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Longest HVAC Cable Systems: A Review

Conference Paper · June 2018

DOI: 10.1109/EEEIC.2018.8494213

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 Longest HVAC Cable Systems: A Review

G. Pedrazzoli and G. Rinzo

Department of Industrial Engineering
University of Padova
Padova, Italy

Abstract—This paper presents a state of the art of main high
voltage alternate current (HVAC) cable installations. A
particular focus is given to challenging choices to design the
worldwide longest HVAC lines. A comparison between alternate
and high voltage direct current transmission systems (HVDC)
brings then important considerations between the two
technologies. HVAC could be competitive with HVDC not only
for short distance installations, but also for some longer lines. In
the given examples, in fact, HVAC transmission systems have
demonstrated to be the best budget solution for these specific
cases.
Keywords—HVAC cable, HVDC cable, XLPE insulation
I. INTRODUCTION
The development of power transmission network during the
last decades has been based on overhead lines (OHLs), due to
their cheaper price. Underground cables systems have been
available for a long time, but some issues (e.g. large
capacitance and a relatively low current rating compared to
OHLs) limited their development. The main problems for
OHLs arise because of numerous fault sources. In fact, they are
susceptible to be damaged by wind-borne tree branches, debris,
strong wind and ice-loading conditions from extreme weather.
Furthermore, OHLs undergo intermittent outages, in which the
power is unavailable for few second fractions, a time interval
already critical for some industrial equipment, which shuts
down with very high damage for industrial customers and very
high costs for the transmission system operators (TSOs).
Nowadays, with the use of new materials and processing
technology, the constraints on power transfer and maximum
length have largely been overcome and HVAC cables are a
competitive solutions [1-4]. With the commissioning of new
transmission links, an important topic to be considered is the
bureaucratic process of getting environmental approvals. In the
case of OHLs, this may take several years because of
environmental issues, whereas for cables the process may be
much quicker. AC cable link may be installed in a shorter time
and often this reason alone could justify the cable link choice.
At the same time, the development of off-shore facilities raises
the market demand for long submarine cables. There are still
some technical challenges to be considered in cable installation
planning. The most subtle ones are those which concern
reliability, impact on the transmission grid and the installation
process. In the case of connections for offshore winds farms,
the use of AC cable may provide a lower cost solution than DC
cable when considering factors such as converter costs, space
requirements and overall system losses. When all these factors
are taken into account, it is shown that there is an important
advantage in adopting HVAC cables instead of other solutions
[5].
II. HVAC CABLE TRANSMISSION
In the past, HV cables were insulated by means of paper
impregnated with oil under pressure. There are several
technical, installation and service limitations with these
designs, so that today other technologies are preferred. In these
years, a rapid improvement in material science made possible
to use Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) as insulating
material. XLPE ensures lower dielectric losses and a higher
operating temperature. Furthermore, an improved simplicity in
manufacturing process has led towards a dramatic increase in
the utilization of such material (see fig. 1). The insulation
thickness of XLPE cables is mainly determined by the
withstand voltage. In case of extra HV cables of long length,
the insulation thickness also influences the reactive power
absorbed by the cable. The simple formula below shows that
reactive power absorbed by the cable depends on squared
voltage, but also on capacitance and frequency:
Qcable = 2πfCU 2 [var]
where Qcable is the capacitive power absorbed by the cable,
f [Hz] the frequency, C [F] the total capacitance and U [V] the
phase-to-phase voltage. As a consequence of the high value of
Qcable, reactive compensation may be needed by the
installation of shunt reactors. Another procedure could consist
in decreasing the reactive power production by increasing the
insulation thickness or decreasing the conductor size [6, 7].
Fig. 1. Some examples of XLPE-insulated Milliken type cables

978-1-5386-5186-5/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE

 Another important topic in cable transmission consists in
the conductor features. Typically, conductors are characterized Losses [MW]
by large cross-section but the ampacity of such cables is 5
reduced by skin and proximity effects. In order to reduce their
4
influences, so improving the quality of the transmission
system, it is possible to use conductors made up of a large 3
number of individually insulated wires. These are positioned
into segmental shaped bundles and singularly insulated 2
between each other. The conductors are stranded with
reference to the centre of each sector. Such conductors are 1
called "Milliken type conductors", shown in fig. 1 [8, 9]. It is
possible to determine the steady-state conductor behaviour by 0
132 kV AC 220 kV AC ± 150 kV DC
means of a powerful tool i.e. the Multiconductor Cell
Analysis, with acronym MCA [10-17]. Cable Compensation DC converter

