Public Policy and Program Administration

POLYTECHNIC
UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

OPEN UNIVERSITY
Sta. Mesa, Manila

PUBLIC POLICY AND PROGRAM

ADMINISTRATION

DR. AMALIA C. ROSALES
DR. FLORIÑO IBAÑEZ

COPYRIGHTED 2013
ISBN NO.: 978-971-94560-3-2
THE OPEN UNIVERSITY: BRIEF HISTORY

The Polytechnic University of the Philippines Open University (PUP OU) otherwise known as the "Pamantasang Bayan", which formally
commenced in 1990, is a fresh and innovative system of delivering higher educational services in a manner that differs from the formal,
highly structured, and classroom-oriented traditional approach.

The PUP OU is in consonance with the 1987 Philippine Constitution. Article IV mandates that quality education at all levels should be
made accessible to all Filipinos and self-learning, independent, out-of-school study programs, non-formal, informal and indigenous
learning systems, be developed particularly those which respond to community needs.

The PUP OU caters primarily to the needs of the economically disadvantaged students, out-of-school youths, teachers, administrators,
managers, professionals and ordinary employees who want to pursue degree or non-degree courses but are unable to do so due to
accessibility, time, domestic and economic constraints.

Ideally, under the Open University, the students do not have to attend classes inside a classroom. They do not even have to enter the
physical campus(es) of PUP. However, because of the discovered need of the PUP student to meet and encounter their classmates and
subject specialists (instructors), they are required to attend contact sessions per subject.

The PUP OU's thrust answers the call to higher education institutions to continue contributing to the efforts of the government of realizing
its objectives of poverty alleviation, global competitiveness and sustainable development, for the benefit of the present and future
generations of Filipinos.

The PUP Open University was established in the 1970s. The initial offerings were non-degree (technical-vocational) courses. PUP first
thought of the Open University concept when then PCC President Nemesio E. Prudente saw the need to provide access to educational
opportunities to millions of Filipinos who wanted to study but were constrained by time, distance and other circumstances. He was assisted
by then Assistant Vice President for Branches and Head of the OU and now Vice President for Academic Affairs Dr. Samuel M.
Salvador together with Prof. Teofilo H. Montemayor. They worked relentlessly in establishing linkages with different organizations and
laid down the foundations of the OU system in PUP. However, the initial implementation fizzled out when Martial Law was declared in
1972.

When Dr. Prudente was reinstated as PUP President in 1986, he again revived the concept of the Open University. It was formally
launched in March 1990. Dr. Prudente and Dr. Salvador believed in bringing education right at the doorsteps of the people. This concept
was supported fully by Dr. Zenaida A. Olonan during her presidency. The appointment of Dr. Ofelia M. Carague as president of PUP in
1998 augured well for the PUP OU since she has been one of the prime movers of the OU in the University. In the presidency of Dr.
Dante G. Guevarra, the PUP OU has grown leaps and bounds as it established the three schools that presently compose it.

While broadcast-based distance learning systems in the Philippines were popular in the 1960s, it was PUP which first implemented the
concept of the Open University, that is, a university within a university offering both degree and non-degree programs in the country duly
certified by corresponding certificates or diplomas upon satisfactory compliance of course requirements.

GOALS

· Relevant degree and non-degree graduate and undergraduate programs;
· Innovative teaching-learning systems;
· E-learning;
· Effective and efficient technology-based instructional strategies and approaches;
· State-of-the-art instructional materials;
· Pertinent and productive researchers;
· E-linked; and
· Quality administrators, subject specialists and graduates.

MISSION

The PUP Open University is committed to provide quality education through the open and distance learning system, which is responsive to
the needs and challenges of a technologically advanced and globally linked society.

OBJECTIVES

The PUP Open University programs will:
1. provide an affordable and portable education for all, and thus help bring about a better quality of life for all Filipinos;
2. offer an effective and efficient alternative delivery of instruction, and training;
3. Re-engineer the traditional learning approaches through the use of printed modules, audiocassettes, video tutorials, multimedia
course wares and other creative, innovative, and cost-effective learning delivery channels;
4. establish linkages and networking strategies with national and international institutions and government and non-government
institutions for the optimum use of resources;
5. promote general efficiency and self-reliance among students, teachers, school and public administrators, and managers of
corporations and business enterprises.

OU SUPPORT PROGRAM

Although you will not be attending classes every week, the same support is available from PUP OU. The number of hours for a 3-unit
course is 54, 18 offline (face- to- face) and 36 online.

OU LEARNING APPROACH

Each course guide follows a special format designed for optimum learning at a distance. It contains the learning content, objective,
activity, material and learning outputs outcomes.

The course modules are prepared by the course author/facilitator. Each lesson starts with a brief summary of what you will learn. The
learning goals identify the most important concepts that will be discussed in the lesson. Following the learning goals, you will have a list
of key words and phrases that are defined in the context of the lesson and in the glossary at the back of the course manual. Even if you
are familiar with these terms, it is important to take note of how the professor will define the term in the context of your course. The
course contents of each lesson are presented as reading materials.

The reading assignments are listed and occasionally the facilitator will give you some special insights into the reading before you begin.
The reading may come from books available at the Ninoy Aquino Learning Resource Center. Further readings are provided through e-
books and e-journals available for officially enrolled students at the PUP OU.

Each facilitator has carefully selected the references, e-books and e-journals that are in the Course Materials List. Exercises are
provided at the end of each lesson for the student to answer and submit to the facilitator.

EXAMINATION AND PROCTORING

You will have a final examination at the end of every course. Final examinations must be proctored during a scheduled date.

Comprehensive examinations are required to earn a Master’s Degree; Comprehensive examinations are given in a written an integrated
format. The comprehensive exams are proctored on a date scheduled by the PUP OUS.

GRADING POLICY

Any student receiving a grade below 2.0 (for Master's Degree) in any of his course requirements will either have to repeat the course or
take a substitute course in the same discipline or area with the approval of the PUP OU Program Chair. However for purposes of
graduation, the overall average grade in the academic course should be 2.0.
The following rating system shall be adopted by the Open University:
A student whose course work is incomplete at the time the grade is submitted shall be given a grade of incomplete (INC). If he fails to
complete the course work within one (1) year from the issuance of the grade of INC, the grade lapses to No Credit (N).
A student who voluntarily drops a course he is registered in automatically receives “W” when he files a Withdrawal Form at any time up
to the last day of the last week of class prior to the final examination.
A student who has two or more “Incomplete” grades shall not be allowed to enroll until he has removed his “Incomplete” grades.
COMMUNICATING WITH OU

Keeping in touch is a very important way to ensure that you will earn your Master’s Degree in a timely fashion. We are here to assist you
in any way possible. If you are having problems or are unclear about policies or procedures, please let us know. Questions of a
procedural nature or questions that impact on deadlines may best be handled by telephone, fax or e-mail. Our Office hours are Monday
through Friday, 8 am to 8 pm.

PRIVACY

We respect the rights of students that include their academic records and personal information. Only appropriate personnel have access to
this information. PUP OU does not make this information available, even to worthwhile organizations which might be of interest to
students, without obtaining the student’s permission.

CLOSING

We look forward to serving you. We hold in high regard your academic qualifications and intellectual capabilities. We will do all we
can to assist you as a PUP Open University student and look forward with great enthusiasm to working with you during the next few
years. Welcome to the PUP Open University family and may God bless you.

THE MASTER IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PROGRAM

The program is designed to provide excellent foundation for existing potential public administrators.
Students of the program are exposed to the theoretical and paradoxical understanding and
appreciation about the needs, concerns, issues, trends and problems of contemporary public
organization and administration.
OBJECTIVES

· To produce responsible, committed, progressive public administrators who are pro-active,
innovative, creative and transformational in managing the affairs of public organizations in

particular and in sharing and teaching the discipline of public administrations in general.
· To provide advance training for professional careers in public service and administration.
· To enhance competencies and leadership in specialized areas of public administration.
· To develop expertise in the utilization of analytical tools and techniques in research relevant to
Public Administration.

THE AUTHOR
DR. FLORIÑ O. IBAÑEZ
Dr. Ibañez is a career government official with more than 40 years of government service, starting as a clerk, then gradually rising
through the ranks, serving as position classification analyst, supervising information officer in the Office of the President. In 1985,
President Marcos appointed him to a directorial position assigned as presidential staff director of the personnel office of Malacañang.

Under President Corazon C. Aquino’s Administration, Dr. Ibañez was appointed to full director, head of the personnel office. President
Fidel V. Ramos subsequently appointed him to CESO Rank III, Presidential Staff Director (Director IV) after qualifying in the Career
Executive Service Examination and passing the assessments conducted by the Development Academy of the Philippines for the CES
Board. He had served seven Philippine presidents before he bowed out of the service.

His stints in the academe started in 1990 when the late Dr. Nemesio Prudente, then President of the Polytechnic University of the
Philippines (PUP), appointed him as part-time instructor in history in the PUP College of Arts. His credentials backed him up, being a
graduate of UP with a degree of Bachelor of arts major in history and government, and Master of Public Administration which he pursued
under the Civil Service Commission Scholarship Program. He also earned masteral units in history and government from the Ateneo
Graduate School.

While still in the service, he was sent by the Office of the President to take a course in advanced management at the Administration
College in Melbourne, Austrlia under the Colombo Plan.

When he finished his doctoroal degree in public administration in the PUP Graduate School, he was asked to teach political science
subjects in the PUP Graduate School and PUP Open University System in PUP Sto. Tomas, Batangas Center.

Dr. Ibañez is now a special lecturer teaching masteral and doctoral subjects in public administration in the PUP Graduate School and
masteral subjects in public administration at the PUP Open University System.
MODULE 1: THE FORM, CHARACTER AND
OBJECTIVES OF Policy
LESSON 1: THE DEFINITION AND NATURE OF POLICY

Learning Objectives
At the end of this Module, you should be able –

1. define comprehensively a policy;
2. identify the different approaches to policy study and analysis; and
3. familiarize with the official and non-official policy makers.

Keywords and Phrases

· Policy Status
· Policy Output
· Policy Demands
· Policy Outcomes
· Policy Statements
· Policy Decisions

INTRODUCTION
Various literatures of policymaking, policy process or policy formulation have shown different
definitions of policy; some are broad, others are too narrow. In most cases, a policy is made
synonymous with the intention to operate an organization, launch a program, and accomplish a
mission.

But generally, the term policy lacks a precise and acceptable definition among administrators and
scholars.

Inventory of Concepts of Policy

To be able to develop an operational definition of policy, let us look at some recorded concepts of
policy, as follows:

1. A general directive given by a superior to a subordinate,
2. A standard procedure applicable to the daily operations of organization,

3. A set of rules for present and future actions or decisions,
4. A criterion or set of criteria used in selecting alternative courses of action,
5. A solution given to a previous case, which is now a pattern for present and future decisions,
6. An ethical consideration which is used as a criterion for selecting alternative courses of
action,
7. A regulation set for restricting or controlling individual behavior within groups; and
8. A formal or informal agreement on conflicting interests or expectations as a compromise
to attain a smooth operation of the organization.

Common Characteristics of Policy
The above-listed concepts can generate common characteristics or elements to form one common
definition of policy as follows:

1. The form of policy as a guiding rule or norm for present and future decisions or actions,
2. The character of policy as a manifestation or clarification of specific goals, objectives,
values or ideals, and patterns of organizational action demanded for their accomplishments;
and
3. The ultimate or terminal objective of policy is to achieve stability, consistency, uniformity
and continuity in the operation of organization.

Definition of Policy
On the basis of the three common elements of policy, formulated is its operational definition.

Policy is a rule, guide, framework, or pattern for action, manifesting or clarifying specific
organizational goals, objectives, values or ideals and often prescribing the obligatory or most
desirable ways and means for their accomplishments in a relatively stable, consistent, uniform, and
continuing manner.

The definition includes the form of policy as a rule or guide; the character of policy as a framework
or pattern for action or decision; and the ultimate or terminal objective of policy of achieving
stability, consistency, uniformity and continuity in organizational operations, actions and decisions.

However, the definition does not include the element of policy origination like top management, the
direction of policy formulation (i.e., from top to bottom), the concept of the limitation of the
discretion of subordinates, and the notion that policy as a rule-directing organizational activities
needs authoritative and legitimate basis to be valid for the organization as a whole.

Public Policy – A Policy Developed within the Political System
Public policy is developed by government bodies and officials. In other words, it is formulated by
authorities in a political system like executives, legislators, justices, and judges, councilors and
administrators. These people are recognized by members of the system having responsibility for
these matters, and could take actions that are accepted as binding most of the time as long as they act
within the limits of their roles.
Implications of Public Policy
First, public policy is purposive or goal-oriented action rather than random or chance behavior. It is
not a thing that just happens.

