7040 FACILITIES*
7040 A. Counting Room
Because the quality of low-level radioactivity measurements
improves when background radiation levels are low and stable,
facility designers should carefully evaluate the counting room’s
location and design with facility-specific contributors to back-
ground radiation in mind. As a result, the counting room’s
location, design, and construction may vary significantly from
one laboratory to the next. For example, locating a counting
room in a lower story of a facility may provide more shielding
from cosmic radiation, while locating it in a higher story may
better limit terrestrial radiation. Avoid transporting, handling, or
storing materials containing even moderate levels of radioactiv-
ity (e.g., samples, sample residuals, radioactive standards, or
wastes) in or near the instrument area. Select building materials
for walls, floor, and ceiling that minimize background radiation
from such radionuclides as postassium-40 (40K) and uranium and
thorium chain radionuclides. Also, construct exposed surfaces
(floors, walls, ceilings, countertops, etc.) from materials that are
easy to clean if contamination occurs. Provide enough room in
the instrument area to allow sufficient access for required peri-
odic maintenance.
An appropriate heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system should be provided to maximize instrument
stability. In many cases, a humidity-control system will also
prove valuable for instrument stability. As with all electronic
* Approved by Standard Methods Committee, 2013.
Joint Task Group: Robert T. Shannon (chair), Catherine C. Franklin, Bahman
Parsa, Shiyamalie Ruberu.
7040 B. Radiochemistry Laboratory
When designing a radiochemistry laboratory, one of the
prime considerations is contamination control. In general,
environmental radioactivity measurements are so sensitive
that the quality of low-level measurements can be compro-
mised by radioactivity levels that are often much lower than
those that pose concern to human health. This should not be
surprising because environmental radioactivity measurements
are designed, wherever possible, to provide early warning of
potential health concerns.
The radioactivity levels found in most environmental sam-
ples normally will not produce cross-contamination problems
when good laboratory practices are followed. Samples that
contain non-environmental (or unknown) levels of radioac-
tivity should be segregated from samples containing environ-
mental levels of radioactivity. In work areas where elevated-
activity-level samples or radioactive standards are being han-
dled, take care to minimize contamination of surfaces, other
samples, and personnel. Work surfaces should be composed
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equipment, follow the instrument manufacturer’s recommen-
dations for operating temperature and humidity as closely as
possible.
Consider that not all counting instruments have voltage-regu-
lating or power-conditioning circuitry suitable for controlling
minor fluctuations in line voltage. Additionally, most power
lines in laboratories (even new construction) are not designed to
control power fluctuations for the building. Voltage fluctuations
can cause changes in background and in the instrument’s reso-
lution and energy calibration. The effect of unusual fluctuations
can be minimized using an auxiliary voltage regulator/trans-
former. The risk of losing analytical data due to power interrup-
tions can be minimized by using uninterruptable power supplies
(UPS).
Although a “clean room” is not required to control contami-
nation, the counting room should be adequately segregated
from the area(s) where samples are physically and chemically
processed to minimize exposure to dust and fumes, thereby
minimizing contamination and protecting the instrumenta-
tion’s electrical stability. Minimize the migration of radioac-
tive contamination by locating the counting room in an area
with minimal traffic flow and regulate the HVAC system so
air flows from areas of least to greatest potential contamina-
tion (i.e., from counting areas to chemical-separation areas
and then to sample-preparation areas). Implementing mea-
sures to minimize fluctuation in radon levels will significantly
improve the quality of low-level measurements that the facil-
ity can perform.
of acid-resistant, nonporous material and covered with absor-
bent paper.
1. Chemical Reagents and Reagent-Grade Water
Although it is generally appropriate to use high-purity
reagents, such as Reagent A.C.S. chemicals or the equivalent,
Reagent A.C.S. specifications generally do not address radio-
active contaminants. Many reagents contain some radioactiv-
ity and other impurities that could bias measurements if not
accounted for, so the reagents should undergo acceptance
testing to characterize them appropriately before use in ra-
dioactivity analysis. Quantify reagents’ radioactive contribu-
tions by analyzing reagent blanks. Also include reagent
blanks with every analysis batch, and ensure that the evalu-
ation of the blank will detect bias that could compromise use
of the results. For example, if barium is to be used as a carrier
for radium, analysts should initially determine the isotopic
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 FACILITIES (7040)/Pollution Prevention
radium content of the barium salt used for the analysis.
Rare-earth carriers, such as yttrium or cerium, may be con-
taminated with thorium from the original rare-earth ore,
which would compromise the use of these carriers to prepare
microprecipitated test sources for alpha spectrometry mea-
surements. If reagents have radioactivity levels high enough
to produce detectable bias in sample measurements, then find
a less-contaminated source for the reagent or else purify it to
remove the unacceptable radioactivity levels before use. If
such measures are unsuccessful, correct results and account
for the additional uncertainty associated with this correction
when reporting sample results.