III. TECHNOLOGY CHOICHES Fig. 3. Comparison of losses for 100 km long undergrounded transmission
lines with a 135 MVA load at 132 kV AC, 220 kV AC or ± 150 kV DC [20]
In these years, there is a growing interest in off-shore
power delivery for wind farms, oil platforms and connection Undoubtedly, it is too simplistic basing the choice of
between different countries. Furthermore, for land technology on a simple diagram cost vs distance. In fact, the
installations, even if OHLs are cheaper than cable systems, DC transmission scheme will not always result in lower power
more and more often cable systems are preferred because of a losses, in particular if the interconnection is characterized by
shorter bureaucratic process. In first instance, the choice is low power transfer. For high power flows and long distances,
between AC and DC transmission schemes. Usually for long lines with higher voltages are desirable. This is an advantage
distances, DC systems are preferred for its undoubted for AC systems, since converter technology is younger and
technical advantages, but this is not true in an absolute way more expensive than HV transformers [21].
(see fig. 2). In fact a complete cost-benefit analysis must be
carried out and there is a great amount of aspects to consider: IV. WORLDWIDE EXPERIENCE
• Design constraints such as temperature limits, The framework of the worldwide experience in cable
reliability indexes, electromagnetic interference, installation is full of examples in which technical and
voltage limits, etc…; economic issues suggest to adopt HVAC cables for long
• Frequency of the two interconnected systems; distances. In the following sub-sections, the most interesting
• Equipment and components; cases are presented in order to highlight challenging
• Overall losses of the system (see fig. 3). engineering choices.
Typically, the most important comparison factor is the cost
of the system, but there are many information difficult to A. Malta-Sicily interconnection
obtain: lifecycle, deployment, installation, maintenance and Part of the electrical power system in Malta is obsolete.
operation costs. An overall comparison may be found in [18- Pollutant power plants produce the most of the electrical power
20]. within the island. Moreover, the Maltese system is
characterized by poor robustness, limited reliability and high
P [MW] energy costs. The interconnection with the Italian grid allows
Malta to receive up to 225 MW and to decrease the production
1000 Sorgente-Rizziconi Legend:
Shin-Toyosu level of its plants [22-23]. The interconnector has been
Cook DC link
designed to minimize environmental impact on both sides. In
AC link
fact, the land route and the landing points of the interconnector
Vancouver *:Project
750 have been chosen to avoid protected areas and to minimize
Gemini
environmental impacts during construction and operation
phases.
Juan De Fuca*
TABLE I LONGEST IMPLEMENTATION OF HVAC CABLE SYSTEMS.
500 Anholt Year Length [km] V [kV] P [MVA] Name
2015 162 145 55 Martin Linge
Hokkaido-Honshu
2018 147 132 140 NASR full field
250 SACOI Murray 2014 126 230 225 Malta - Sicily
Malta-Sicily 2015 126 132 118 Mallorca - Ibiza
Martin-Linge
2013 107 123 75 Goliat
Length [km] 2000 104 90 40 Isle of man to England
50 100 150
2016 102 245 600 Gemini Windfarm
Fig. 2. Some AC and DC project around the world 2016 102 132 100 Ras Laffan – Halul island
 Maghtab
900
132 kV
800 Current limit
700 land cable
Current limit
Current (A)
600 submarine cable
500
Maghtab
400
230 kV
300
200
100
0 TR of encasement
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Distance from receiving end
Fig. 4. Current distribution for Malta-Sicily interconnection as a
consequence of non-homogeneous reactive compensation.
Directional drilling usage allows to avoid problems on the
coastline near the landing point in Ragusa (Sicilian side),
whereas the use of cast iron shells minimizes the impact on
Neptune grass colonies [24]. The cable is also designed to
minimize the induced magnetic field: due to trefoil
arrangement of land cables, the overall magnetic field is lower
than 3 µT. The final design of the cable consists in 19.1 km
long ungrounded single-core land cables and a 98.8 km long
