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PII: SO147-1767(97)00005-9
ELLEN FEGHALI
Beirut, Lebanon
The author would like to express thanks to Antoine Feghali, Judith Martin, and Charles
Braithwaite for their valuable comments.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Dr. Ellen Kussman Feghali: Director of Research &
Development, TimezerO s.a.r.l., Abou Jaoude Street, near La Tour Building. Baouchrieh,
Beirut, Lebanon or e-mail: timezero@sodetel.net.lb
345
346 E. Feghali
to the north and east, the Arab world borders on the non-Arab Muslim
Middle Eastern countries of Turkey. Iran, Afghanistan. and Pakistan; while to
the south, in Africa, the Arab world gradually gives way to the non-Arab
Muslim Middle Eastern areas of the Saharan and Sudanic countries (p. 1I ).
In other words, the Arab world is included in the Middle East, which is
further encompassed by the worldwide Islamic community. While Arab
countries are considered Middle Eastern. not all Middle Eastern countries
are Arab. And while approximately 85-90% of the Arab population is
Muslim, only around 20% of the world’s Muslims are Arabs (Kimball.
1984). For a perspective on diversity within the Arab Muslim community,
see AI-Shahi (1987).
Another means of identifying “Arab” countries, albeit problematic. is
the League of Arab States, formed in March 1945 to promote cooperation
among countries of Arab culture and language. Membership presently
includes 22 sovereign states (see Table 1). The organization may link states
politically and economically. However, to say that the countries belonging
to the Arab League are similar in terms of predominant cultural attitudes.
behaviors. and discourse would be highly misleading. Nationals of African
countries such as Mauritania, Somalia, and the Sudan often do not speak
Arabic but tribal languages, and traditional practices may be more related
to an African heritage.
In another example, members of the Christian Maronite community in
Lebanon are strikingly different from Saudi Arabian Muslims in attitudes.
behaviors, and general lifestyle. Both the geography of Lebanon and its
location as a “gateway” to the Middle East have contributed to its plural
and cosmopolitan nature. Friedman (1990) writes that the Maronites
survived “by entrenching themselves in the rugged terrain of Mount
Lebanon, and by regularly seeking help from, and forging alliances with.
Christians in the West-from the Crusaders to modern France” (p. 1 I).
As a result, the community is one in “constant vacillation between Eastern
and Western national and cultural loyalties-between Arab Eastern Chris-
‘Although I use Patai’s (Patai. 1983) framework for understanding the boundaries of the
Arab region, much of his work has served to dichotomize the West and the Arab world. A.\
Said (1978) states, Patai’s writing-particularly in The Arab mid -aims at “a very particular
sort of compression and reduction. he describes the Middle East as a ‘cultural area’ but
the result is to eradicate the plurality of differences among the Arabs in the interest of one
difference. that one setting Arabs off from everyone else” (p. 309).
348 E. Feghali
TABLE 1
Area Country
“The data in this table is from The Middle East & North Africa (1995, p. 232). London:
Europa Publications Limited.
tian and Western French Catholic” (Ayoub, 1994, p. 244). Saudi Arabians,
on the other hand, maintain a comparatively closed society by requiring
conformity to rigid gender roles and Islamic sharia law and by strictly
regulating interaction with the multitude of foreigner workers living sep-
arately on compounds. According to Mackey (1987), “Saudi Arabia never
was nor is likely ever to be a melting pot. Its society, built on family and
tribe, is incapable of assimilating outsiders even on a casual basis” (p. 37).
While national boundaries and membership in the League of Arab
States have been discussed, the second question arises, Who is “Arab”?
Arab has been predominantly viewed as an a priori classification and
group membership. Westerners frequently group Iranians with Arabs as
Arab Cultural Communication Patterns 349
well, in spite of the fact that members of the two groups view themselves
quite distinct from one another in terms of language, customs, and ident-
ity.2 Faris and Husayn (1955) suggest that unifying features of Arabs
include: “a common language, a common history and mentality, an all-
but-common religion, and common economic interests” (p. 21). Almaney
and Alwan (1982), on the other hand, explain that “the term ‘Arab’
becomes strange and baffling when you dig into just what it means” (p.
