International Journal of Arts & Sciences,

CD-ROM. ISSN: 1944-6934 :: 09(04):91–100 (2017)

CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE WORKPLACE: EXPLORING THE

IMPACT OF INTERCULTURAL TRAINING ON THE ATTITUDES OF
BUSINESS ACTORS

Anikó Tompos and Lívia Ablonczy-Mihályka

Széchenyi István University, Hungary

The last decades saw the emergence of culturally heterogeneous workplaces in Hungary. Both
researchers and professionals working in international business settings agree that the growing trend to
work with people of different cultural backgrounds provokes strong reactions, positive and negative.
Intercultural training programmes are seen as a means to facilitate effective work across cultural
differences. However, little is known about the impact of these programmes. The purpose of the paper
is to present and discuss the findings of a questionnaire survey (N=367), which set out to gather
information about the quantity, content and effect of intercultural training programmes offered to pre-
and in-work business professionals. The findings seem to show that intercultural training programmes
are not very popular among decision-makers or employees, their content is traditional, and they do not
appear to affect business actors’ thinking, emotions and attitudes towards diversity.

Keywords: Cultural diversity, Intercultural trainings, Intercultural mindset.

Introduction

Both international and national sociological examinations generally depict the Hungarian society as
having very low levels of trust and aversion towards foreigners. For example, the results of the 2015
European Social Survey (ESS) show that Hungarians, when making decisions for or against letting
migrants enter the country, consider their ethnic and religious background as well as their education and
skills, and moreover, 75% of Hungarians would close the country borders in front of at least one of the
examined 7 groups, while almost 20% of the population would not allow foreigners to come to Hungary
at all (GerĘ et al 2015).
Messing and Ságvári (2016) compared data from the 2002 and 2015 rounds of ESS and detected
growth in exclusionary and isolationist attitudes. They found, among others, that the number of those who
would not be disturbed by having a foreigner as their boss or as the spouse of a close relation had dropped
from 27% to 13%. The data of the 2015 round of ESS had been collected before the recent migration
crisis began in Europe. In a referendum held in October 2016 more than 98% of Hungarians voted against
mandatory European Union refugee relocation quotas, although the participation rate of 41% shapes the
picture.
Against this psychological background is the economic reality that there is a growing lack of skilled
workers and professionals in Hungary. Further, the change of regime in 1990 and Hungary’s admission
into the European Union in 2004 have resulted in increasing numbers of international workplaces.

91
92 Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Exploring the Impact of Intercultural ...

Consequently, there is a need for Hungarian managers and employees to move across cultural boundaries
in all walks of life, but most importantly in the business sector in order to effectively communicate and
cooperate with non-Hungarian superiors, subordinates and colleagues. Theoretically and
methodologically grounded intercultural trainings are believed to raise participants’ cultural awareness
and sensitivity, and equip them with practical skills and applicable knowledge, which in turn is expected
to result in improved intercultural interactions.
Intercultural training programmes have a relatively long history, as “cultures of the world are getting
more and more interconnected and (…) the business world is becoming increasingly global” (House
2004: 1). In line with their theoretical background and actual emphasis, they are also called cross-
cultural, diversity, or cultural sensitivity trainings, to name but a few variations. Although the differences
between them are acknowledged, these trainings will be referred to almost exclusively as intercultural
training in the present paper since this is the term most commonly used in Hungarian specialist literature,
in education, and on the service market.