submarine section, which is made by a three-core armoured
cable. The intertie links Ragusa sub-station with the Maghtab
one. For voltage regulation issues, the HV connection can be
energized only by the Ragusa substation, in order to avoid
serious voltage violations on Maltese network, caused by the
reactive power absorption of the cable [25]. A main issue
during the installation is the reactive power compensation of
two systems, characterized by different voltages levels,
stability and operational requirements. The optimal
exploitation of the link can be achieved by means of two
asymmetrical reactors: 220 Mvar in Ragusa and two units of
120 Mvar in Maghtab (one is redundant), where two 250 MVA
autotransformers, equipped with OLTCs are also present. The
adopted configuration allows operating at a near unity power
factor at both terminals (94% compensation), with the Maghtab
line reactor at rated power, but it causes an asymmetric current
distribution, as it is shown in fig. 4 [26].
B. 500 kV Shin - Toyosu
The project was born in order to connect the Tokyo
electric power Shin-Keyo substation and the Shin-Toyosu
substation with two 40 km circuits (three in the future) with a
rated power of 900 MW (1200 MW in future) [27].
This installation is particularly interesting because, in
order to reduce the joint number (of the extruded mold type)
and installation times, cables section are long up to 1800 m. In
order to install quickly and efficiently the long cables, a pull-
driven system and magnetic-driven one were developed and
adopted.
The cable has a cross section of 2500 mm2, with
corrugated aluminum sheath. With the aim of reducing
insulation thickness, harmful contaminants in insulating
materials were eliminated by means of tighter controls. Two
compensating
1500/1800 mm
concrete jacking pipe
880 mm between
Ragusa centers
DTS duct
strapped to
Marina di
Ragusa underneath side
180 mm PE ducts
100 110 120 grout to be 0.8 km/w
FO duct
Fig. 5. Micro tunnel installation technique applied to the Victorian
desalination plant.
reactors at line terminals allow to compensate 93.3% of the
total reactive power of the system [27, 28].
C. Victorian Desalination Plant
The Victorian desalination project in Wonthaggi is the
largest desalination plant in Australia. It is capable of
providing more than one third of Melbourne’s annual water
supply from a source that is independent of rainfall. When the
Victorian government started the project, it was clear that
Wonthaggi, 88 km far from Melbourne, had an insufficient
power supply to support the plant. The original proposal was
for an OHL but the opposition from the community persuaded
the government to build up an underground cable. Because of
the distance, the first option was a DC cable but, thanks to
technology robustness and limited realization time, AC
solution was eventually preferred. The entire project was an
example of engineering efficiency because the works had to be
done under a very high humidity rate. Furthermore, there were
five locations where power cables had to cross an existing
service or a river; in such cases concrete pipes containing
cable ducts have been installed. These "micro tunnels", shown
in fig. 5, kept the ducts steady by filling void spaces with a
thermal backfill material, specially designed to maintain cable
ratings [29]. In some sections AC, cable shared the same
easement with an existing 500 kV OHL. There, the evaluated
induced voltages could decrease below 120 V. For the sake of
security of the jointers, additional precautions have been
taken, e.g. isolating the far end of the cables, earthed during
jointing works and usage of insulating mats [30, 31].
D. Sorgente Rizziconi
The first link between Sicily and Italy mainland is dated
1955 and was a 220 kV double-circuit overhead line with a
crossing span of 3.65 km. In 1981 this OHL was dismantled
and substituted by a submarine 400 kV single-circuit cable
installation. All this operation has been made in difficult
environmental conditions of the Messina Strait [32]. More
recently, this submarine oil-filled cable has been substituted by
a very long AC double-circuit single-core cable line, chiefly
constituted of a submarine armoured cable system (38 km
long) and of two land parts (wholly about 5 km long).