Second, public policy consists of courses or patterns of action by government officials rather than
their separate discrete decisions. For example, public policy involves not only the decision to enact a
law on some topic but also subsequent decisions relating to its implementation and enforcement.

Third, public policy is what government actually do in regulating, controlling, and promoting, not
what they intend to do, or are going to do. If congress enacts a minimum wage law and nothing is
done to enforce the law, and nothing has changed in the economic life of workers, then the policy is
really one of non-regulation of wages. An intention is not a policy unless something subsequently
happens because of that policy.

Fourth, public policy may either be positive or negative in form. Positively, it involves government
action; negatively, it involves a decision by the government not to take action, to do nothing, or
pursue a hands-off policy.

Fifth, or lastly, public policy is based on law and is authoritative. People accept as legitimate payment
of taxes, anti-drug law obeyed or anti-smoke belching complied with, knowing that non-compliance
would mean fines or jail sentence.

Categ ories of Policy Actions
Public policy as a course of action may be characterized as follows:

1. Policy Demands – demands made upon public officials by other actors, or private, in the
political system, for action or inaction on some perceived problems.

2. Policy Decisions – are decisions made by public officials that authorize or give direction and
content to public policy actions. Examples are decisions to enact laws, issue executive orders
and formulate judicial decisions.
3. Policy Statements – are the formal expressions or articulations of public policy. Examples are
statutes, executive orders, administrative rules and regulations, court opinions, statements,
speeches by public officials indicating what is to be done.
4. Policy Outputs – are what government does, as distinguished from what it says it is going to
do. Examples are taxes collected, roads constructed, benefits paid, and foreign policy pursued,
as distinguished from what government says it is going to do along the foregoing areas of
concern.
5. Policy Outcomes – are the consequences, intended or unintended, of government actions or
inactions. Example is when construction of more schools improves the literacy rate in the area
affected.

LESSON 2: APPROACHES TO POLICY STUDY AND
ANALYSIS

Political scientists have created theories and models to help better understand policy formulation.
These theories are the following:
1. Political Systems Theory – under this theory, public policy may be viewed as a response of
a political system to demands and supports coming from the environment.

2. Group Theory – According to this theory, public policy is the product of group struggle; it
is the equilibrium reached or balance achieved by groups who tend to weigh it in their favor. In
the process, public policy at any given time reflects the interests of dominant groups.

3. Elite Theory – Here, public policy can be regarded as reflection of the values and
preferences of governing group. Public policy under this theory is not based on the peoples’
demands and actions but on the ruling elite’s preferences. Elite usually comes from the upper
socio-economic strata of society.

4. Functional process Theory – This theory claims that there are various functional activities
that happen in policy process. These are:

· Intelligence – information gathering
· Making recommendations
· Prescription or rules adoptions
· Invocation or determining whether certain behavior violates rules and law
· Application – how rules are applied
· Appraised – how policy is appraised in its success or failure
· Termination – how rules are terminated or continued in modified form
5. Institutionalism – Under this theory, public policy is initially determined and implemented
by government institutions such as the legislatures, courts and administrative agencies. Study is
focused on these institutions, their formal and legal aspects, their formal structures, powers, procedures, rules and functions.

6. Rational Choice Theory – This shows that self-interest is a compelling force in policy
formulation. Anthony Downs in his book on Economic Theory of Democracy says that policy-
makers tend to maximize attainment of their preferences. Political parties, for example, help
formulate policies that would win them more votes. Members of Congress in enacting laws,
delegate power to executive agencies in implementing laws so that in the process the agencies
create problems for their constituencies who would naturally seek the legislators’ assistance in
dealing with the implementing agencies and in return the grateful constituents would re-elect
them.

In fairness, however, politics is not as devoid of concern for general welfare and national
interests as the Rational Choice Theory assumes. There are still politicians who make names for
themselves in upholding the general interest over self-interest.

Policy Makers
1. Official Policy Makers
Legislative – Members of Congress are engaged in policy formulation in a political

system. They legislate substantive measures involving measures of national issues and
concerns such as taxation, economic regulations and environmental protection.
Executive – The President exercises action and leadership in both policy formulation and
execution. In view of fragmented interests in Congress, the President remains to be the
source of unified measure for national development agenda. This is embodied in the State
of the Nation speech of the President in Congress. Whether or not Congress will follow
or adopt the Presidential proposal always remains a question. But in most cases, Congress
usually adopts the President’s agenda for national development.
The Administrative System – Before, it was assumed that the administrative agencies only
implemented or carried out policies determined by the political branches of government.
Now politics and administration are no longer dichotomized. They are now blended and
administrative agencies are now the source in most cases of expert advice and
information on policy, if not the policy makers themselves.
The Court – in its exercise of judicial review and statutory interpretation in cases brought
before them, the court in effect formulates policies in the forms of judicial rulings or
interpretations of vague provisions of laws subject to conflicting interpretations.
Judges are assumed to be non-political, just following the constitution and the law or
previous decisions. But in actuality, they are also involved in policy politics. Their values
and preferences affect their decisions.
2. Unofficial Policy Makers
Those involved in policy formulation outside of the political system are political parties,
research organizations or the think-tanks, media and individual citizens. They are not directly
involved in policy formulation but their influences or pressures help shape public policy. They,
too, have biases and preferences to protect.

EXERCISES/WRITTEN ASSIGNMENT
1. When does a policy become a public policy? What government bodies issue public policies?
2. Explain briefly, citing actual examples, the five policy actions.
3. What makes a public policy coercive to be obeyed?

References/Bibliography
Anderson, James E. Public Policy-making, An Introduction, Fourth Edition, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000)
Downs, Anthony, An Economic Theory of Democracy. (New York : Harper Row, 1957)
Dye, Tomas R., Understanding Public Policy, 7 th Ed. (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1992).

MODULE 2: POLICY FORMATION
This Module is divided into three (3) lessons, namely: Lesson 1-- Problem Identification; Lesson 2-
Agenda Setting; and Lesson 3-Policy Formulation.

Learning Objectives
1. understand why the character and dimension of a problem should be properly identified and
appreciated;
2. identify the different approaches in agenda setting; and
3. familiarize with the issues and problems involved in selecting a solution among
alternatives.
· Agenda Setting
· Final Choice
· Agenda Status
· Problem Oversimplification
· Agenda Denials
· Political Acceptance

LESSON 1: PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Problem awareness is addressing the question “Is there a problem?”. It is not enough that one player
may sense a problem in that the status quo is no longer satisfactory. The old practice in problem
identification gave little attention to the nature and definition of public problem, according to
Anderson. Problems then were usually treated as “givens”, from where analysis proceeds. Now, it is a
practice to consider the character and dimension of a problem that stimulates government action.

Sometimes a problem to one may not be a problem to another. It is defined and perceived differently
depending on one’s values, information and experiences. Increase in the price of palay is a problem
to consumers of rice or housewives, but not to farmers whose produce would naturally command a
higher price.

Therefore there is a problem if everybody agrees that there is a problem.

For purposes of this study, a policy problem is defined as a condition or situation that produces needs
and dissatisfaction among people, and for which they seek government action. The erratic fluctuation
in the price of petroleum products is getting intolerable among motorists and consumers, as it has a
domino effect on the price of basic commodities. This condition may become a problem if it
produces sufficient anxiety and discontent among the people affected to the extent that they will seek
relief from the government. Malacañang in response to the clamor of the transport sectors asked the
big three of oil companies to open their books to government audit.

In the case of government agencies, a search for a problem may be limited for a number of reasons,
such as the agencies may think there are better ways to spend their money than on self-examination, a
shortage of resources; over-optimism as they are operating smoothly; and fear of diagnosis like a
patient waiting for what the doctor would tell him.

LESSON 2: AGENDA SETTING

Agenda-setting is a competitive process. On account of so many problems seeking recognition for
inclusion as items of the agenda, there are many factors being considered. First, the gravity of the
problem, the number of people affected, whether or not public interest is involved or the opportunity
to enhance or serve self-interest.

To achieve agenda status, a problem must be an issue or a matter requiring government attention.
Political leaders whether motivated by thoughts of political advantage, by public interest or their
political reputations, may find occasion to bring them to media and propose solutions.

The President is in the best position to be agenda-setter. He will make use of his State of the Nation
Address to Congress to propose a national agenda which is usually contained in the Medium –Term
National Development Plan. To get the support of Congress, the President should only focus on basic
national issues, usually his programs or agenda for national development. The President may not get
the support of Congress if it is not dominated by the oppositions. Members of Congress themselves
may influence agenda-setting in Congress. They too have solutions to problems supplied by
information coming from committee hearing, congressional staff and the media.

Court’s rulings or statutory interpretations may trigger agenda-setting in Congress to overcome the
rulings of the courts.

Administrative agencies out of their information, expertise and experiences, may propose better
solutions to existing problems.

Ag enda Denial
Competition may exist between those favoring and those opposing action on a problem. Opposing the
abolition of the Oil Deregulation Law and wanting to maintain the status quo, the oil companies have
enough time and resources on their side to get the support of Congress on this issue. They may
maintain that market forces must be allowed to operate in determining the local pump prices of oil.

Loss of Ag enda Status
A problem that may be set in the agenda may eventually be taken down and lose its agenda status if the
problem has already been taken care of and Congress may turn its attention to another issue. In some
instances, Congress may decide not to act anymore on the issue.

LESSON 3: POLICY FORMULATION

Policy formulation involves developing various solutions or alternative courses of action in dealing
with a problem.

The first step is to answer the question – Can anything be done? Inadequate knowledge may lead to
oversimplification of the problem to be solved. There may also be limited resources or lack of
skilled manpower to carry out a policy. The proposed solution may even be worse than the problem.
One aspect of the problem to be given first priority of immediate concern.

Related to the first step is answering the question – Should anything be done? Information, ideology,
and self-interest may affect the answer to this question. To solve the problem and change the status
quo there has to be substantial agreement on the thing to be done.

Once there is an agreement to solve the problem, the answer to the question is sought :What should be
done? Likewise the question Who should do it? has to be answered. The attention turns to what, how,
and who questions. There may be several solutions which may vary in cost, effectiveness, and
political acceptability. Just as there are a number of solutions to a problem, there are also different
ways of carrying out the solution.

The difficulty in arriving at the final solution is brought by the differences in values, beliefs and
biases of the participants.

Having defined the problem, specified the objectives, constructed the necessary models and
determined the alternative outcomes; policy makers are now up to make the final choice.

Hence, making the final choice among competing alternatives is never easy, for the future is
uncertain. By improving our methods and ability to predict the consequences of alternatives, aided by
the ability to value consequences and outcomes of each alternative; the final choice of the best
solution is assured.

Trace the simplified way of presenting different steps in policy formulation, citing the issues and
problems involved.

Anderson, James E. Public Policy Making, An Introduction, 4th Ed. (Boston: Houghton and Miffin
Company, 2000),

Kingdom, John W. Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies, 2nd Ed. (New York: Adison-Wesley,
1995).

Reyes, Giovanni E. The Policy Making Process and Models for Public Policy Analysis. College of
Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh.

Sabatier, Paul A. Theories of the Policy Process. (Colorado: Westview Press, 1999). Wildavsky,
Aaron, Speaking Truth to Power (Boston: Little Brown, 1979)

MODULE 3: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Learning Objectives

1. familiarize with the issues and problems in policy implementation;
2. identify the implementers of policy apart from administrative agencies of the government; and
3. enumerate reasons why Congress allows implementing agencies to have more leeway and
discretion in implementing public policy.

· Politics/Administration Dichotomy
· Policy Adoption
· Policy Impact
· Policy Originators

LESSON 1: ISSUES AND PROBLEMS IN POLICY
IMPLEMENTATION

Once the final choice has been made, there is now a public policy up for implementation. Policy
adoption (making the final choice) may take the form of a law from Congress, an executive order
from the President, or a set of rules and regulations from the administrative system or bureaucracy.

At the point where all the facilities (organizational structure, implementing techniques and
procedures, expertness and resources) for implementation are set up, it may be difficult to establish a
demarcation line between policy formulation and policy implementation. Policy is sometimes made
as it is being administered.

The politics/administration dichotomy in the early days of public administration maintained that
politics and administration had their respective spheres of influence; politics as represented by
Congress expressed or articulated the will of the state; while the administration implemented that will.
The naïve notion was that they could not be blended. But as it has turned out today, politics and
administration are both involved in policy formulation and implementation.

There are instances where the content of policy and its impact on those affected may be substantially
modified, elaborated, or even negated during the implementation stage.