Literature Review

The past few decades have seen a shift in the approach and methodology of intercultural trainings. The
former intercultural dichotomy, which mainly concentrated on the comparison of two cultures, has been
replaced by a multicultural approach (Hidasi 2015: 10), while the focus is on experience (‘subjective
culture’) rather than on objective culture represented by products (Bennet and Bennet 2004: 150). The
aim is to provide trainees with a safe form of reference in ambiguous intercultural situations in a way so
that once they actually go though the intercultural experience they can discard this ‘safety net’ and refer
to their own experiences (Bakic-Miric 2008). The methods, accordingly, rely more on the techniques used
in coaching rather than those used when transferring knowledge, and thus trainers are to guide
participants’ procession and treatment of experiential information and knowledge (Rosinski 2003; Ng
et al. 2009).
Dongfeng (2012: 73) suggests that cross-cultural training programmes should have the following
four characteristics: (1) Since the most important parts of culture for a newcomer are the hidden values
that govern behaviour, trainees should be helped to move from the overt and descriptive level to the
analytical and interpretive level; (2) Trainees must be made to understand the dynamics of cross-cultural
communication and adaptation; (3) In order to develop coping strategies and understanding rather than
amassing questionable information, training programmes should move from the culture-general to the
culture-specific, encouraging trainees to reflect on their own culture as well as the foreign culture; (4) A
training programme should provide the conceptual frameworks for understanding as well as the
opportunities to apply them through participatory or experimental exercises so that each trainee develops
their own strategies for cross-cultural adjustment and communication. Hidasi (2015: 10), perhaps the
best-known Hungarian academic involved in cross-cultural research and education, also points out that
intercultural trainings (1) are no longer specific to a given country or culture; (2) focus on sensitivity
rather than on concrete knowledge; (3) facilitate knowledge-creation rather than knowledge provision; (4)
help orientation rather than teach.
More than a decade ago, Falkné Bánó (2005) surveyed 36 international companies in Budapest, the
Hungarian capital, and found that only 9 of them provided employees with intercultural trainings, and
moreover, that these trainings almost exclusively targeted top managers. Based on her results and
experience as an intercultural trainer, she commented that although there is an increasing trend in
Hungary to include intercultural communication as a subject into tertiary educational curricula, it is both
surprising and sad that not only small and medium-sized enterprises but also big international companies
ignore the need for such training. In her view, Hungarian managers pay attention to the economic and
financial aspects of their work but tend to neglect its cultural and intercultural aspects. She expressed the
opinion that in many cases managers themselves are not aware of the importance of these aspects. Indeed,
several examinations of the present authors have concluded that Hungarian business professionals tend to
 Anikó Tompos and Lívia Ablonczy-Mihályka 93

attribute miscommunication and even failure to work in and with culturally diverse workgroups to factors
other than lack of intercultural awareness and competence, for example to limited foreign language skills
and knowledge (e.g. Tompos 2013; Tompos & Ablonczy-Mihályka 2015). It has also been found that
Hungarian business negotiators who work in an international context seem to be more aware of cultural
differences than professionals working in other fields of international business (Tompos 2015).
Between 2006 and 2008 Rudnák (2010) carried out a questionnaire survey to find out about the
challenges managers meet in a multinational work environment in Hungary, and also about their coping
strategies. Her results are based on the answers of a total of 116 foreign and 222 Hungarian managers.
With regard to her Hungarian respondents, among others, she found that (1) almost 40% had not met
representatives of other cultures in their childhood; (2) only about 10% had participated in exchange
study programmes abroad; (3) 76% had not ever worked abroad; (4) about 15% did not really like to work
together with foreigners; (5) almost 20% thought that ignoring cultural differences would not result in
loss of serious business; (6) 22% did not believe that cultural diversity was positive, result-oriented and
efficient. As far as the Hungarian managers’ culture-related formal studies are concerned, the results show
that (1) more than 30% had studied about cultural differences at university; (2) only less than 20%
claimed that it is not necessary to continuously update intercultural knowledge, e.g. through trainings.
These are promising findings, however, Rudnák (2010: 105) remarks that in her experience, the
organisers of intercultural trainings promise spectacular programmes while in reality they often get stuck
with e.g. differences in non-verbal communication while totally neglecting more invisible but at the same
time more important differences, such as values and ways of thinking.
Other researchers have also formulated their concerns about the quantity and quality of in-work
intercultural training programmes in Hungary. Falkné Bánó (2007) points out that there are only a few
companies which offer intercultural trainings; in her view the whole Middle Eastern European region can
be characterised by limited demand for these trainings. Kis (2008: 16) claims that in Hungary delegating
people to work in international teams is seen as a form of intercultural training, while Vaszari (2016: 54),
reviewing the role of trainings offered to managers, concludes that there are many players on the leniently
regulated Hungarian market, and it is very difficult to identify quality trainings which result in personality
development.
As Rudnák’s (2010) findings show, quite a few Hungarian universities (mainly in the field of
business studies) offer compulsory or optional intercultural communication courses, often in a foreign
language. These courses try to balance theory and practice but, due to time constraints and Hungarian
educational traditions, theoretical knowledge is often considered more important (Ablonczy-Mihályka
2015). There are some reports of successful intercultural training programmes held to tertiary students
(e.g. Falkné Bánó 2001) or lecturers (e.g. Rudnák et al. 2015), but the impact of the trainings is usually
judged on the basis of participant feedback, rather than the assessment of changes in participants’
thinking, emotions and attitudes towards diversity, i.e. their intercultural mindset or ‘heartset’ (Bennet &
Bennet 2004: 149).