30).
It is easier to specify what an Arab is not rather than what s/he is. Arab
is not a race, religion, or nationality (Almaney & Alwan, 1982, pp. 3&
31). Throughout the region, people vary in terms of such physical charac-
teristics as hair, eye and skin color. Although Arab countries are pre-
dominantly Muslim, Lebanon and Egypt have substantial Christian
populations, though figures are inconsistent. Estimates of Lebanon’s pre-
sent Christian population range from 30 to 38% (Cobban, 1985, p. 16;
Fisk, 1990, p. 67; Khalaf, 1993, p. 117) down from 51% cited in the one
and only official census taken in 1932. Egypt’s Christian community is
estimated at 7720% (Mansfield, 1985, p. 410; Rugh, 1986, p. 157) includ-
ing two to five million Copts (The Middle East & North Africa, 1995;
Polk, 1991, p. 22). The diversity of religious groups in these countries has
both promoted understanding of alternative perspectives and agitated
competition for influence and resources.
‘Problematic descriptions of Arabs in basic intercultural texts have transmitted both incorrect
information and potentially dangerous generalizations. In one introductory intercultural
text, for example, the authors illustrate negative connotations of the Persian word for
“compromise”. Within the example, however, the authors explain how Arabs view mediators,
then describe Kurt Waldheim’s failed 1980 negotiation visit to Iran (Samovar & Porter,
199Ia, p.240). It is likely, or indeed probable, that undergraduate students in the U.S. are
unable to distinguish Iranians as predominantly Shi’a Muslims, Farsi (or Persian) speakers
with a culture distinct in many ways from those who consider themselves Arab. While
features of Iranian negotiation style may be similar to those of Arabs, more accurate examples
or wording will permit readers to discern differences between Arab and non-Arab Middle
Eastern groups.
Second, some researchers who have investigated communicative phenomena in one Arab
country have titled their pieces “Arab” or “Middle Eastern”. Anderson (1989190) for
instance, analyzed Saudi Arabian and American advocacy advertisements published during
the 1973 oil embargo. The title of her article, “A comparison of Arab and American
conceptions of ‘effective’ persuasion”, may give the impression that rules for political debate
in Saudi Arabia may be applied to people of the entire region. Despite the fact that Saudis
projected the image of Arabs as a unified group in their advocacy advertisement. it is
important to note that people from other Arab countries view themselves as quite different
from Saudis, proud of their own national heritages, and may object to being grouped by
Saudis as “one” people. The point here is not to encourage extreme relativism but to consider
the generality of our words, Only after we have investigated communicative phenomena
throughout the region can we speculate about what is Arab in a broader, generalizable sense.
At that time. we will be able to make more valid statements and cross-cultural comparisons.
350 E. Feghali
Finally, while some Arab nationalists may desire one nation, a single
Arab state or nationality does not exist. Faour (1993) provides a com-
prehensive historical analysis of ideological movements in the region.
From its beginnings in the late nineteenth century, pan-Arabism (al-gaw-
miyya al-‘Arabiyyu) came to dominate Middle East politics in the 1950s
and 60s. However, its failure to offer feasible solutions to economic and
political problems, as well as its failure to take into account genuine
differences among the Arab countries, resulted in its decline. The 1978
Camp David Accords’ near-fatal wounding of the pan-Arabism movement
gave rise to contemporary competing ideologies: territorial nationalism
(wutuniyyu) and Islamism. While ruling elites of Arab nations endorse
territorial nationalism and state sovereignty, Shi’a and Sunni Islamists
advocate contrasting strategies and goals in support of the establishment
of theocracies in Muslim-majority countries. “Which side will emerge
victorious will depend largely on three factors: the fate of the Middle East
peace talks, the state of each country’s economy, and the prospects for
democratization within each nation” (Faour, 1993, p. 75). At the micro-
level, these movements have stimulated communicative differences along
intrareligious and interreligious lines: in language, dress, appearance, use
of identity symbols (Rugh, 1986), and segregation of common living spaces
(Khalaf, 1993) of groups around the region.