The complex administrative structures of the government which implement or carry out public policy
may sometimes in the process, change the thrust of the policy. They may make their own policy which
is not among the real intents of the original policy. Administrative agencies issue implementing rules
and regulations or provide implementing details for the original policy.

For instance, the Civil Service Commission once issued a circular that banned individuals aged 57
from working in the government service. CSC claimed that one who reached age 57 could no longer
be employed in the government. This rule had no basis in law, and yet the Commission implemented
the same for some time until it was questioned in court which in turn lifted the ban. The Supreme
Court ruled that the Civil Service Commission cannot legislate; it cannot implement something which
is not in the law.

The Judiciary, too, issued rulings which changed the original intention of policy. When the Supreme
Court set aside the next-in-rank rule in the Civil Service, and gave the appointing authority a wider
latitude of discretion in making appointment, the principle of next-in-rank which could contribute to
efficiency in the bureaucracy was abandoned. Attempts by the Civil Service Commission to pursue a
policy of appointing the best qualified with superior qualifications among next-in-rank was negated,
and instead, the discretion of the appointing authority to appoint those who meet only the minimum
qualifications was upheld.

As one public policy specialist said in the implementation of policy a new routine may result from the
decision; new regulations may be maintained; and new enforcement procedures may be developed.

LESSON 2: OTHER PLAYERS IN POLICY IMPLEMENTATION

Even the originators of policy are likewise involved in policy implementation.

The Leg islature – Congress does not only prescribe policy, it has also shown interest in the
implementation of a policy. There are ways by which Congress may influence policy
implementation as follows:

1. One of the ways is by providing more specific details in the law to the extent that
implementing agencies have no more discretion in administering the law. For example,
in the grant of social security benefits, Congress may specify the exact qualifications
for eligibility to receive the grants, the amount of benefits which could be given, and
the deadline set for the duration of the effectivity of the grant. The implementing
agency may just engage in the routine implementation having no discretion and
flexibility in the administration of policy.

2. Another way is the use of the Commission on Appointments where members of
Congress may extract commitments from nominees for appointment on policy matters
during hearings for confirmation of their appointments.

3. Still another device is the legislative veto. There was a time when Congress did not
want the President to have a blanket authority to reorganize the executive branch of the
government without Congressional participation. The late Senator Blas Ople once
proposed that the President may be given the authority to reorganize the government,
provided all the reorganization proposals would be subject to Congressional approval.

In the 1950’s all reorganization plans prepared by the Executive Branch with the help
of American consultants were all subjected to Congressional review.

The Courts – The judicial branch may directly involve itself in policy implementation.
Naturalization proceedings for aliens applying for Filipino citizenship, being administrative in
nature, are being handled by the courts. By their power of judicial review and statutory and
rules interpretations, the courts can facilitate, hinder, modify or even nullify implementation of
a policy as shown in the case of the Civil Service Commission on the issue of next-in-rank rule
on appointment.

The Pressure Groups – These groups may sometimes try to influence administrative agency’s
action on certain business especially those being seen by influential multinational companies.
Some people with suspicious minds are accusing the Department of Energy of not doing its
duty to prevent oil companies from increasing the price of their petroleum products. They
claim that the Department is conniving with the Big Three oil companies.

Even some regulatory boards are sometimes accused of being captive by the privatized
public utilities.

Non-g overnment Org anizations – Through peoples’ participation in local governance, some
NGOs use their membership in boards and committees to influence government policy at the
national and local bodies. Labor organizations have their representatives in the Social Security
System Board; Government Employees and Public School Teachers have their members in the
GSIS Board; and the farmers and fishermen’s associations have participation in some local
boards, all to influence government policies affecting their respective interests.

1. Explain and substantiate the statement that policy is being made as it is being administered, or
administered as it is being made.

2. Discuss in what ways Congress participates in the implementation of policy.
3. In what way does the Court involve itself in policy implementation?

Anderson, James E. Public Policy-making, An Introduction, 4th Ed. (Boston: Ox Houghton
Mifflin Company, 2000).

Cockrel, Jerri. Public Policy-making in America, University of Kentucky.

Repley, Randall B. and Franklin, Grace A. Policy Implementation and Bureaucracy, 2nd Ed.
(Chicago: Doreey, 1986)

MODULE 4: POLICY EVALUATION

The final stage in policy process is policy evaluation. It is the estimation, assessment or appraisal of
policy, its contents, implementation and effects.

Learning Objectives

1. evaluate the importance of policy evaluation;
2. familiarize with the different types of policy evaluation; and
3. identify the problems in policy evaluation


· Intended and Unintended Beneficiaries
· Impressionistic Evaluation
· Diffuse Policy Impact

LESSON 1: TYPES OF POLICY EVALUATION
The different types of policy evaluation are as follows:
1. Impressionistic Evaluation – Policymakers make judgments concerning the worth or
effects of policies. Most of these judgments are impressionistic based on fragmentary or

anecdotal evidence, and are strongly influenced by ideological, partisan interest, and
other evaluational criteria.

A welfare program may be regarded as socialistic and hence undesirable, regardless of its
actual impact.

A tax cut may be considered necessary and desirable because it enhances the electoral
chances of the evaluator ’s political party.

The rise in the price of palay may be unacceptable because the evaluator knows a lot of
suffering consumers.

This shows different evaluators employing different sets of values and critreria and
making different conclusions concerning the merit of a policy.

2. Cost-Benefit Evaluation – Evaluation may center on the questions:
Is the implementation honestly done? What is the financial cost? Who receives the
benefits? Is there an unnecessary overlap or duplication with other programs?

This kind of evaluation may reveal something about the honesty or efficiency in the
implementation of policy. But it will probably show all about the effects on the intended
beneficiaries of this policy.

3. Systematic Evaluation – This evaluation measures the extent to which the policy is
achieving its intended objectives. Agencies like the Presidential Management Staff, the
Department of Budget and Management, the Commission on Audit, and the ODA formerly
the Flagship Office of the Office of the President monitor and appraise implementation of
major government policies and programs.

To determine the societal impact of policy, the evaluators should know the distinction
between policy outputs and policy outcomes. Policy outputs are things the government
does, like highway construction, operation of public schools, establishment of health and
care centers. These may be measured by such standards as per capita highway
construction expenditures, and per capita health services expenditures.

These measures, however, may tell us little about the outcomes or impacts. Our concern
should be the changes in the environment caused by policy action. Knowing how much is
spent on pupils in a school system on per capita, or some other basis that will tell us about
the effect schooling has on the abilities of the students.

Determining the real impact of policy on the target beneficiaries is often a very complex
and difficult task.

At least policy evaluation requires that we know what we want to accomplish with a given
policy, how we are implementing it, and what have we accomplished toward the
attainment of its objectives.

In measuring accomplishment, we need to know if some change in real-life conditions has
occurred, such as reduction in unemployment rate, and that we should also know if it is
due to policy action and not to any other factors.

LESSON 2: PROBLEMS IN POLICY EVALUATION
It is really difficult to measure quantitatively with precision the impact of public policy. What can be
done at most is to assess carefully and objectively as possible such impact.

There may be obstacles to policy evaluation. These are:

1. Uncertainty Over Policy Goals – When the objectives of policy are uncertain, unclear
and diffused, determining the extent to which they have been attained becomes a difficult
task. Goals intended to be achieved are sometimes defined differently by various
participants in policy-making. These participants have varying interests and diverse
values. Officials, for instance, with distinct positions in the policy system, such as
legislators and administrators or national and local officials, may define their goals
differently.

For instance, the Tondo Foreshore Land as a resettlement area during the Marcos
Administration had among its goals, rebuilding a slum and blighted areas, the
improvement of housing and the reduction of crime and delinquency rate. No priories had
been assigned to these goals. In the evaluation, it becomes difficult to ascertain which
goals had been successfully accomplished.
2. Causality – This is determining the cause and effect relationship. If for example, the anti-
gambling task force is created, and there has been a report about gambling reduction, it
does not mean right away that the drop in gambling is due to the creation of the task force
if the data on the decreasing gambling rate have been gathered long before the creation of
the Task Force.

3. Diffuse Policy Impact – Policy implementation may affect people who are not among the
intended beneficiaries of a policy. For example, unemployment benefits may affect not
only the unemployed but also the taxpayers and low-income people. The taxpayers may be
alarmed why they are subsidizing those who are lazy. The low-income group may no
longer work.

4. Difficulties in Data Collection – Absence of adequate, accurate and relevant statistical
data may be a problem to policy evaluators. How can we say that the new minimum wage
law has provided a relief to low-income workers if no relevant data are available?

5. Official Resistance – Some officials may not favor policy evaluation, especially if they
know that the outcome may adversely affect their personal interest. Results of policy
evaluation are usually held in abeyance during election time, because any outcome not
favorable to an official running for re-election may affect his change of winning.

Evaluating policy may either be through formal means such as data analysis or informal
means like people’s reaction, revealing its success or failure, or need for modification. If
any problem is observed, the whole process begins again.

What problems have your agency encountered in implementing certain policy or guidelines. Discuss
these problems together with your solutions.

Anderson, James E. Public Policy-Making, An Introduction, 4th Ed. (Boston: Houghton and Miffin
Company, 2000),
Cockrel, Jerri. Public Policy-making in America, University of Kentucky

PART II: PROGRAM ADMINISTRATION

COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is a study of Program Administration, its planning, development and evaluation, with
discussions on the nature, characteristics, and dynamics of a program.
COURSE Objectives
At the end of this course, you should be able –

1. describe the nature and concept of a program and how it is differentiated from a project;
2. Identify the reasons why new government functions and thrusts tend to require a new strategy,
progress structure, and framework for action in developing countries; and

3. explain the processes and techniques involved in program development, implementation, and
evaluation.
MODULE 1: WHAT IS A PROGRAM?
LESSON 1: THE DEFINITION AND NATURE OF A PROGRAM

Learning Objectives

1. describe the nature and function of a program;
2. differentiate program from project; and
3. familiariaze with the characteristics, elements and prerequisites of a program


· Program Innovation
· Program Staffing
· Complementarity
· Career Staffing
· Environmental Linkages
· Institutional Linkages

INTRODUCTION
A policy is implemented through a program which is defined as a form of organized social activities,
limited in time, space and scope, with specific objectives. It may consist of a group of projects which
become meaningful as they interrelate with each other under a program.

A program does not just exist in a vacuum; it may branch out from an ongoing activity or
organization as in the case of a road construction program becoming expanded when different levels
of government or a number of organizations have to agree on its design, location, timing and
financing, or where government consults with private organizations and decides with them the
development pertinent to interrelated services.

Another example is an educational development program which may consist of a number of schools
of different types all becoming meaningful as they interrelate in level, purpose, timing and function.

A social work program in a slum area which may be made up of a number of projects of varying
natures like provision of livelihood project, sanitation and feeding which are interrelated in terms of
area and purpose.

A program must be limited in purpose, scope and time so as not to compete with ongoing activities,
services and organizations and the generate cooperation and goodwill, rather than ill-will.

The decision to initiate a program depends upon a variety of reasons, as follows:

1. Its cultural and traditional aspects,
2. Consideration of efficiency and financing; and
3. A combination of the foregoing.

Characteristics of a Prog ram
A program to be typical and good, should posses the following qualities
1. innovative elements,
2. new initiative,
3. new experimental approach; and
4. new insights.

How Do Prog rams Come About?
Administrators recommend or initiate a program, on the following conditions

1. The existing organization becomes an obstacle to efficient performance or changing
functions.
2. Those who contribute financial assistance to the program would prefer program as a way
of identifying the activities that receive support and facilitate specific reporting,
accounting and auditing.
3. The implication and urgency of problems to be solved, induce people to seek active
cooperation and support from a variety of public and private organizations, levels of
government, and national and international bodies.
4. There is a need to attract public attention and support, and facilitate financing.
5. New types of functions require a new framework for action, and the existing and
continuing organizations and operations usually lack the flexibility to adapt to needed and
planned change.

Pre-requisites of a Prog ram
1. Efficiency – program has the efficiency which cannot be provided by the existing
administrative system to serve or answer the needs of the government development

efforts. Unlike in France where the administrative hierarchy is well-organized with little
overlap, there is not much need for a program. But in developing countries where the
bureaucracy has been fixated to routine activities and usually lacks flexibility and is
resistant to change, program usually fills the need.

2. Innovation – This has to be resorted to, if it is the only solution to the problem.
Metropolitan Manila Development Authority has been set-up to coordinate basic services
in the area where jurisdictional problems among cities and municipalities have brought
about chaos and conflict in garbage collection, traffic management, and sidewalk
clearing.

