personal or institutional set of beliefs, attitudes, and
practices.

Ethics evaluates the behavior of man against his values regardless of the source of those values.
While religion certainly can create an impact on individuals and may actually include mandates for
ethical behavior, it is a distinct concept from ethics. Both ethics and religion are based on the same
postulates. Ehics and religion have the same end or purpose– that is, the attainment of man’s
happiness in this life and beyond. Lastly, ethics and religion prescribe right living as the means of
attaining the goal of man in this world.

ETHICS AND THE PROFESSIONAL CODES OF CONDUCT PROFESSIONAL -is relating to or

characteristic of a profession; engaged in one of the professions; participating for gain in an activity
not engaged in by amateurs. Professionalism -on the other hand is the conduct that characterizes a
profession or a professional person; or it can also be the pursuit of a profession for gain or livelihood.
E.g. as a manager, engineer or as a lawyer.

The words “profession” and “professional” imply a public declaration with the force of a promise.
Professions are groups which declare in a public manner that their members will act in certain ways
according to their profession and that the same group and in some instances, the society may
discipline those who fail to conform to its prescribe ways. The traditional professions include
medicine, law, education, and clergy. Professional code of ethics -is a set of behavioral guidelines
that members of a profession are required by their association to observe in the course of their
professional practice. These guidelines, in general terms, prescribe responsibilities that members
must adhere to & questionable situations in which they must not be involved. In some cases,
members must be sanctioned for violation of the code. These sanctions may include the ff: •payment
of a fine; •payment of the cost of any investigation; •reprimand; •imposition of conditions on
membership; •suspension from membership; and •expulsion from membership.
ETHICS AND ETIQUETTE. Etiquette came from the french word which means ticket. It is a code of
behavior that outlines expectations for social behavior within a society, social class or group. Rules
of etiquette include all aspects of social interaction including manners. But etiquette is not just about
saying 'please' and 'thank you'. One important function of etiquette is that it shows respect and
deference to others. it can vary a lot from country to country especially in business and social
interaction.

Ethics -are the moral or honest way to behave. Etiquette -is the polite and "proper" way to behave.

ETHICS AND EDUCATION. Education - defined as an instructor or training by which people learn to
develop and use their mental, moral and physical powers and abilities. It also one way of gaining
experience about human life. Since man however, is primarily a rational moral being, the purpose of
education is to perfect the moral character in man. “Education is coextensive with life. “ Great
educator hence, we can say that ethics is life because it is the one that gives life its direction,
purpose, and meaning.

ETHICS AND ART. Art is concerned with the use of imagination to make things of aesthetic
significance. Ethics is aimed at conforming to an accepted standard of good behavior. - it also
stands for moral goodness, art, and beauty. It may difficult to ascertain whether a piece of art which
is offensive to morals can be considered beautiful. Both true art and true ethics have the same aim:
that is, to arouse and to inspire the noble emotions of man, thereby creating no conflict at all.
Consequently, an art which arouses the lower impulses of man defeats the very purpose of art.
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