epidemiological studies,

treatment of CVDs, drug trials

epidemiological studies (p.53)
the study of patterns of diseases and their causes

some data are presented as "per ____", eg. "per 100"

→ presented as "per __" allows for standardisation and comparison between
groups of different sizes
→ standardisation is a set of techniques to eliminate the effects of some
confounding variables (which affect both IV and DV) to allow for comparison

confounding variables
variables that affect both IV & DV

eg. in the study of effect of years of smoking on relative risk of lung cancer, age
is a confounding variable

people with longer years of smoking are likely older people

as age increases, chances of lung cancer may also increase regardless of

whether one smokes or not

types of studies
longitudinal studies cross-sectional studies

a group of participants are researchers compare difference and

description observed at intervals over an similarities among people in different
extended period of time age groups at a given time

less time-consuming than the

enables researchers to see how
advantages longitudinal method for studying
individuals change over time
changes over time

time-consuming and expensive: differences between the members of

disadvantages participants may not be available the sample cannot be necessarily
for the duration of the study attributed to age or development

meta-analysis / metadata analysis (p.54)

epidemiological studies, treatment of CVDs, drug trials 1

 analysis of available data from studies in a certain area (by literature study)
→ combine results from various studies to give more reliable results

valid ≠ precise ≠ reliable (p.54)

precise ≠ accurate (biozone p.12)

correlation ≠ causation (p.53)

scatter plots and correlation

line of best fit

outlier: a data point that is far away from the rest of the data set

correlation coefficient

indicates strength of the relationship between 2 variables, eg. x and

y

varies from -1 to +1

-1: perfect negative correlation (2 variables are inversely

proportional)

+1: perfect positive correlation (2 variables are directly proportional

diets high is saturated fats is not the cause of atherosclerosis and CVDs
(p.62)

→ risk factors ≠ causes

example of contradictory evidence

example of contradictory evidence

dietary antioxidants & CVDs (p.63,64)

it was thought that dietary antioxidants (eg. vitamin A, C, E in fruits and

vegetables) can donate elections to reduce / neutralise / stabilise free
radicals
→ inhibit oxidation of other molecules & reduce oxidative stress to prevent
cell damage
→ reduce plaque / atheroma formation in blood vessels

→ reduce risk of CVDs

epidemiological studies, treatment of CVDs, drug trials 2

 a major metadata study looked at all the evidence for the antioxidant
properties of vitamin C as an explanation of the know benefits of fruit and
vegetables on heart health

→ conclusion: no relationship; taking vitamin C supplements could even

damage heart heath

good example of where there is contradictory evidence

→ scientists must look at all of that evidence to avoid coming to the wrong
conclusions

good design of epidemiological studies

large sample size (include different gender, ethnicities etc.)

ranom sample selection

control of appropriate variables for comparison (same gender, age, similar

lifestyle, similar health conditions, no known CVDs)

longer study time

quantify variables if appropriate

appropriate statistical analysis

conclusions should not be biased by who carries out or funds the studies (p.54)

peer review from other scientists

treatments of CVDs
worksheet

drug trials (p. 68, 241-243)

use of placebo (control group) to compare with the treatment group receiving the
drug being trialled

→ prevent false results in effectiveness of the drug due to the placebo effect

placebo: an inactive substance resembling a drug being trialed which is used

as an experimental control

double blind trial (p.243)

epidemiological studies, treatment of CVDs, drug trials 3

 a trial in which both the participants and the scientists / doctors who conduct
the study do not know who are in the treatment group or the placebo group
to avoid bias in the results

to determine if the difference between the 2 sample groups is

significant
standard deviation

gives a measure of the spread of a normal distribution around the mean

value

more widely spread data → larger sd

normal distribution curve

error bar

indicates dispersion of data from the mean

often represents the standard deviation of a data set (S.D. error bar)

if the SD error bars do not overlap

→ difference between the 2 data sets is (likely) significant

if the SD error bars overlap

→ difference between the 2 data sets is not signiicant

epidemiological studies, treatment of CVDs, drug trials 4