Perhaps the most accurate definition for “Arab” accepted for this review
is a native perspective offered by Jabra (1971): “. . . anyone who speaks
Arabic as his [or her] own language and consequently feels as an Arab”
(p. 174). This definition takes into consideration people outside the region
who identify with and take pride in the Arabic language, customs, and
historical accomplishments. In addition, it accounts for native Arabic
speakers within the region who do not identify themselves as Arab. Sch-
olars interested in investigating a group in terms of its shared beliefs,
values, and practices should likewise depend on participants’ attitudes and
interaction patterns which sustain their unique communal identity.
‘Journals reviewed for this article include: Communication, Communication Education, Com-
munication Monographs, Communication Research, Communication Quarterly,, Com-
munication Studies/Central Speech Journal, Communication Yearbook, Critical Studies in
Mass Communication, Howard Journal of Communication, Human Communication Research,
International & Intercultural Communication Annuals. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations. Journal of Applied Communication, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,
Journal of Communication, Journal of Communication Inquir.y, Language and Communication,
Language in Society, Mass Communication Review, Media, Culture & Societ_v, Political
Conununication & Persuasion, Quarterly Journal of Speech, Southern Speech Journal, Text &
Performance Quarterly/Literature in Performance, and Western Journal of Communication.
Articles from Gazette and Journalism Quarterly were also used where appropriate.
“Scholars interested in additional resources should consult the following publications:
Anthropological Quarterly, Ethnic Groups, Ethnic and Racial Studies, International Journal of
Comparative Sociology, International Journal of Group Tensions, International Journal of
Intercultural Relations, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, International Journal
of Women’s Studies, International Journal of World Peace, International Sociology, Journal
of Asian and African Studies, Journal of Comparative Cultures, Linguistic Anthropology,
Middle East Journal, and Middle East Studies.
‘While not discussed separately, readers should keep in mind the very strong influence of
Islam in the daily lives of both Arab Muslims and non-Muslims (See Lippman, 1990; Martin,
1982; Mostyn & Hourani. 1988, pp. 16G195; Rugh, 1986).
352 E. Feghali
and friendship” (p. 105). Behavior toward others as “kin” and “family”
is not totally accounted for by biogenetic terms. Anthropologists have
imported their own notions of “natural” ties in the past, which resulted in
overstressed genealogical kinship ideologies and emphasis on groupings
such as the “clan” or “tribe”. The limitation of kinship to blood relatives
or village neglects extensive relations of loyalty and obligation, as well as
active co-creation of Arabs in larger political and cultural organizations
(Said, 1978, p. 312).
In societies where interdependence rather than individual autonomy is
stressed, behaviors which enhance social relations are crucial. Nomadic
hospitality or diyafa dates to pre-Islamic times and emerged as a coping
mechanism in the desert environment, where individuals were utterly
dependent on the assistance of others during travel or for protection from
avengers or oppressors.
Hospitality. Almaney and Alwan (1982) indicate that “to a foreigner, the
Arabs’ outstanding trait may well be hospitality” (p. 91). Impressed on
children very early, hospitality reflects a desired personal quality and
symbolizes status. Hospitality predates the zakat, the Muslim duty of
giving 2:% of one’s wealth to the poor, and serves to counterbalance
disparity between rich and poor. Certain occasions require elaborate dis-
plays of hospitality. During “marriage, burial, circumcision, and the com-
pletion of house-building; during the holy month of Ramadan, village-
wide visiting and sharing of meals.. is common” (Patai, 1983, p. 86).