Purpose and Methods

The investigation reported in this paper aimed to find out about the content and impact of intercultural
training programmes offered to Hungarian business actors. More specifically, its purpose has been to (1)
see whether participation in intercultural training has increased in the past decade; (2) check out
businesspeople’s attitudes towards intercultural trainings; (3) gain insights into the content of intercultural
trainings and (4) investigate whether participation in intercultural trainings has affected respondents’
thinking, emotions and attitudes towards intercultural diversity in their workplace. The data discussed
come from a questionnaire survey which was filled in by business professionals who work together with
representatives of more than one foreign culture. Convenience sampling was used to recruit respondents.
As well as demographic questions, respondents were asked to state whether they had taken part in
intercultural training prior to or during their work. Intercultural training as a term is assumed to also
94 Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Exploring the Impact of Intercultural ...

cover formal pre-work studies, for example in the form of tertiary educational subjects, which are
generally called Intercultural communication, Intercultural awareness-raising or Intercultural training.
There were five options to choose from: “yes”, “no”, and, in addition to the neutral “no” there was “no,
but I would like to”, “no, but I often read about cross-cultural differences” and “no, and I do not think it is
necessary”. Respondents who had taken part in formal trainings were asked to select form a pre-pepared
list the main focus of the training. They were allowed to tick more than one topic and further, there was
also an “other” option for themes not included in the list. Next, the subjects evaluated sixteen attitude
statements on a five-point Likert scale (1: fully disagree; 2: disagree; 3: neutral; 4: agree; 5: fully agree).
SPSS 22.0 was used to process the questionnaires. The analysis below relies on the information
gained from 367 respondents. The tables below in some cases contain fewer responses due to missing
data.

Findings and Discussion

Participation in and attitudes to intercultural training programmes

As Table 1 shows, out of the 365 respondents who answered this question, only 97 (26.5%) had taken part
in a formal intercultural training. This is considered a surprising result since all the respondents work
together with representatives of more than one foreign cultures, many of which are both geographically
and culturally very distant from the Hungarian culture. It seems, the ratio of those taking part in
intercultural trainings has not increased during the past decade (cf. Falkné Bánó 2007; Rudnák 2010).
118 subjects simply said they had not so far participated in such training. It is promising that 84
respondents stated that they would like to take part in an intercultural training programme, while another
42 claimed that they read about cross-cultural differences. However, 8% of the subjects said that they did
not think intercultural trainings are necessary – this supports the idea that many Hungarians underestimate
the importance of intercultural skills even if they work together with people of different cultural
backgrounds (cf. Tompos 2013).

Table 1. Did you take part in intercultural training prior to or during your work?