3. Complementarily – This is another element of program. Elements of a program may
sometimes diminish another programs’ value fucntionally, geographically, or

hierarchically. They should rather be mutually supportive of each other. If a railway and a
monorail run parallel to each other, they compete. But if the monorail lines branch out or
branch off, it compliments or supports the railway. The LRT and the MRT will soon
connect with each other to be mutually supportive of their functions.

Scope of Prog ram
The scope of program is determined by its relations to other activities. For instance, the Pasig River
Rehabilitation Program, apart from dredging and cleaning the river of pollutants, covers such
projects as beautification of the river, using it as means of water transportation to decongest Metro
Manila of traffic, and converting the river banks into promenades for leisures.

If eventually, the program will cover the whole stretch of Pasig River from Marikina to Manila, then
it needs the involvement and support of different cities and municipalities traversed by Pasig River
and the assistance of the national government.

To be effective and for its smooth operations, the programs must provide for adequate organization
and financing of inspection team.

Elements of a Prog ram
To sum up, a good program should have the following elements:

1. Clear and well-expressed goals,
2. Determination of the instrumentalities best suited to achieve those goals,
3. A set of interrelated projects to achieve those goals most effectively,
4. Measurement of the expected cost and benefit of the program,
5. Relationship with ongoing activities; and
6. Measures, including staffing and financing needed to execute the program.

Program is seldom a self-contained, isolated operation. It needs supporting policies and measures outside of the program to assist in its
successful operations and resulting expansion.

LESSON 2: PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS

In the process of economic and social developments, public administrators are more directly
concerned with program and project administration. They have realized the usefulness of programs
and projects in urgent situations, and have, for that matter, developed their ability to formulate and
develop viable programs and projects, and implement them successfully.

Programs are used to –

1. receive support and assistance from local and foreign sources to solve a problem,
2. serve as catalyst of change, and initiate changes leading to organizational reforms; and
3. bridge joint activities at different levels of governments, like the Bicol River Basin where
the provincial government of Albay and the cities and municipalities within the area,
cooperate to regulate water resources.

Program objectives are functions of the authorities. But interactions of issues and values may help
determine the final choice of what the program should finally accomplish. When does pollution
control change from being public-oriented to being amenity-oriented? What does the Pasig River
Rehabilitation Program aim to accomplish? A beautification program? A means of transportation to
decongest Metro Manila through fares? Or just for sentimental reason of reviving and bringing back
the Pasig River of the early centuries?

Is road construction directed mainly to improve travel time, help economic growth or just for
political gains? Do conservation policies help enhance historical value of the place or promote
tourism?

The final choice of program objectives will be dictated by the actual need. It may also be a question of
prioritizing and perceived requirements. But what is important is that it is a program for whatever
purpose it may serve.

The Province of Batangas’ Program for Senior Citizens being administered by the Provincial Office
for Senior Citizens Affairs, aims to help senior citizens in the form of financial assistance, Botika
Kooperitiba in every city and municipality, and continuous education to make them useful and
informed citizens of Batangas.

The Role of Prog ram and Project Manag ers
Program managers must perform difficult task of scanning the environment, and responding to
influences that affect program directly and indirectly.

It is crucial for managers to become aware of and manage effectively the multitudes of external
influences, pressures and opportunities that are likely to affect the program.

Management of interaction with the environment serves as basis for program planning and
evaluation, a continuous activity throughout the lifetime of a program.
There are two abstract models of program linkages, namely;
1. Environmental Linkages – This shows the interaction of the program with the social,
economic and political influences and the technological trends and conditions. If shown in
schematic diagram, the program is at the center surrounded by social, economic and
political influences and the technological trends and conditions.

2. Institutional Linkages – This shows the interaction of the program with identifiable entries
which have the power and control over matters affecting the program as follows:
2.1. Sponsors or donors,
2.2. Sovereignty which is authority over the program;
2.3. Regulatees are organizations with members whose behaviors are strongly affected by
program activities,
2.4. Allies are organizations giving support to the program,
2.5. Rivals are organizations competing with the program for allocation of scarce
financial, human and physical resources; and

2.6. Beneficiaries are organizations most directly benefited and affected by the program
activities.
Think of a program or project your agency, local government or association is undertaking or may
undertake. What functional issues can you attribute to the project of your choice? This is for
discussion next meeting.

“Program Approach in Development”, Mimeographed lecture notes from
The UP College of Public Administration,
Sheldon, Eleanor B. and Freeman, Howard E., “Notes on Social Indicators:
Promises and Potentials”, in Weiss, Evaluation Action Program.
Solesbury, William. “Programmes”, Policy in Urban Planning
(Oxford: Pergamon Press)

MODULE 2: PROGRAM PLANNING

Learning Objectives

1. identify the reasons for program planning;
2. explain the obstacles to planning; and
3. characterize the true essence of a plan


· Pro Forma Planning
· Public-Private Reasons for Planning
· Means-end Planning

What is Planning ?
Planning implies preparation for the future. To plan is to devise a course of action. Plans represent
alternative ways of getting where the planners want to be. They are more or less different from the
present, more or less likely possible, feasible, workable, or less costly.

Planning in public agencies is directed to future courses of action. However some people would say
planning in government has little to do with future courses of action. It is more in compliance with
legal requirements for planning or to justify the existence of a planning office. Planning may be real,
purely symbolic or pro forma.

Plans may be what planners prepare and decision makers ignore. It can be a detailed statement of
intentions with no hope of implementation. A plan may be short-range, medium-range or long-range.
It may end up in a document that is much debated but never carried out. It may appear possible,
feasible and workable, but would only remain as such.

Simply stated, planning is a process of preparing a plan. It may pertain to certain areas of specific
administrative activities such as financial planning, personnel or manpower planning and space
planning. Such plan would try to forecast, estimate or project.
There is a variety of policy areas for planning. Examples are health planning, land use planning,
welfare planning, resource planning, transportation planning, housing planning, education planning
and defense planning.

It may have geographic focus for particular policy areas such as regional health planning,
metropolitan area planning, and river basin planning.

There are also contingency planning and advocacy planning. Contingency planning answers the
question – What would we do if….? Advocacy planning is activist in nature; its aim is to alter social
conditions. Usually advocate planners work with particular social groups who are oppose to position
taken by the bureaucracy.

What is Prog ram Planning ?
Program planning covers a number of activities. It begins with an assessment and evaluation of the
status quo, answering such questions as Where are you now? What are you doing? What are we
delivering to whom? and With what effect?

Program planning may also begin with a present problem, a source of dissatisfaction and anxiety, and
may attempt to suggest solutions.

It may pertain to the present resources and organizational structure. Is the present organization
flexible and efficient? Will the new program with its objectives fit in the existing organization? Or
will there be some alterations or modifications or even additions.

Obstacles to Planning
There are obstacles to planning. One is that planning resources which may not offer a quick pay-off
or return.

There are internal, organizational or even political problems. On paper, an organization may appear
to be well-staffed and organized, but there may still be problems. Another related issue is that
estimates or projections may be inaccurate because the data about the present are inaccurate or simply
not adequate.
Lastly, plans may be implemented by others who may not share the intention of the planners, or who
may not even be sure what goals the planners may have in mind. Implementors may not have the skills
the planners may have assumed, or implementers may have goals and values of their own.

Reasons for Planning
Despite the difficulties in planning, a plan has to be prepared. Possible reasons for planning include
the following:

1. To draw attention to the problem or the present state of affairs,
2. To stimulate discussions and debates about alternatives,

3. To propose alternative course of action,
4. To meet requirements for funding,
5. To present what is rational,
6. To use resources economically and improve coordination,
7. To satisfy superiors,
8. To ensure adoption of a correct course of action,
9. To keep up with organizations with plans; and
10. To impress.

Characteristics of a Plan
Public-Private Reason – Plan may have public and private reasons. A plan proposing
environmental policy may be in compliance with legislative requirements. This is the public
reason. The private reason is to find out whose support the planner or the planning agency
wants to gain and maintain.
Form-Substance of Planning -Plan in form may not be plan in substance. If merely required by
either the legislature or the administrative agency, a plan may be produced, but may lack
substance. It may not be inaccurate based on mere guesses. It may not intend to effect
instruction. It merely exists to satisfy requirements, but never to be implemented.
Symbol-Substance -Plan may be a mere symbol designed to assure observers of concern. But it
is not intended to change reality for example, an environmental plan may address pollution and
concern for protection of the environment. While the effect as conceived may be really
intended, seriousness cannot be assumed. The trained planner may be serious in what he plans,
but the official whom the planner works for may not. Plan may be used in ways other that
planner intends it to be.
Means-End Dichotomy - A plan may be both a means and an ends, or either. A health plan may
stimulate discussion about the present and future location of health facilities. Yet the same plan
to others may be an end, when the only concern is to have it published. Others who may hope
for its implementation may only get disappointed.
There is another way of interpreting a plan. It may be well-prepared by a technically trained-

planner, but it may lack political support. It may have political support but it is technically
deficient. The plan may be good and clear but politically unrealistic because it is based on
values not widely shared.
Politics of Planning A plan is not self-executing. There may be conflict, negotiation and
compromise before a plan may be up for initial implementation.

Think of a plan and determine your reason or reasons for it. What do you think could be your
problems in having your plan implemented?

For submission and discussion next meeting.

Davis, James Jr. W., “Program Planning and Program Development”,
An Introduction to Public Administration. ( London: The Free Press, 1974)

“Planning”, Program Approach in Development, Mimeographed Notes from
UP College of Public Administration.

Solesbury, William, “Programmes”, Policy in Urban Planning, (Oxford: Pergamon Press)
Wholey, Joseph S., Hatry, Harry F., and Newcomer, Kathryn E., Editors, Handbook of Practical
Program Evaluation, (San Francisco, CA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2004)

MODULE 3: PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT

Learning Objectives

1. identify the different phases of program development; and
2. acquire knowledge of how politics get involved in policy development.


· Program Initiation
· Program Deliberation
· Long-Range Potentials

INTRODUCTION
A program develops in phases. There is no best way to program development, but some order must
be given to entail its success.

Program development may be divided into the following phases:
1. Initiation,
2. Consideration and deliberation; and
3. Implementation and evaluation.

The above-enumerated phases are critical in program development proceeding generally in this
fashion. Within each phase there is much opportunity for variation, modification, and innovation.

1. Initiation of a program may start at different points. It may begin in Congress, in Malacañang,
or in any department or agency of the government. It may also proceed from a meeting of an
organized group or on the basis of a report of a committee or body. A reaction because of
dissatisfaction with an existing program may result in the adoption of a new program. Agencies
are on a continuing review of their operation, and are even comparing themselves with others
in search for better options or methods. An agency which does not do this may stagnate for a
long time.

Politics may sometimes be involved in program development. Usually before a program is
adopted there are discussions, bargainings, and negotiations. Within a political system
program development takes time between initiation and final decision.

It is difficult to strike an agreement on new program unless it is to cope with crisis. In such
urgency, a program may be adopted quickly even with flaws.

2. Consideration and deliberation – Until agreement is reached, or a compromise is arrived at, a
program does not move forward. There may be more discussions and debates just like in a
conference committee where every participant has a position on the matter under consideration.
In the early stages of discussions, a program can be developed or allowed to wither. Programs
develop through implementation, just like muscles develop through constant use and exercise.

3. Implementation and evaluation – After implementation comes evaluation and modification.
Evaluation does not have systematic. It may not even be present. Evaluation and modification
are done in the final phase of program development. They may also be considered a part of a
new program.
If necessary, there should be outside evaluation by experts or consultants.

A system of feedbacking, monitoring, and reporting should also be devised to inform the
sponsors and supporting agencies, the legislature, the general public and the beneficiaries, in
order to gain more understanding of the program and to be deeply involved.

Prog ram Staffing
A program has its own objective in staffing, that is to secure and develop adequate and efficient
personnel. Program staffing is recruiting persons with capacity for immediate, high quality job. It
differs from career staffing where the basis of selection is the person’s long-range potentials.

Prog ram Financing and Budg eting
There are issues to be resolved in program financing and budgeting like the sources of funding,
whether governmental, private, mixed, or from the beneficiaries. Could there be cost-benefit
analysis to determine the value of the program?

If funds have to be raised, could this be through grants, bonds, shares and bank loans? What is the
capital formation aspect of the program? Will there be a need for additional financing?

How is the budget: capital or current accounts, annual or for longer periods? Should certain income
be set aside in separate fund for certain types of expenditures?

How is auditing to be arranged: internal or external, or both?

After the implementation, evaluation and modification are the final phases of program development.

Program development is a political activity. But today, experts and technocrats are involved in
providing data, analysis and forecasts in the process. Hence, program development is now becoming
professionalized.
Think of an activity to be developed into a program. Knowing the program development process and
its different phases, discuss how the activity would develop into a program, using the different
phases. For class discussion next meeting.