Laboratory water (e.g., distilled or deionized/demineralized
water) generally is used in analytical laboratories for dilution,
reagent preparation, and final glassware rinses. In certain cases,
ordinary laboratory water may not be pure enough for certain
applications in the environmental radiochemistry laboratory
(e.g., background subtraction samples for gamma spectroscopy
and liquid scintillation counting). Where radon and its progeny
are analytes of concern in gamma spectrometry measurements,
remove radon by purging the laboratory water with aged (30-d)
air or an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen), or by aging the distilled water
for 30 d to allow the radon and progeny to decay. Tritium is an
integral constituent of water (i.e., hydrogen) and cannot be
removed by purifying the water. Tritium is produced cosmogeni-
cally in the atmosphere and is found in surface waters. If water
containing tritium is used for liquid scintillation measurements,
positive and negative bias can result. Avoid this by using “fossil”
or “dead” water that has been isolated from surface waters for a
number of tritium half-lives (e.g., ⬎125 years). While this is
often obtained from deep wells, there is no guarantee that water
from a deep well has been isolated from sources of surface water
long enough to contain acceptably low levels of tritium.
7040 C. Laboratory Safety
Each laboratory should have a safety plan as part of its standard
operating procedures (SOPs). While specific safety criteria are
beyond the scope of this discussion, apply general and customary
safety practices as a part of good laboratory procedures. Use fume
hoods where appropriate, wear safety glasses or a shield for eye
protection, and wear protective clothing at all times. When an
approved method includes safety practices, follow them strictly.
7040 D. Pollution Prevention
1. Management Techniques
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has established
a preferred hierarchy of environmental management tech-
niques; pollution prevention is its first choice. Pollution pre-
vention includes any technique that reduces or eliminates the
quantity or toxicity of waste generated. Numerous pollution-
prevention opportunities exist; use them whenever feasible.
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2. Apparatus and Glassware
Generally, glassware in radiochemistry laboratories should be
treated as it is in any analytical laboratory (an excellent discus-
sion of the kinds of labware available, the use of volumetric
ware, and various cleaning protocols is available1). That said,
certain aspects of glassware use are peculiar to radiochemistry
due to the extremely low concentrations of radioactive constit-
uents. Use disposable labware wherever possible. Treat reusable
glassware and apparatus used to prepare standards or handle
elevated-activity samples as if they were contaminated; discard
or segregate them for further use with samples of comparable
activity. [As a general rule, do not analyze samples side-by-side
if the samples’ activity levels vary by three orders of magnitude
(e.g., fCi vs. pCi, or pCi vs. nCi).] Incorporate acid soaking and
rinsing, and use detergents that contain complexing or chelating
agents in labware-washing protocols. Replace washwater fre-
quently and periodically screen washwater for radioactivity to
ensure that it does not become a source of contamination. Do not
reuse planchets.
3. Reference
1. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DE-
FENSE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HOMELAND
SECURITY, U.S. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION, U.S. FOOD AND
DRUG ADMINISTRATION, U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, NATIONAL INSTITUTE
OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY. 2004. Contamination from Sources
in the Laboratory. Section 12.2.2 in Multi-Agency Radiological
Laboratory Analytical Protocols Manual (MARLAP); NUREG-
1576; EPA 402-B-04-001A; NTIS PB2004-105421. Washington,
D.C.
Treat each chemical as a potential health hazard and keep
exposure as low as reasonably achievable. Maintain a file of
current, applicable regulations about safely handling the chem-
icals specified in radiochemical analysis methods. Make avail-
able a reference file of materials-handling information [e.g.,
safety data sheet (SDS)] to all personnel who may work with
such items.
When pollution prevention is infeasible, the next recom-
mended option is recycling.
Further lab-related information about pollution prevention is
available.1
2. Reference
1. AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY. 1985. Less is Better: Laboratory Chem-
ical Management for Waste Reduction. Washington, D.C.
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7040 E. Waste Management

1. Management Techniques
Establish laboratory waste-management practices consistent
with all applicable rules and regulations for controlling radioac-
tive and hazardous materials. Protect air, water, and land by
• minimizing and controlling all releases from hoods and
bench operations;
• complying with both the letter and spirit of any sewer-
discharge permits and regulations; and
• complying with all solid and hazardous waste regulations,
particularly the hazardous waste identification rules and
land-disposal restrictions.
Further information on waste management is available.1
2. Reference
1. AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY. 1990. The Waste Management Manual
for Laboratory Personnel. Washington, D.C.

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