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid yes 91 24,8 24,9 24,9
no 118 32,2 32,3 57,3
no, but would like to 84 22,9 23,0 80,3
no, but often consults
literature on cross-cultural 42 11,4 11,5 91,8
differences
no, and does not think it’s
30 8,2 8,2 100,0
necessary
Total 365 99,5 100,0
Missing 9 2 ,5
Total 367 100,0

Demographic data gained from respondents allow us to state that more female subjects have taken
part in intercultural training and further, they seem to hold a more favourable opinion of such trainings
than men (Table 2).
 Anikó Tompos and Lívia Ablonczy-Mihályka 95

Table 2. Did you take part in intercultural training prior to or during your work? Crosstabulation with gender Count

Gender
male female Total
Did you take part in yes 38 53 91
intercultural training prior to no 67 51 118
or during your work?
no, but would like to 34 50 84
no, but consults literature 25 16 41
no, and not necessary 22 8 30
Total 186 178 364

Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 16.031a 4 .003
Likelihood Ratio 16.336 4 .003
Linear-by-Linear
5.727 1 .017
Association
N of Valid Cases 364
a. 0 cells (0,0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 14,67.

If we look at the respondents’ age we can see that in fact there is no difference, within the age
groups, in the ratios of those who have and have not taken part in intercultural training programmes
(Table 3). This is again considered surprising: as it has been stated above, intercultural communication as
a subject is part of most tertiary business programmes, thus one would expect the young generation to
have received intercultural training or at a minimum, to hold a better opinion of such training
programmes. The data in Table 4 might shape this picture as we can see that respondents with a degree
demonstrate a much less repulsive attitude towards intercultural training than those who only took a
secondary shool-leaving exam or took part in secondary vocational training: out of the 298 subjects who
hold a bachelor or a master’s degree ‘only’ 16 said they did not think intercultural trainings are necessary,
while this ratio is 14 out of 67 with respondents who have not conducted tertiary studies.

Table 3. Did you take part in intercultural training prior to or during your work?

Crosstabulation with age

Respondent’s age
20-35 36-45 46-50 51 +
years years years years Total
Did you take part in yes 62 21 5 3 91
intercultural training
prior to no 68 34 8 8 118
or during your work? no, but would like to 67 10 5 1 83
no, but consults
24 10 3 4 41
literature
no, not necessary 16 10 1 1 28
Total 237 85 22 17 361
96 Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Exploring the Impact of Intercultural ...

Table 4. Did you take part in intercultural training prior to or during your work?
Crosstabulation with education
Respondents’ education
bachelor/ shool- secondary
master leaving vocational
degree exam training Total
Did you take part yes 79 10 2 91
in intercultural no 95 17 6 118
training prior to no, but would like to 68 15 1 84
or during your
no, but consults
work? 40 2 0 42
literature
no, not necessary 16 11 3 30
Total 298 55 12 365

The Content of the Training Programmes

The most popular themes of the intercultural training the subjects have received seem to be work-related
topics: differences in working style (18 respondents), workplace behaviour (17 respondents) and problem-
solving strategies (16 respondents). Broader and more general topics, for example differences in verbal
(13 respondents) and nonverbal communication (9 repondents) as well as in time management (8
respondents) have also received some attention. 10 subjects listed other topics and forms of studies. These
included mostly higher educational courses, for example international business and intercultural
management studies and related subjects, but also on-hands experience, for example in youth camps and
in the framework of exchange study programmes abroad and through living and working abroad.
It would not be fair to draw a conclusion on the quality of the training programmes based on the
topics. However, the findings seem to confirm previous results, namely that intercultural training both in
the tertiary and service sector concentrate more on the transfer of knowledge and visible cultural
differences (cf. Ablonczy-Mihályka 2015; Rudnák 2010).