Notes on Program Approach in Development, Mimeographed Lecture for classroom purposes
only, UP College of Public Administration.

“Program Planning and Program Development,” taken from James W. Davies Jr., An
Introduction to Public Administration: Politics, Policy and Bureaucracy. ( London: The Free
Press 1974)

“Programmes,” taken from Solesbury, William, Policy in Urban Planning (Oxford: Pergamon
Press, 1974.

MODULE 4: PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

Learning Objectives

1. familiarize with different aspects of program implementation;
2. trace and narrate the experiences in the administration of the Tondo Foreshore Dagat Dagatan
Development Program; and

3. analyze the problems and issues in program implementation.


· Administrative Capability
· Cost Recovery
· Blocking
· Program Amenities

INTRODUCTION
Program implementation consists of critical inputs like resources, structure, technology, support and
leadership capability. To convert critical inputs into outputs depends to a large extent on
administrative capability.

To better understand a program in actual implementation, let us use the Tondo Foreshore Dagat
Dagatan Development Program (TFDDDP) as our example for discussion.

The initial focus of our analysis is the administrative capability to implement development program
and projects. It will directly address factors affecting performance of the implementing organization.

The Tondo Foreshore Dagat Dagatan Development Authority was established in 1973 to upgrade and
improve the Tondo Foreshore Lands. It later became a part of the National Housing Authority (NHA)
which was created in 1975. Other component projects were later incorporated with land development
to constitute a whole program. Such components include the socio-economic infrastructure to sustain
development; the establishment of commercial estates to generate additional income for the
beneficiaries, and remedy the lack of economic opportunities; beefing up a security system to reduce
the crime rate in the area; and the provision of such amenities as water, electricity, sewerage, and
sanitary facilities.

The management of the Tondo Foreshore Dagat Dagatan Development Authority, now a part of NHA,
acquired substantial autonomy to have a smooth internal decision making process and to account for
performance targets/periodically monitored by NHA senior management and the board. The
management of the Authority acquired access to the NHA policy-making, and decision process, and
its functional structure became sufficiently flexible so that it could be altered periodically to match the
emphasis of each implementation phase.

Necessary staff resources not available in the NHA were recruited overtime. Specialized skills
likewise not available in NHA were supplied to the management team by private consultants through
technical assistance packages.

Basically a land development and housing project started with the adoption of concepts to deal with
housing problems, as follows;
1. That housing is not simply the provision of physical shelter but also includes the provision
of physical amenities such as water, sanitary facilities, social welfare facilities and
productive employment opportunities;

2. That housing must be made available at a cost affordable to various income groups, which
may be achieved through the utilization of self-help efforts of the beneficiaries, the
development of improved building systems, or other means such as cross-subsidies from
other complementary development;

3. That the long-term solutions to the housing problem would only be possible by fully-
recovering all costs of development from the beneficiaries.

The strategies to deal with the same problems were:

1. The identification of prospective relocatees and their socio-economic profile, covering
household composition, financial affordability and social condition,

2. The formulation of criteria for evaluation of qualified occupants,
3. The organization of households scheduled for relocation into groups, committees and a
council for community development,

4. The implementation of an interim social services program like orientation and education,
economic opportunities, health and nutrition, and other related fields in preparation for the
relocation and adjustment in the new sites,
5. The actual movement of families in coordination with cooperating agencies,
6. The implementation of the socio-economic development program to hasten the adjustment

period and to sustain the progress of development of the social infrastructure,
7. The provision of training program to teach the beneficiaries in managing, administering
and maintaining the program themselves,

8. The promotion of social welfare, health and human resource development as major support
functions to physical engineering and financial aspects of the programs,

9. The promotion of commercial and industrial activities in the project sites as well as training
and development in entrepreneurial and industrial skills for economic sufficiency of the
beneficiaries,
10. The proposed development plans, standards and policies were clearly described along with
the financial and economic implications,

11. The jurisdictional and financial responsibilities of the different government departments
and agencies participating in the project were clearly defined and delineated; and
12. The target population groups were identified, meetings and discussions were held and
feedback obtained.

Personnel Resources Commitment
As a commitment to employees of the Authority to enhance skills, competence, efficiency and

morale, the following strategies and activities were undertaken:

1. A staff development program consisting of in-service training, seminars, scholarships and
travel grants (local and abroad) and special courses in housing and urban development were
provided to employees in all levels,

2. Progressive career patterns for employees and a merit promotion plan were implemented to
allow deserving employees to advance in the organization,

3. Emergency cost of living allowance, transportation and representation allowance, increase
in medicare, dental care and other benefits were granted to the employees as incentives for
better performance; and
4. Employees orientation and motivational programs were launched as part of the program
objective to increase the efficiency and productivity of employees, and insure attainment of
the organization goals. This strategy aimed to make the employees feel that they are
important parts of the organization and to encourage positive and constructive interaction
between employees and management.

Funding
The program was funded under PD No. 931 which appropriated a total of 598.1 million pesos to be
disbursed within four years. The funds were allotted to the agencies implementing the different
program components.

The amount of $32 million was provided by the IBRD through loan to the national government which
in turn entered into a subsidiary loan agreement with the NHA for the program components to be
implemented by the NHA. A subsidiary loan agreement with MWSS was also entered into by the
national government for water system in the site.

To insure the proper, efficient and expenditious implementation of the program, President Marcos
issued Letter of Instruction No. 401 which defined the roles and responsibilities of the agencies and
instrumentalities involved in the implementation of the program.

A World Bank mission which came to Manila in November 1975 appraised the program and
subsequently prepared a report which became the subject for loan negotiation in the middle of April
1976. A loan agreement was formalized in June 1976 with the First Lady, Imelda Marcos, signing as
Metro Manila Governor in behalf of the Philippine government.

Major issues decided during the negotiation were:

1. The proposed loan of $32 million was to be submitted to IBRF Board of Directors for
approval by May 25, 1976,

2. The loan was to be made by the Philippine government on behalf of the Manila Urban
Development Project. Of the $32 million, $12 million was to be relent in the form of
subsidiary loan to the NHA for selected program components that the NHA had been tasked
to undertake. An additional $10 million was made available for the authority and other
participating agencies to allow for contingencies; and
3. The $32 million loan was under two proposed arrangements: $22 million was under normal
bank lending terms, while $10 million was under World Bank “Third Window” financing
with lower interest rates.

For the loan to be effective, the following were undertaken:
1. Technical assistance and consultants for the program and the NHA were contracted; and
2. President Marcos issued a PD allocating counterpart funds for the completion of the
program, and an LOI specifying the responsibilities and relationships of the different
government agencies participating in the program.

Prog ram Proper
The most pressing problems of Metro Manila in the 1970s were related to shelter, health and
nutrition, urban transports and institutional capabilities. An acute housing shortage resulted from
rapid population growth in the area.

In Tondo, in particular, majority of the households were first-generation migrants. Because of its
central location, it was then a convenient place from which migrants could attempt to find
employment and to adjust to urban life. It became the largest slum and squatter area which exhibited
most of the problems, challenges and opportunities posed by poor sanitary conditions and low
incomes in dense urban area.

Tondo was reclaimed from the sea in the late 1940s. Large portions of its watery shallow shores were
used as the dumping ground of tons and tons of garbage from Metro Manila. This dumping area
became popularly known among the residents as “tambakan’. Soon squatters moved in and stayed in
the area.

The upgrading of this growing community became the centerpiece of the Tondo Foreshore Dagat
Dagatan Development Program. The area covered 137 hectares and at that time had a population of
27,500 families (180,000 persons) in 17,500 structures which were indiscriminately constructed with
some encroaching on one another, or even on streets. Some land registration by squatters took place
in the old Tondo which comprised around one third of the total area. The new Tondo (the new
foreshore) was still largely publicly owned land. Some households had or had been offered, tenure,
others had no legal rights which became the source of trouble and unrest in the area.

The site’s level of environmental sanitation was then very low because of high population density,
inadequate water and sewerage facilities and very poor drainage, which explained why the residents
suffered severely from health problems. In 1975 a survey showed that infant mortality was about 130
per 1000 live births per year; 80 percent of pre-schoolers were undernourished; more than three
quarters of the population suffered from roundworms; 30 percent of adult female population and
more than 40 percent of the children suffered from anemia; and much of the residents suffered severe
Vitamin A deficiencies. In previous year (1974), 500 were admitted in hospitals for cholera, and 707
died of tuberculosis.

Before the Tondo Foreshore Program was launched, the government main response to slum and
squatter problems had been a series of ad hoc projects involving major relocations in distant sites.
This was unsuccessful because of lack of nearby employment opportunities and inadequate services
like transportations.

The Tondo program was designed principally to upgrade blighted areas, provide better employment
opportunities, and improve the standards of operations of responsible government offices.

The deplorable conditions in slum and squatter areas necessitated the provision of minimum urban
services to the residents. It was done on an area-by-area basis, accompanied by measures of
regularizing land tenure and a long-term housing program for approximately 40,000 new families to
improve the living conditions of Manila’s poorest of the poor.

Re-blocking
The prevailing road and utility networks in the area allowed civil works to be done on a block-by-
block manner. Known as re-blocking, it was applied in some areas and replicated in other areas. The
process proved tedious as it rectified squatting practices where structures encroached on the streets
and utility line cris-crossed through indiscriminate constructions and illegal tappings.

New lots were provided with individual water, sewerage and electricity connections. Street lightings
were installed along main and major access roads. Lot size varied ranging from 35 square meters to
96 square meters, with majority lots approximating 48 square meters in size.
At a density of 100 units per hectare, the lots were small, showing the high value of land in the
sites.

Core Units
Residents with existing shelters were extended assistance to improve their units. Those who had to be
moved out into their new sites were given options to use materials from their demolished houses, for
re-election through self-help in the new sites, or be provided with pre-engineered packages to
complete their house, to be financed through material loans up to a maximum of $375. The loans
were made available to families who could afford. NHA technical personnel provided technical
assistance.

Relocations
The resettlement of families in the new sites was handled carefully. Prior to actual moving in,
discussions were held between families and technical officials of the NHA. Social workers, church
groups, community leaders and others assisted.

Cost Recovery
Any housing project would not be successful without cost recovery. In Tondo Foreshore and Dagat
Dagatan, cost recovery was through 25-year renewable leases, with an option to purchase after five
(5) years. Monthly lease payments were set to cover the development cost over 25 years at an annual
interest rate of 12 percent. One feature of the lease was transferability. The lease right could be sold
should the lease holder decide.

Since the lease in this case was an increasingly valuable asset and had many similarities to ownership,
the residents would have incentive to continue the monthly payments, invest in and improve their
leased property.
The project was designed to enable majority of the residents to afford the project benefits. A lease
payment of $0.13 per square meter per month covered full development costs. In addition, a family
paid normal charges for water and sewerage, property taxes, and if connected, electricity. It was
estimated then that an average family would make a monthly payment of $6 for all these expenditures
except electricity.

Community Relations and Information Campaig n
The government experience in the Tondo Foreshore program proved that community relations and
information campaign were effective in obtaining people’s cooperation and approval in upgrading
the efforts in their community. Their support and agreement on the chosen alternatives through group
discussions reduced tension, thus avoiding conflicts among the residents.

Prog ram Supports
To alleviate poverty in the area, the government promoted employment by developing industrial
estate property, and small businesses and cottage industries. Other component projects and activities
undertaken in support of the program were the construction of new schools and community centers;
nutrition; vitamin and iron supplementation; immunization; deworming; family planning; and vermin
and rodent control.

Industrial/Commercial Estates
About 15 hectares of reclaimed land in Tondo Foreshore were developed into industrial and
commercial estates, and 3.5 hectares were converted into industrial uses in Dagat Dagatan, and an
additional two (2) hectares were allotted for mixed commercial and industrial uses.

Small-Scale Business
This program component aimed to assist small businesses and cottage industries in the project area. It
included technical and managerial services and credited facilities. Several three-person teams trained
in accounting and business were created to assist in identifying projects and proponents; in preparing
feasibility studies; in reviewing all aspects of the project such as technical approach, marketing,
sources of supply and financial viability; in identifying further professional assistance and training;
and in establishing liaison with other government and private agencies.

Community Facilities
The program included the construction of 119 new classrooms for five (5 elementary schools in
Tondo, 46 primary school classrooms and a new 49-room high school in Dagat Dagatan.

Community Centers
Twenty-five (25) community multi-purpose centers were constructed in Tondo Foreshore and three
(3) in Dagat Dagatan. All these centers double-functioned as nurseries and recreation facilities for
adults.