Hospitality in the guest-host relationship is guided by unmentioned and
subtle cultural rules which depend on territoriality, and the financial and
social statuses of the individuals involved. Yousef (1974) indicates that
social situations in America commonly require a verbal or written invi-
tation, while in Arab societies, the situation is vague, complex, and defined
by context. Scholars suggest, in general, that hospitality requires immedi-
ate and extensive welcomes or assistance (Almaney & Alwan, 1982; Nydell,
1987). Arabs expect hospitality from others, and one’s personal status and
reputation may be affected by the absence of such behavior.
Such an approach though fails to consider the nuances involved in
patterns of hospitality and visiting. Eichelman (198 1) indicates that “these
patterns vary considerably according to whether members of the family
are urban or rural, wealthy or poor, concentrated in one particular locality,
or widely dispersed” (p. 121). In her study of the etiquette of visiting in
the Tunisian village of Sidi Amur, Abu-Zahra (1974) found that paying
an uncalled-for visit puts the host in a vulnerable position. Prestige.
however, is manifest in one’s making few visits to others, while receiving
many. The host must have the wealth and ability to provide favors to
guests. In accordance with the set of highly elaborate rules which guide
visiting in Sidi Amur, “people should be either formally invited or should
354 E. Feghali
‘A great deal of research has examined male-female relations in Arab societies, and a
discussion of it is beyond the scope of this article. In general, maleefemale relations in Arab
societies are discussed in negative tones and through biased comparisons, As Joseph (1983)
suggests, “perhaps in no [other] area of the world have western Gender biases more emphati-
cally polarized male and female images” (p. 2). An example from an introductory intercultural
text illustrates this point: “in Saudi Arabia, because of strict and specific Islamic laws, women
are raised in a style that is bound to influence how people in that culture view them-and in
my respects women are outside that culture. One grows up in Saudi Arabia knowing that
women have few legal rights and in most instances are not allowed to drive a car or even
obtain a passport without the written consent of a male family member. Arranged marriages
are still the rule. As you can see, women’s liberation (as least as North Americans perceive
it) has not yet arrived in Saudi Arabia” (Samovar & Porter, 1991a, p. 81).
Other scholars, however, have discussed women as powerful and dangerous beings (Mer-
nissi, 1987); the perception of the veil as a symbol of women’s status (MacLeod, 1991;
Patterson, 1987; Rugh, 1986; among others); the practice of female circumcision wrongly
associated with Islam (Ezzat, 1994; Gruenbaum, 1988); and Arab women’s lives from
women’s perspectives (Abu-Lughod, 1987; Atiyeh, 1982; Fernea, 1985; Jowkar, 1986;
Mernissi, 1987; Rassam, 1982; Shaarawi, 1987).
Arab Cultural Communication Patterns 355
and, thus, maintain a chaste reputation. Even if a woman has not encour-
aged an advance that is observed or becomes known, her family may be
dishonored.
Violations are a matter of reputation more than fact. In other words, the
penalty for loss of ‘irdis related to public acknowledgment of the violation;
further, light to severe penalties, including death, must be enacted pro-
mptly to protect the ‘ird of the family.
Dodd (1973) posits that urbanization, political revolution, and edu-
cation have not significantly changed the importance of ‘ird and its related
norms. To the present day, reports of “honor crimes” are periodically
published in contemporary media in the region. A June 1994 newspaper
article in the Jordan Times, for instance, reported that a 16-year-old girl
stabbed by her older brother was “the 12th woman to be reported killed
in a ‘crime of honour’ in Jordan this year” (Husseini, 1994). Aamiry
(1994) in a recent study of domestic abuse in Jordan, verifies that legal
systems uphold this practice by failing to negatively sanction men who
have killed female relatives in the name of family honor. It is reasonable
to maintain, at the present time, that dishonorable behavior is considered
disruptive and threatening to the social standing of families and communi-
ties. The concept of honor, in a metaphorical sense, may also be extended
to the national level (Dodd, 1973; Mackey, 1987). While Westerners
recognize the importance of honor and dignity, the concepts do not carry
the same connotation and passion as for members of Arab societies.