Attitudes towards Cultural Diversity at the Workplace

As far as the attitude statements are concerned, those who have taken part in formal training or have been
living or working abroad in general were more willing to express their opinion, while those who had not
were more inclined to tick the neutral value. However, a weak but significant difference between the
opinions of the two groups of respondents was only found with regard to three statements: There are
certain positions where a different cultural background can be an advantage (Table 5); My company
forms its strategy so that it suits its workers with different cultural backgrounds (Table 6); Cultural
differences help us become more innovative (Table 7).

Table 5.

There are certain positions where a different cultural

background can be an advantage
fully dis fully
disagree agree neutral agree agree Total
Did you take part in yes 3 10 14 34 30 91
intercultural training?
no 10 13 68 124 57 272
Total 13 23 82 158 87 363
 Anikó Tompos and Lívia Ablonczy-Mihályka 97

Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 12.132a 4 .016
Likelihood Ratio 11.665 4 .020
Linear-by-Linear
.733 1 .392
Association
N of Valid Cases 363
a. 1 cells (10.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 3.26.

Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Nominal by Nominal Phi .183 .016
Cramer's V .183 .016
N of Valid Cases 363

Table 6.

My company forms its strategy so that it suits its workers

with different cultural backgrounds

fully dis fully

disagree agree neutral agree agree Total
Did you take part in yes 4 8 13 43 23 91
intercultural training?
no 18 24 79 104 47 272
Total 22 32 92 147 70 363

Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 10.045a 4 .040
Likelihood Ratio 10.671 4 .031
Linear-by-Linear
5.057 1 .025
Association
N of Valid Cases 363
a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected
count is 5.52.

Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Nominal by Nominal Phi .166 .040
Cramer's V .166 .040
N of Valid Cases 363
98 Cultural Diversity in the Workplace: Exploring the Impact of Intercultural ...

Table 7.

Cultural differences help us become more innovative

fully dis fully

disagree agree neutral agree agree Total
Did you take part in yes 1 2 18 43 27 91
intercultural training?
no 12 21 70 117 52 272
Total 13 23 88 160 79 363

Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. (2-
Value df sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 10.137a 4 .038
Likelihood Ratio 11.282 4 .024
Linear-by-Linear
9.867 1 .002
Association
N of Valid Cases 363
a. 1 cells (10.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum
expected count is 3.26.

Symmetric Measures
Value Approx. Sig.
Nominal by Nominal Phi .167 .038
Cramer's V .167 .038
N of Valid Cases 363

Contrary to expectations, no significant difference was found in the case of the following statements:
Cultural differences cause tensions in the workplace; We cannot work together with foreigners without
tolerance; Cultural differences are an advantage during teamwork; Different cultural backgrounds result
in new ideas, new knowledge and new approaches to solving tasks; It is possible to predict potential
disagreement due to cultural differences.

Conclusion

Research into the effectiveness of intercultural trainings in general is hindered by training organisations’
resistance to allow scholars to carry out investigations since they might uncover weaknesses of the
training programmes and threaten their carreer (Mendenhall et al. 2004: 140). The authors are aware of
the limitations of the research discussed above. At the same time, the findings seem to confirm previous
findings concerning the quantity and content of intercultural training programmes and also Hungarian
businesspeople’s attitude towards them.
It seems, the ratio of those taking part in intercultural trainings has not increased during the past
decade. Women and, in general, businesspeople with a degree seem to hold a more favourable opinion of
such trainings. However, the fact that 8% of the respondents think cross-cultural trainings are not
necessary supports the idea that many Hungarians underestimate the importance of intercultural skills
even if they work in an international context. The trainings seem to concentrate on visible work-related
 Anikó Tompos and Lívia Ablonczy-Mihályka 99

and general intercultural differences. Participation in intercultural trainings does not appear to have
significantly affected the respondents’ intercultural mindset.
Some of the above findings are considered worth further investigations. Interviews with those who
have taken part in intercultural trainings might result in more valid and reliable data on their content and
effect, while larger-scale surveys would also make it possible to draw less cautious conclusions. From a
practical point of view, the findings would allow for the design of intercultural trainings which better
meet the needs of Hungarian business professionals.

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