Community Skills Training Center
One additional 250 sq. m. building was constructed providing five (5) additional classrooms for
vocational and cottage industry courses.

Clinics
The program included upgrading of health centers, replacement of inserviceable equipments,

provision of pediatric beds and rehydration equipment, and the construction of 25-bed health centers
in Tondo and another 25 centers in Dagat dagatan.

Barang ay Volunteer Medics.
The NHA in coordination with the Department of Health and other agencies trained 300 barangay
medical volunteers.

Nutrition
Nutrition and health education programs were conducted in the community centers, giving emphasis
on breast-feeding and cooking nutritious food mixtures.

Vitamin and Iron Supplementation
A 1975 survey revealed that 36 percent of children over four (4) years old were deficient in Vitamin
A, and nearly 50 percent of adults were consuming diets not meeting the basic physiological
requirements for Vitamin A. Accordingly, the program included mass dosage of Vitamin A.
Conducted twice a year was an administration of 100,000 i.u. of Vitamin A palmitate to 40,000
children between the age of two (2) and six (6) years old.

The survey likewise revealed that over a third of the lactating mothers and young children were
anemic. For this, all centers and clinic and social workers were made responsible for supplying all
females with cheap but effective iron supplements. They were also instructed to monitor on a yearly
basis the blood iron (Hemoglobin) level.

Immunization.
To arrest the spread of communicable diseases like diphtheria, measles, typhoid, cholera, and
poliomyelitis in the Tondo Foreshore, the program included provision of DPT (diphtheria, pertusis,
tetanus), measles and poliomyelitis vaccines to about 30 percent of the children. About 14,678
vaccinations were conducted every year.

Other program supports or components included deworming, family planning and vermin and rodent
control.

Make a critical commentary on the Tondo Foreshore Dagat Dagatan Development Program
experience, citing failures, if any, to observe the correct steps and procedures in program planning
and development.

Davis, James Jr. W. “Program Development,” An Introduction to Public Administration: Politics,
Policy and Bureaucracy. (London: The Free Press, c1974).

Documents and manuscript on the Tondo Foreshore Dagat Dagatan Development Authority secured
from the NHA.

Iglesias, Gabriel A. Administrative Capability as a Neglected Dimension in the Implementation of
Development Programmes and Projects. UP College of Public Administration.
MODULE 5: PROGRAM EVALUATION

Learning Objectives

1. asses the importance and objectives of program evaluation; and
2. familiarize with the problems and misuses of evaluation.

· Unintended Consequences
· Eyewash
· Submarine Evaluation
· White Wash

INTRODUCTION
Program evaluation includes the assessment of program performance. Has it achieved its objectives?
To what extent? Are there problems and difficulties encountered? Are there alterations, modifications
or additions made? These are questions usually asked in program evaluation.

It is tempting to say that evaluation involves research. But research may not be needed. Common
citizens, journalists, congressmen, and executives commonly assess, judge or evaluate on the basis of
intuition, guess, or hunch, with often little research. But evaluation research is an increasingly heard
procedure which research ideally involves the careful collection and analysis of information and
interpretation for the purpose of determining how well a program is working. But evaluation
research may be poorly planned. Inappropriate or insufficient data may be collected. Analysis may be
limited and unimaginative, and erroneous conclusions may be drawn. Evaluation is a term that covers
a multitude of activities.

The basic question of evaluation is whether a program is doing what it is supposed to do. It may be
difficult to determine what the goals of a program are; any program is likely to have many goals
which persons in different positions (beneficiary, administrator, taxpayer, congressmen) may rate
differently in terms of importance. As evaluation is being carried out, goals may shift.

In addition to discovering whether goals are being met, evaluation may also be concerned with other
questions such as: Are the goals of a program appropriate? Who is benefiting from a program and
who is being disadvantaged? Is a program having unintended or unanticipated consequences and are
these harmful or beneficial? How much is the program cost and who is paying? In short, what
difference does a program make?

Why assess consequences? Why try to find out what impact a program is having? Why evaluate?
There are answers, and then there are still more answers. The obvious answer is that evaluation is
conducted to get information that can lead to program modification and improvement, and to propose
cancellation and re-allocation of resources. Put more simply, evaluation is the first step to changing
and improving.

But not all evaluations are motivated by a desire to improve programs. It may have other objectives.
Carol Weiss in her book Evaluation Action Programs has explained other reasons of evaluation. She
said evaluation may be used to delay a decision, to justify and legitimate a decision already made, to
vindicate a program in the eyes of its donors or funders, to satisfy the conditions of government or
foundation grants.

Prog ram Evaluators
Participants in program evaluation may assume different roles each, be influenced by different
interests. The training, skills, values and positions of evaluators affect what is being evaluated, how
the evaluation is conducted, and the conclusion reached. A lawyer may conclude that a program is
good because it is in accordance with law. An economist might consider a program too expensive. A
sociologist may claim that the public’s are satisfied with the program. A political scientist may see a
program getting political support.

Misuses of Evaluation
1. Eye-Wash: an attempt to justify a weak or bad program by deliberately selecting for
evaluation only those aspects that “look good” on the surface. Appearance replaces reality.
2. White-Wash: an attempt to cover up program failure or error by avoiding any appraisal.
Vindication replaces verification.

3. Submarine: an attempt to “torpedo” or destroy a program regardless of its effectiveness.
Politics replaces science.

4. Posture: an attempt to use evaluation as a “gesture” of objectivity or professionalism. Ritual
replaces research.
5. Postponement: an attempt to delay needed action by pretending to seek the “facts”. Research
replaces service.

Apart from its complexity, no evaluation study is likely to be singly motivated. Rather the motivations
behind any evaluation are many and complex. Individuals themselves may have multiple motives ( a
desire to get useful information, but also interest in building political support ) and are likely to
participate in evaluation in one way or another. They all may have somewhat different motives and
interests.
Given this complexity, it is small wonder that “evaluation” is a term that can be applied to many
studies (different in quality, length, precision, and utility ). In the end, evaluation studies may even end
up making little difference

1. Give your own examples of the application of the different misuses of evaluation.
2. Evaluate a program or project of your choice, citing problems and complexities.

Caro, Francis G. Readings in Evaluation Research. ( New Your: Russel Serge Foundation, 1971 ).
Rossi, Peter H. and Williams, Walter. Evaluating Social Action Programs, ( New York: Seminar Press
, 1972 ).
Shaw, Ian F; Greene, Jennifer C.; and Mark, Melvin M.; “The Evaluation of Policies, Programs and
Practices”, Handbook of Evaluation.( London: Sage Publication, 2006 )
Sheldon, Eleanor Bernet and Freeman, Howard E. “Notes on Social Indicators: Promises and
Potential”, in Weiss, Evaluation Action Program.
Suchman, Edward A. “Action for What? A Critique of Evaluation Research,” In Weiss, Evaluation
Action Program
Weiss, Carol H. Evaluation Action Program: Readings in Social Action and Education. ( Boston;
Allyn and Bacon, 1972 ).
Wholey, Joseph S.; Hatry F; Newcomer, Kathryn E.; Editors. Handbook Practical Program
Evaluation. ( San Francisco CA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2004 )
Wildavsky, Aaron. “The Self-Evaluating Organization”, Public Administration Review, Vol. 32, No.
5, (1972).

THE TONDO FORESHORE DAGAT-DAGATAN DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAM OF THE FIRST LADY

AND

METRO – MANILA GOVERNOR

IMPLEMENTING AGENCY: NATIONAL HOUSING AUTHORITY

INTRODUCTION
The most pressing problems of the Metropolitan Manila Area (MMA) relate to shelter, health and nutrition, urban
transport and institutional capabilities. An acute housing shortage has been caused by rapid population growth, an inadequate
existing housing stock, and the absence of a coordinated institutional framework to address construction and financing of
housing. In 1972, approximately 50 percent of physically inadequate dwelling units in the Philippines and 80 percent in all urban
areas were in the MMA. About 1.8 million persons now live in substandard structures on unserviced lots with a very low level of
environmental sanitation.
The inadequacy of sanitation facilities and of health and medical services, compounded by flooding and standing
stagnant water, has led to deterioration in the level of health. Cases of typhoid, cholera, and other gastrointestinal infections and
malnutrition have risen noticeably since 1968, and it is clear that population increases have strained available medical and health
facilities.

The largest slum, and the one in most pressing need of basic urban services, is the Tondo Foreshore. The Tondo was
reclaimed from the sea in the late 1940s and squatters moved in shortly thereafter. This community, the upgrading of which is the
centerpiece of the Tondo Foreshore Dagat-Dagatan Development Project, covers almost 137 hectares and has a population of
27,500 families (180,000 persons) in 17,500 structures. He median family income is about $576 a year, which is about 60 percent
of the median income of the MMA. (A Summary of existing conditions in Tondo Foreshore is annexed).
In the Tondo, the majority of households are first-generation migrants. Because of its central location, the Tondo has
been a convenient place from which to attempt to find employment and to adjust to urban life.
Some land registration by squatter families has taken place mostly in the old foreshore (Old Tondo), which comprises
approximately one third of the total area. The new foreshore area (New Tondo) is still largely publicly owned land. The fact that
some households have tenure, or have been offered it, while others have no legal right, has given rise to much unrest over the
years.
The level of environmental sanitation in Tondo Foreshore is very low because of the high population density,
inadequate water and sewerage facilities and very poor drainage. Partly as a result of this, the area’s residents suffer from severe
health problems. According to a 1975 survey, infant mortality is about 130 per 1,000 live births per year; 80 percent of pre-school
children are undernourished; more than three-quarters of the population suffer from roundworms; 30 percent of the adult female
population and more than 40 percent of the children suffer from anemia; and much of the population also suffers severe Vitamin A
deficiencies. In 1974, there were around 500 hospital admissions for cholera in Tondo, and 707 deaths attributed to tuberculosis.
Until recently, the Government’s main response to the problems of slum and squatter areas has been a series of AD
HOC projects generally involving major relocations to distant sites, which have not been very successful. Principal difficulties
have been a lack nearby employment opportunities and inadequate services, especially transportation. The Government is now
planning a program, of which the Tondo project is a part, designed to upgrade blighted areas in the MMA, provide better
employment opportunities and improve the standards of operation of the responsible Government agencies.
The poor health and living conditions of the large percentage of families living in slum and squatter areas suggest that
the highest priority, in the near term, should be to extend minimum urban services to the worst slum areas. This effort, if made on
a comprehensive area-by-area basis and accompanied by measures which regularize land tenure, should help improve the living
conditions of Manila’s poor. At the same time, a long-term shelter program can be undertaken to help meet the needs of
approximately 40,000 new families being added annually to the population and slow the spread of squatters areas.
Project Execution and Management
The National Housing Authority (NHA) established in late 1975 to plan and execute a national housing program, is the
principal Government agency implementing the project.
Project Cost and Financing
The project was prepared by the Government with the assistance of various short-term local consultants. Bank
missions appraised the project in July and November 1975, and Negotiations were held in Washington in April, 1976.