In sum, the collective nature of Arab peoples and their emphasis on
hospitality and honor function to ensure cohesion and group survival.
Maintenance of basic values depends on the conformity of group members
to preferred modes of behavior.
Finally, the discussion above illuminates the role of context, which has
not been adequately considered in studies of cultural values. Mishler (1979)
reviews the paradox of knowing human action and experience are context
dependent while designing research which strips or controls contextual
features. The importance of context becomes apparent when we seek more
detailed information about the values described earlier. What types of
individualistic, rather than collective, behaviors are valued and condoned
in Arab societies? In what situations is inhospitable behavior used to
regulate interaction? What functions does it serve? What are dishonorable
behaviors, and when are they more functional than honorable behavior?
Given these problematic areas, we must consider how individuals and
groups evaluate departures from normative behavior, as well as the inter-
connectedness of changing values with the sociopolitical and economic
realities in Arab countries. Future research should adopt descriptive-
theoretical frameworks [Hymes’ (Hymes, 1972) ethnography of com-
munication; Sigman’s (Sigman, 1987) approach to social communication]
which first permit investigation of communicative phenomena natu-
ralistically and, second, provide the necessary foundation for later com-
parison of phenomena among dissimilar groups.
Kim (1988) describes language as “a ‘veil’ over the reality of the culture
in which it is used, involving an agreement of its users about what there is
to be seen and how it should be seen” (p. 89). Studies related to the Arabic
language have focused primarily on: (a) the multiple forms of Arabic, (b)
codeswitching, and (c) communicative style.
Arab Cultural Communication Patterns 357
Such pious formulas include inshallah (if God wills it), el hamdulillah,
hamdillah, kattirkhairallah and ishkorallah (Thanks be to God), and sm ‘al-
lah (In the name of God). In terms of complimenting behaviors, members
of Arab societies tend to use considerably more proverbs and preceded
ritualistic phrases to praise others (Wolfson, 1981). While language
reformers have indicated that the Arabic language should accommodate
for greater precision and simplicity, Berque (1978) indicates that repetition
is at the very heart of the language and discourse, a feature not easily
changed.
When Arabs are communicating to each other, they are forced to exaggerate
360 E. Feghali
Research Directions
‘While not discussed separately here, some research has examined and compared business
and political negotiation practices with Arabs. In particular, the following concepts are
discussed: “prenegotiation” as a must before decision-making (Scott, 1981; Weiss & Strip,
1985); selection of negotiators (Weiss & Strip, 1985); oral commitment vs. written contracts
(Almaney & Alwan, 1982; Samovar & Porter, 1991a); and communication patterns relevant
for successful business negotiations between the U.S. and Egypt (Cohen, 1987) and Israel
and Egypt (Cohen, 1990a, 1990b).
9A number of studies have examined discourse throughout the Arab-Israeli conflict, in
particular the relational, ideological, and situational dimensions of rhetorical transactions
between Arabs and Israelis (Heisey, 1970); projection of credibility in Anwar El-Sadat’s 1977
speech to the Israeli Knesset or Parliament (Ross, 1980); the shared rhetorical use of the
“refugee” symbol (Edelman, 1990); and common plotlines and characterizations of victims
and villains in Arab and Israeli stories (Collins & Clark, 1990). Others have examined the
evolution of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) as an effective social movement
(Brock & Howell, 1988), the rhetorical functions of the Islamic pulpit or minbar in Egypt
and Iran (Fathi, 1979), and the role of discourse in the Persian Gulf crisis (Simmons, 1992).
“In examinations of presidential discourse and crisis rhetoric related to the Arab countries,
the speeches of former President Ronald Reagan regarding the suicide attack on American
Marines in Lebanon in October 1983 received a reasonable amount of attention (Birdsell,
1987; Dow, 1989; Klope, 1986; Proctor, 1987).
Arab Cultural Communication Patterns 363
TABLE 2
of (a) gestures, (b) touch, (c) interpersonal distance, (d) attitude toward
time, and (e) paralinguistics. Axtell (1985, pp. 71-77) and Lancaster (1988,
pp. 24-27) discuss appropriate nonverbal behavior in Arab societies in a
“how-to” format.
Touch. Based on Hall’s (Hall, 1966) proxemic theory, Arab societies have
been commonly accepted as “contact” cultures, in which people tend to
stand close together and touch frequently. La Barre (1976) suggests that
touching in Arab societies “replaces” the bowing and handshaking rituals
of other societies. (Such a statement, of course, is relative to cultures in
which handshaking or bowing are the norm.) It is more accurate, however,
to stress tendencies toward same-sex touching. Dyads of men or dyads of
women frequently walk hand in hand or arm in arm down streets in Arab
countries.
Touching between members of the opposite sex occurs less often in
Arab Cultural Communication Patterns 365
The term inshduh (“If God wills it” or “God willing”) introduced
earlier is very frequently used by Arabic speakers and, according to Con-
don and Yousef (1975) reflects a present-orientedness in society. While
claims have been forwarded that such a worldview is fatalistic and has
negative consequences for business and national development, others state
more mundane roots of these problems (Palmer, Leila, & Yassin, 1988).
Nydell (1987) specifies that the “belief that God has direct and ultimate
control of all that happens” (p. 34) has been overemphasized by Westerners
and is far more prevalent among traditional, uneducated people in the
region.
Znshulluh is used in a variety of ways to regulate social interaction by
alluding to the possibilities that an action may or may not take place.
More specifically, inshalluh may mean: “yes” at some unspecified future
time; “no”, in terms of “a refusal to make a serious commitment, to take
personal responsibility, or even attempt to deflect the blame for failure for
promised action to take place” (Stevens, 199 1, p. 105); or simply ‘never”.
Stereotypes do exist within the region about people of certain nationalities
who use the term when they do not intend to fulfill their promises. Attend-
ing to the placement of inshdah in a sentence, the presence of the medial
glottal stop, and the intonation with which it is spoken may reveal which
response is being communicated (Stevens, 1991). This delineation of alter-
native meanings reflects active attempts to coordinate and control inter-
action.
Modernization has influenced approach to time in the Arab region.
particularly in regional business centers and other urban environments.
Relatively speaking, however, outsiders encounter less concern for punc-
tuality than Westerners. In part, the importance of maintaining pride and
face is related to bureaucratic gridlock and problems associated with long-
range planning. Of her own experiences in Saudi Arabia, Mackey (1987)
writes that concern over pride results in postponement of important
decisions when fears exist that a decision might be wrong. As a result,
insider or have a ‘friend’ who can make things happen” (p. 50). The
process of using influence in one’s interpersonal network to receive favors,
known as was&, is a central feature of life in the region. The term wasta
signifies the person who mediates or intercedes on behalf of another, as
well as the act itself.
Cunningham and Sarayrah (1993) delineate both negative and positive
aspects of wasta at the individual and societal levels. Wasta suffocates
opportunities based on competence, improvement of weaknesses, and
development of confidence and self-esteem. It benefits current power hol-
ders in society, leaving those at the lower social strata in less fortunate
positions. On the other hand,
the wastaparadox includes a psychic haven amidst the chaos of social change,
providing individuals a sense of belonging to a social entity that provides
unconditional acceptance, and assistance to the novice in solving problems that
are more commonplace to someone more experienced (p. 191).
CONCLUSION
“The Middle East Studies Association (MESA) can be contacted at: University of Arizona,
1643 East Helen Street, Tucson, AZ 85721, U.S.A. Tel: 520-621-5850; fax: 520-321-7752; e-
mail: mesa@ccit.arizona.edu
Arab Cultural Communication Patterns 371
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