The estimated total cost of the project is $65 million. With a foreign exchange component of $32 million or 49 percent
of total project cost. Of these amount $17.6 million is for upgrading of Tondo Foreshore and the Dagat-Dagatan Phase I sites and
service project.
Cost Recovery for the Tondo Foreshore and Dagat-Dagatan Components
Cost recovery in Tondo and Dagat-Dagatan will generally be through 25-year renewable leases, with an option to
purchase after 5 years. Monthly lease payments (and assessment taxes) would be set to cover the development costs over 25
years at an annual interest rate of 12 percent. A feature of the lease will be its transferability. Lease holders may sell their leases
should they decide to move. Since the lease in this case will be an increasingly valuable asset and will have many similarities to
ownership it is expected that there will be a considerable incentive to residents to continue to make monthly payments and to
invest in and improve their property.
The project has been designed to enable the great majority of existing Tondo Foreshore residents to afford the project
benefits. A lease payment of $0.13/sq.m per month equivalent would cover full development costs. In addition, a family would pay
normal charges for water and sewerage, property taxes and, if connected, electricity. It is estimated that an average family would
make a monthly payment of $6.00 for all these expenditures except electricity in 1978, compared to $3.75 in 1974. In real terms,
this would be an increase of $1.15 per month by 1978. On this basis, an average size lot could be afforded by about 75 percent of
the Tondo Foreshore families, and a somewhat smaller lot could be afforded by about 85 percent.
It has not been possible to provide individual living accommodations that would be affordable by all income groups in
the Tondo Foreshore, but the vast majority of persons with incomes below the 15th percentile are transients and/or renters of
small rooms. These persons are expected to continue renting rooms in the area and to receive substantial indirect benefits from
the project.
MONITORING
The Government has included a system of monitoring in the project. This will ensure that data essential to project
execution is provided to project managers, and that the design and execution of future projects benefits from the experience of
this project. Monitoring of the upgrading, sites and services, health and employment generation components of the project will be
under the general supervision of a special unit within the NHA.
THE PROJECT
The project aims to assist the Government in starting a process which will begin to address the dominant urban
problems facing Manila, especially those of shelter and environmental sanitation. It also seeks to demonstrate that upgrading in
site is a satisfactory approach to slum improvement in contrast to resettlement, which has hitherto been the policy adopted by the
Government. The project would be the first comprehensive slum upgrading effort of the Philippine Government, and the first
upgrading project of the newly-created National Housing Authority (NHA). In the course of the four-year project implementation
period, the NHA is expected to significantly increase its capacity to plan and implement similar upgrading and sites and services
projects in other parts of Manila and in other cities of the Philippines. Technical assistance provided under the project would
support project execution; project investments will include:
a. upgrading the Tondo Foreshore, including an outfall sewer from the Tondo Sewage Pumping
Station;
b. provision of sites and services units on vacant land within the Tondo Foreshore and
development of the first phase of a new low-income residential area at Dagat-Dagatan;
c. support for community facilities and health and education programs;
d. employment promotion programs in Tondo and Dagat-Dagatan;

UPGRADING THE TONDO FORESHORE
The site for upgrading is the Tondo Foreshore which is Manila’s largest slum and a site that exhibits most of the
problems, challenges and opportunities posed by poor sanitary conditions and low incomes in dense urban areas of the
Philippines.
The upgrading of the Tondo Foreshore will consist of the provision of basic urban services, including water supply,
sewerage, surface-water drainage, road, footpaths, and street lighting and community facilities. In addition, programs promoting
economic development and community health in the area will be provided. Credit facilities for materials loans will be available so
that families with sufficient income can improve over time the structures in which they live.
Individual water and sewer services will be supplied to almost every structure. The inherent difficulties in undertaking
work of this kind are considerable: upgrading of a build-up area is a slow tedious process requiring analysis on a block-by-block
basis, with each cluster of buildings treated individually, and a specific design worked out with the people to be served. Installation
of the services in narrow meandering alleyways will be slow and difficult.
Installation of facilities would be preceded by an extensive community relations program, to consult with residents and
to promote understanding of upgrading. Residents will participate on a barangay-by-barangay basis in decisions concerning final
layout of tertiary infrastructure, and any movement of structures that might be required.
SEWAGE OUTFALL
The present disposal of sewage from metropolitan Manila is constrained by the extremely bad condition of the existing
42” outfall sewer from the Tondo Sewage Pumping Station. With the introduction of an additional loading of sewage from the
Tondo Foreshore, the existing outfall will prove entirely inadequate.
Since these conditions cannot be improved simply by installing additional pumping units, it is necessary to construct
an interim outfall to discharge at a point not closer to the shoreline than the present outfall.

SITES AND SERVICES
The 3,000 new residential units provided under the project include about 1,000 plots to be located in open spaces and
reclaimed land within the Tondo Foreshore, and about 2,000 plots to be built at Dagat-Dagatan. Dagat-Dagatan used to be a large
367 hectares site of currently disused privately-owned fish ponds located about 4 km. north of Tondo. Land acquisition and
reclamation at the site have already been completed. At full development, the Dagat-Dagatan site is expected to provide improved
shelter and services for a population of approximately 150,000 persons. In Phase I, approximately 40 hectares will be developed.
Core Units. All new lots will be provided with individual water, sewerage and electricity connections. Street lighting will
be installed along major access road and the main circulation points. Lot sizes will vary, ranging from less than 35 sq.m. to 96
sq.m. with the majority of lots approximately 48 sq.m. in size. At a density of over 100 units per hectare, these lots are smaller
than in any previous Bank project, reflecting the high value of land in the project areas and the low-income levels of beneficiaries.
Lots will be provided with service connections, basic plumbing fixtures and a partly wall along the service core,
concrete slab and a soil cement floor area. Structures will be completed by families, using existing houses brought from the
Tondo Foreshore, or by utilizing prepared packages designed to complete the houses in incremental stages. These pre-
engineered packages will be financed through materials loans and will be provided up to maximum of $375; they will be available
to those families who can afford them. Technical assistance will be provided by NHA architects and tradesmen.
Layouts. The layouts for the new sites and services developments in Tondo and Dagat-Dagatan provide for lots to be
grouped into clusters around small open spaces, which keep vehicle penetration to a minimum. A central road will pass through
the Dagat-Dagatan site and will serve as a bus route and main artery.
RESETTLEMENT OF FAMILIES
The resettlement of families affected by the project will need careful handling. Prior to moving, discussions will be held
between the family and technical officers of the NHA to ascertain the portion of the existing structure to be preserved and the
method of demolition to be adopted (which will facilitate subsequent re-erections). Adequate notice to move will formally be given,
and assistance will be available to enable affected residents to move and re-erect their shelters at the new sites as speedily and
efficiently as possible. Social workers, community leaders, church groups and others will also assist.
EMPLOYMENT PROMOTION
To alleviate the high level of poverty that has persisted in the Tondo area, the Government has given high priority to
employment promotion. The principal means by which the project addresses employment promotion are through the
development of 9.2 hectares of new industrial property in the project area and through programs supporting very small
businesses and cottage industries. In addition, substantial skills training will be undertaken to improve the effectiveness of the
local labor in construction work and in self-help construction. This should have spillover effects in the establishment of small
contracting firms. Additional classrooms will be provided to a successful vocational training center in Tondo.
Industrial / Commercial Estates. Approximately 15 hectares of vacant and reclaimed land in the Tondo Foreshore will
be developed into industrial and commercial estate property. In Dagat-Dagatan 3.5 hectares will be newly developed for industrial
uses, and another 2 hectares will be developed for mixed commercial / residential use. This represents the first stage of a
substantially larger industrial estate proposed for Dagat-Dagatan. In selecting among applicants for the sites, preference will be
given to labor-intensive businesses.
Small-Scale Business Promotion. This component aims at assisting very small businesses and cottage industries
found in the project areas. It is an experimental effort that includes both technical / managerial services and credit facilities for
small businesses. Several three-person teams will be established in the Tondo and Dagat-Dagatan areas, composed of persons
with accounting and business training. These teams will identify projects and proponents; assist in preparation of feasibility
studies; review all aspects of projects including the technical approach, marketing, sources of supply and financial viability;
identify further professional assistance, training or other preparation required to improve prospects for project success; establish
liaison with other Government and private agencies providing assistance; assist in loan applications; and advise as necessary
during implementation and supervision. Special courses in business management and elementary accounting and record
keeping will be offered under the auspices of NHA, an existing skills training center in Tondo will be augmented.
A line of credit in the amount of $0.33 million will be provided for this purpose to NHA. NHA would enter into an
agreement with two government banks to administer this component for sub-projects involving manufacturing or having a
substantial capital content. Types of businesses in the area that would be supported include general manufacturing of furniture,
household implements and simple tools; woodcraft and shellcraft, machine shops and repair shops and others.
COMMUNITY FACILITIES AND PROGRAMS
Community Facilities
Schools. The school age population in Tondo comprises 20.7% of the total Tondo community population. The current
primary school participation rate in Tondo is 41%, compared with over 90% for the city as a whole. It is projected that by 1980 the
participation rate in tondo will increase to 88%. The project includes the construction of 119 new classrooms for 5 elementary
schools in Tondo. The project also involves construction of 46 primary school classrooms in Dagat-Dagatan and a new 49-room
high school. Design standards are based on two shifts per day for elementary schools and three shifts per day for high schools.
The maximum number of pupils / class is forty (40), the size of a classroom is 63 sq.m., and the gross floor area per attendant
place is 1.7 sq.m.
Community Centers. Twenty-five community multi-purpose centers will be constructed in Tondo and three in Dagat-
Dagatan. Each community center will consist of a covered area of about 65 sq.m. with an enclosed office and toilet facility (about
16 sq.m.). These centers shall be constructed by community self-help labor and located adjacent to the open spaces. They will
be used as multi-purpose centers, and will include playlots (nurseries) of 156 sq.m. for pre-schoolers. Five of these centers will
have a basketball court of 465.8 sq.m., which will serve the dual purpose of being a recreation center for adults, including film
presentations and dance floors. These five centers in Tondo and three in Dagat-Dagatan will each have a total floor space of
685.8 sq.m., while the remaining 20 centers, minus basketball courts, will be 220 sq.m. each.
Community Skills Training Center (Expansion). One additional 250 sq.m. building at the Community Skills Training
Center, will be constructed, providing five additional classrooms. This will enable the center to increase the number of vocational
and cottage industry courses and to raise enrollment by some 25-30%.
Clinics. Nearly all the Government clinics in the project area need some degree of physical upgrading, such as
improvement in sewerage and water connections, repairs to walls, roofs and, in one case, reconstruction. Some minor
equipment also needs to be replaced and updated, and at least 50 beds need to be provided in the area in order to meet
acceptable standards. The project, therefore, involves: (a) the upgrading of four (4) Health Centers; (b) the reconstruction of one
(1) Health Center, which is to be transferred to a new site since it is presently located along the path of a proposed road; (c) the
provision of six (6) pediatric beds and rehydration equipment to centers; and (d) the construction of a 25-bed health center in
Tondo and a 25-bed center in Dagat-Dagatan. Each of these identical clinics will have an approximate floor space of 1,134 sq.m.
(with a second floor of 565 sq.m.), four 6-bed wards and a labor room.
Barangay Volunteer Medics (BVMs). Three-hundred volunteers from the Tondo community will be trained over a 12-18
month period by the NHA, in coordination with the Department of Health and other Government agencies involved in the training of
volunteers workers. The training of each BVM will take about two months and include education in family planning methods;
follow-up referrals; first-aid treatment for malnourished children; weighing procedures and recognition of malnutrition; recognition
and referrals of communicable disease; vaccinations; administration of deworming drugs; vermin control and waste disposal; and
the preparation of records and statistical information. The BVMs will also be able to dispense certain medicines and injections.
Nutrition Program. Modest support, in the form of weighing scales, will be provided to an ongoing program, involving
the weighing of all children less than six years old, to discover suspected cases of malnutrition. Follow-up treatment and family
counseling for children in primary, secondary and tertiary stages of malnutrition is provided.
Catholic Relief Services will provide a corn-soy mixture (from USAID Pl 480 programs) to the clinics. As part of the
infant nutrition program, mothers will be taught the use and preparation of a simple, nutritious food mixture using local ingredients.

Nutrition Education. A program of nutrition and health education is to be conducted in the community centers and in
schools. Particular emphasis will be given to breast feeding and the cooking of nutritious food mixtures. The preparation and
erection of posters and advertising will be conducted through the National Media Center. Follow-up surveys will be carried out to
evaluate the inputs the mothers receive.
Vitamin and Iron Supplementation Program. It is estimated, from records obtained from clinics in the area, that about
5% of the children in Tondo suffer from some degree of visual impairment due to Vitamin A deficiency. The survey carried out by
the Nutrition Foundation, in the spring of 1975, revealed that 36% of the children over 4 years of age are deficient in Vitamin A, and
nearly 50% of the adults were consuming diets that were not meeting the basic physiological requirement for the vitamin.
Accordingly, since a deficiency of this vitamin leads to a much greater susceptibility to infections, as well as eventual blindness, a
proposal to include a mass-dose Vitamin A program is being considered for the project area. If the bio-chemical survey being
undertaken justifies it, this will entail twice-yearly oral administration of 100,000 i.u. of Vitamin A palmitate to around 40,000
children between the ages of 2-6n years of age. In terms of iron deficiency anemia, the latest survey indicate that over a third of
lactating mothers and young children suffer from the disease. In view of the established connection between this disease and
apathy, predisposition to infections and reduced productivity, all clinics, centers and social workers will be responsible for
supplying all eligible females in the study area with cheap, but effective, take-home iron supplements. Hemoglobin (blood iron)
levels will be monitored on a yearly basis in a subsample to evaluate the success of the program.
Immunization. Based on the data gathered from the health centers and clinics, there were, in 1974, 210 deaths and
2,662 confirmed cases of communicable diseases (diphtheria, measles, typhoid, cholera, poliomyelitis) in Tondo Foreshore
alone. In order to arrest the spread of infection, and with the advice of WHO consultants, the project will include the provision of
DPT (diphtheria, pertusis, tetanus), measles and poliomyelitis vaccines to about 30% of the children in Tondo (about 14,678
vaccinations a year), and cholera-typhoid to about 98% of the inhabitants of Tondo. The BVMs have already begun to be trained in
the administration of vaccines and necessary record keeping. Given the high prevalence of tuberculosis, an ancillary program to
detect, treat and prevent tuberculosis in adults is also included, that will cover all adults in Tondo District.
Deworming Program. Because of the presence of worms (mainly ascaris lumbricoides) in nearly 90% of all the
children surveyed at random and 80% of the adults, and the concomitant decline in productivity, health and longevity, a deworming
component is included in the project. While some 10% of the children in the Foreshore have already been “dewormed”, the major
activities under this component for maximum effectiveness will take place after sewerage and water connections to individuals’
households have been installed. A target of about 46,000 children, between 4 and 12, will be aimed at (100% coverage); and as
many adults as possible will be included, using a two-dose approach.
Family Planning. The delivery of family planning information, services, etc. will be via the Health Centers, in addition to
the Barangay Volunteer Medics who are being trained to also function as family planning motivators and advisers. The family
planning program for the project area places as a target for a ten-year period, 1974-84, the reduction of the birth rate from 3.3-
2.5%. Operational targets for each year have been set up. Personalized follow-up letters, campaign geared system, roving mobile
units, monitoring and evaluation systems, etc. are features of the program and, at the local level, will be under the responsibility of
one person in each barangay. (physician, community chairman and / or volunteer medical worker).
Vermin and Rodent Control Program. The large number of rats and vermin, such as lice, present in Tondo will have to
be eliminated or reduced considerably, in order to reduce many of the communicable diseases in the area.
BUILDING MATERIALS LOANS TERMS AND CONDITIONS
These loans are being provided for the purpose of permitting families to improve the houses in which they live on a
self-help basis. Materials will be provided through warehouses approved by the NHA to residents of Tondo and Dagat-Dagatan
who are granted loans for this purpose by the local bank. National Housing Authority (NHA) will provide funds to a government
bank under an agreement similar to that for the small-business loan program.
STATUS OF PROJECT
Physical Works:
Civil Works were initiated in January, 1976 and to date, approximately 30 percent of the total physical work program in
Tondo and in Dagat-Dagatan is already in progress or completed. Over-all, the physical works of the project are progressing quite
well.
A chronic problem in the construction program has been that of deficiencies in surveying for civil works. Often, surveys
have been based on movements which were eventually found to have been disturbed necessitating substantial field changes as
construction progressed. Community misunderstanding regarding rights-of-way, although considered normal, have also delayed
physical works to some extent. Our work program have revealed the impossibility of maintaining tight time schedules during the
rainy season. Likewise, ground conditions in Tondo Foreshore and in Dagat-Dagatan being reclaimed land have been detrimental
to civil works schedule.
In the Tondo Foreshore area, surface drainage works are about 80 percent complete. Secondary watermains are 70
percent complete and expected to be finished by- mid-December of this year. The sewer interceptor is half-way done and will be
fully completed by March, 1978. Area-wide infrastructure designs are essentially complete and are currently being reviewed and
refined. An experimental model community containing 500 core units is 60 percent complete.
Phase I development in Dagat-Dagatan provides for 1,500 serviced lots, 50 of which will contain cores units. Work
started mid this year and is about 25 percent complete.
SOCIO – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
In coordination with various government agencies and civic organizations, the project has been able to deliver the
following socio-economic development programs:
(1) Health and Nutrition – DPT and BCG immunization for children ages three mos. To 14 mos. have
reached some 12 percent of the target population. Lack of medicine in the health centers as well as
parents’ fear of immunization after-effects account for the low figure. De-worming for adults and children
above six (6) years have reached 18.6 percent of our target and 55 percent of the children aged 0-6 years.

Identification of pre-school children under several levels of malnourishment is a continuing program of the
project. The NHA have substantial participation in this program with the provision of 6 staff Nutritionists
who supervise and monitor supplementary food assistance and nutrition education for mothers. Likewise,
a community outreach education component has brought information and materials to the residents of
Nutrition, Environmental Sanitation and Health.
(2) Environmental Sanitation – This two-pronged program includes (1) Vermin and Rodent Control, and (2)
Garbage and Waste Disposal Program. With the identification of the degree of infestation in the area, the
project has facilitated larviciding, and fogging / spraying operations. Trained community volunteers operate
the equipment and the Health department provides the medical supply.

The Garbage and Waste Disposal Program has made substantial gains in eliciting community
consciousness and cooperation for a more efficient garbage collection. Collection routes and collection
points were established throughout the area to facilitate the operation of the program.
While the service has improved, civil works in the area has made many routes inaccessible and constant
supervision and monitoring has been required of this program.
(3) Community Health Workers – A first batch of training for volunteer workers recruited from the community
was conducted last year on Health, Nutrition and Vermin / Rodent Control. They are now the resident
counterparts of the health centers. A formal evaluation on their training and performance was completed
this month which will define the thrust of the program in the future.

A most significant gain of this program was the acceptance and recognition of the Health Department of
the community health workers. In July of this year, funds for training and material support for community
health workers were provided for in each of the local governments’ budget.
(4) Technical Assistance – Complemented by staff technicians from various government agencies, the
project has provided assistance in the cooperatives movement, Vocational Skills Training Program and
Cottage Industry Development Program.

COMMUNITY RELATIONS AND INFORMATION PROGRAM
The Tondo Foreshore is a highly politicized area, much as the whole district where it is located has been in the
Philippine history. Intense political party activity characterized the area before martial law was declared. Despite the abolition of
political parties, political activity in the form of outspoken, defiant rallies and demonstrations persist. Detention of leaders and
demonstrating residents by the military bent on keeping order under martial law prescriptions keeps the situation tense and
hampers NHA efforts to carry out the project.
Recognizing that community cooperation and participation in upgrading efforts must be obtained by working with
people as they are, the NHA deals with the resident s in the context of whichever groups they wish to identify. Hence, the
community relations and information program has for the past year conducted wide-scale information campaigns as well as
organized group meetings with the various organizations that abound in the area. This program has contributed greatly in
enhancing the government’s efforts in slum upgrading as well as in pursuing the project in a sensitive community ground. In the
re-blocking program for instance, the community relations team helps the households and neighborhood groups to agree on the
optimum lay-outs favored by the residents. The planners help define physical alternatives from which, after public discussions,
people choose the arrangement that suit them best.
RE – BLOCKING
The existing road and utility network in the area has allowed us to plan the civil works program on a block-by-block
basis. However, implementing these plans is a tedious process to rectify squatting practices which had evolved a built-up area
where structures have encroached on the streets and utility lines criss-cross through indiscriminate construction and illegal
tapping.
Re-blocking is a series of activity steps which we have developed for the Tondo Foreshore area and our experience in
a few blocks has given the NHA an approach which we feel is worth replicating in similar upgrading projects.
Summary of Existing Conditions
1. Although a majority (61 percent) own their dwelling units, three-fourths occupy their lots rent free;
2. Although the type of building materials used is ordinarily a combination of light and strong materials, the majority of the
dwelling units utilized secondhand materials;
3. Eighty-two percent of the roads are in bad condition and surfaced with gravel or earth;
4. Drinking water is bought from street peddlers by 63 percent of the households; the rest haul water themselves from
community wells or standpipes; only a very small percentage have piped water in their homes;
5. The most common type of drainage system is the open type appropriate to 64 percent of the households;
6. Although 45 percent have the water-sealed, manually flushed toilet in their homes, over a third (38 percent) use the wrap-
and –throw method;
7. The 70 percent who use electricity for their lighting needs usually tap on the electric lines of those who are directly
serviced by the electric company; electricity is rarely used for cooking purposes, however;
8. The drop-out rate for the 5-24 years old school-aged population is high at 41 percent.
9. Fifty-six percent of those enrolled in 1974 attended schools outside Tondo Foreshore owing to the lack of adequate
educational facilities in the Foreshore.
10. The 1974 Tondo Foreshore density of 2.619 persons per hectare is seven times higher than Manila’s 1974 estimated
density of 372 persons per hectare and significantly higher than the 1974 estimated national density of 1 person per
hectare.
11. Most of the establishments within the Tondo Foreshore are associated with the tertiary sector of the economy, with 90
percent engaged in the distribution and service trades, especially general merchandise retailing.
12. There is a wide disparity in income distribution within the Tondo Foreshore. The bulk, or two-thirds of the total income is
earned by the upper 30 percent of the households while one-third goes to the lower 70 percent of the households.
13. Food constitutes the largest expenditures (83 percent of the median monthly income) among the residents; only one-tenth
of the median monthly income goes to housing. The low percentage allotted for housing may be explained by most
residents occupying the land rent-free, and the limited money available for more expensive housing.
14. Dissaving is common among the Tondo Foreshore residents, with amounts reported for expenditure exceeding those
reported for income; this implies either insufficient income or the difficulty of reporting income in kind;
15. The high incidence of respiratory illnesses is indicative of the overcrowding in the area and poor dietary conditions;
diarrhea probably due largely to contaminated drinking water is also very common;
16. The bulk (75 percent) of the nonhead household members are nuclear family members and almost one-fourth (23
percent) extended kin (cousins, grandchildren, nephews and nieces); the positive role of the kin group in the process of
helping migrant relatives adjust to Manila life is clear;
17. The two dominant sources of leadership are found in the appointed barangay chairman and the traditionally elected
neighborhood leaders of civics groups; certain amounts of tension have arisen over this dual leadership system.
18. Conflict among community members revolves around political causes, a major one being the continuing struggle for land
ownership, and participation in community decision-making; gang conflicts often have ethnic-identity bases. Cohesion is
also found in the mutual sharing of goods and services between households and in collective action in community projects
initiated by local groups, government and private agencies.
19. Contrary to the negative stereotype ascribed to slum dwellers by outsiders, Tondo Foreshore residents’ image of their
place is generally as a desirable neighborhood, not for its physical conditions, which they deplore, but for its social desirability
evidenced in the presence of kinsmen and friendly neighbors. Their means of coping with the limitations of their physical
environment have been remarkably resourceful; in order to augment family income, household members engage in small
business enterprises like the sari-sari store, dress and beauty shops and viand selling.

Public Policy and Program Administration

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Public Policy and Program Administration

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POLYTECHNIC

UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

PUBLIC POLICY AND PROGRAM

EXAMINATION AND PROCTORING

innovative, creative and transformational in managing the affairs of public organizations in

· To enhance competencies and leadership in specialized areas of public administration.

At the end of this Module, you should be able –

2. identify the different approaches to policy study and analysis; and

3. familiarize with the official and non-official policy makers.

Keywords and Phrases

Inventory of Concepts of Policy

2. A standard procedure applicable to the daily operations of organization,

4. A criterion or set of criteria used in selecting alternative courses of action,

6. An ethical consideration which is used as a criterion for selecting alternative courses of

8. A formal or informal agreement on conflicting interests or expectations as a compromise

to attain a smooth operation of the organization.

2. The character of policy as a manifestation or clarification of specific goals, objectives,

and continuity in the operation of organization.

Public policy as a course of action may be characterized as follows:

political system, for action or inaction on some perceived problems.

a political system to demands and supports coming from the environment.

that happen in policy process. These are:

· Prescription or rules adoptions

· Invocation or determining whether certain behavior violates rules and law

· Application – how rules are applied

· Appraised – how policy is appraised in its success or failure

· Termination – how rules are terminated or continued in modified form

1. Official Policy Makers

Legislative – Members of Congress are engaged in policy formulation in a political

At the end of this Module, you should be able –

At the end of this Module, you should be able –

discretion in implementing public policy.

administered as it is being made.

3. In what way does the Court involve itself in policy implementation?

At the end of this Module, you should be able –

2. familiarize with the different types of policy evaluation; and

3. identify the problems in policy evaluation

Keywords and Phrases

· Diffuse Policy Impact

effects of policies. Most of these judgments are impressionistic based on fragmentary or

At the end of this course, you should be able –

progress structure, and framework for action in developing countries; and

At the end of this Module, you should be able –

2. differentiate program from project; and

3. familiariaze with the characteristics, elements and prerequisites of a program

Keywords and Phrases

2. Consideration of efficiency and financing; and

3. A combination of the foregoing.

A program to be typical and good, should posses the following qualities

3. new experimental approach; and

Administrators recommend or initiate a program, on the following conditions

administrative system to serve or answer the needs of the government development

sometimes diminish another programs’ value fucntionally, geographically, or

There are two abstract models of program linkages, namely;

2.2. Sovereignty which is authority over the program;

financial, human and physical resources; and

At the end of this Module, you should be able –

2. explain the obstacles to planning; and

3. characterize the true essence of a plan

Keywords and Phrases

· Public-Private Reasons for Planning

2. To stimulate discussions and debates about alternatives,

4. To meet requirements for funding,