Tunnel
Fig. 6. Sicilia-Villafranca double circuit single core cable installation
Because of the difficult environmental conditions (see fig.
6 [33]), the cable route is much longer than the minimum
distance of the Messina strait. The Sicilian land cable is a
XLPE 2500 mm2 with Cu conductors. The Calabrian one,
instead, is very similar, but it has an aluminium-based
Milliken structure, to lighten it and render it more suitable for
vertical tunnel installation (fig. 6). In the submarine part, the
solid-bonding technique has been chosen (screens and armours
earthed at each ends). This un-avoidable choice has some
drawbacks: additional losses in screens and armours, voltage
rise along the cable and (chiefly in lead screens, since the
armours are in full contact with the seawater). In order to
avoid the latter, additional bondings between screens and
armours have been realized along the cables every 4 km [33].
These bondings are performed directly in the manufacturer
site, since the entire submarine part has no joints. Along the
two land stretches, instead, usual cross-bonding has been
performed in order to zero the induced currents in screens.
E. Anholt wind farm interconnection
The Anholt wind farm has an output of 400 MW and it is
located in the Kattegat Strait. The 136/235 (245) kV line that
links the collector substation with the grid consists of:
• A submarine part, from the offshore collector substation
located in a sea platform and to the shore close to Grenaa,
with a length of 24 km;
• A land part, composed of a 500 m long cable, from the
transition joint on-shore close to Grenaa, to the shunt
reactor station and from the Grenaa shunt reactor station to
Trige substation, with a length of 60 km.
The final proposal has been based on the prices of
materials, of commissioning, of installation and of the
capitalized power losses. As a consequence of this economic
study, the AC configuration was preferred instead of the DC
solution, for the high cost of the conversion substations.
Several cable routes were considered since there are some
protected natural areas and it was necessary to take city
expansion into account. As a consequence of such
considerations, final route is longer than the initial proposal.
Directional drilling technique is used to pass under all
protected natural areas. The submarine cable system is
designed in order to minimize losses and weight. Individual
cables are lead screened with an outer semi-conductive PE
sheath. The three cables phase are laid up and two fibre optical
cables are included in the design before going to the
armouring line, where a layer consisting of partly steel wire
and partly plastic wires is applied. The armouring is covered
by bitumen [34].
115
110
Cable Voltage [kV]
105
100
95
Voltage [kV] 240 mm2 145 kV
90 Voltage [kV] 300 mm2 145 kV
Voltage [kV] 400 mm2 145 kV
85
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Cable position [km]
Fig. 7. Optimization study on cable cross-section for Martin Linge
interconnection
F. Martin Linge
With a length of 161 km, Martin Linge offshore gas field
connection is the longest ac submarine cable of the world. In
order to reduce the environmental impact of the platform, it
was preferred an on-shore power plant instead of a dedicated
gas turbine. This aspect allows to reduce CO2 and NOx
emissions of about two million tons per year [35]. During
development phase both ac and dc solution were analysed.
The ac solution was preferred because allows not to modify
the existing layout. For this purpose, the system has been
designed without an offshore compensation reactor, even if
this would have improved the current distribution. This
solution has the advantage of having a better offshore voltage
stability, because in case of full offshore load rejection, the
offshore reactive power variation is small. For the onshore
power factor regulation, two redundant static VAR
compensators are installed to support two other banks installed
on load tap changer transformers site [36]. Regarding the
operating transmission voltage, 100 kV has been chosen as the
best tradeoff between several criteria (losses, induced
voltages, transient studies, etc…). A 145 kV insulation class
has been preferred instead of a smaller one, so to have lower
line capacitance and reducing the amount of generated
reactive power. Another interesting aspect of this choice is the
decrease of electric stress on the cable, with a long-term
positive effect on its aging. Cable cross-section was chosen in
consequence of an optimization study on the cable voltage in
function of the chosen insulation class, as it is shown in fig. 7.
G. Gemini wind farm connection
The project was initially based on a HVDC transmission
system, but in consequence of a consistent cost-benefit
analysis, it was clear that the AC solution was more
convenient even in view of an increasing generation capacity.
Along the line, it is possible to find four different cross-
sections, chosen to minimize project costs and respecting
thermal constraints (800 mm2, 1000 mm2, 1200 mm2, 1600
mm2). For the sake of environmental issue and technical
problems, i.e. anchoring or seabed movements, various
techniques for installation and burial have been used along the
110 km of cable length, as the jetting technique or the use of a
pre-dredged trench [22]. Because of the complex cable
configuration, in order to guarantee the optimal cable lifetime,
it is necessary to regularly inspect the burial depth and the
temperature of the different parts.
H. Isle of man – UK
The electricity demand on the Isle of Man were provided
by pollutant diesel and gas turbines, with very high electricity
costs as well as the Malta situation. With the aim of costs and
emissions reduction, in order to improve network stability, the
AC submarine cable was commissioned. With an undersea
length of 104 km and a land length of approximatively 4 km, it
would have been the longest AC cable until 2013 [37]. It is
composed of a three cores XLPE insulation, lead sheathed,
with a cross copper section of 300 mm2 laid up within a
protective armour layer of galvanized steel wires. Two
different companies manufactured the subsea section and the
different portions were jointed using a fully flexible joint,
buried at 2 m in the seabed [38]. Special attention for such
long cable has been given in fault location technique. A time
domain based reflectometry technique was chosen as the
optimal solution, even if the pulse front is strongly damped
from the interconnection joint. A 100 V pulse signal generator
is used and by studying the time interval between the pulse
injection and the reflected one arrival time, it is possible to
determine the fault section with good accuracy [39]. The
seabed through the cable route is very mobile and movements
of the sand may occasionally expose parts of the cable lying.
To protect the surface laid, ensuring that the fishing can
continue safely along the route, protective mattresses have
been installed in most critical locations [40].
I. Vancouver to Mainland
The connection was built during 1980s and consists of two
525 kV parallel circuits of OHLs and submarine cables, which
can supply 1200 MW. The submarine cables start on the
Mainland at Cape Cockburn and cross the ocean for 9 km to
reach a terminal station on the east side of Texada Island.
OHLs cross the island and connect from a terminal on the
island’s west side a second set of cables long 30 km reach the
Nile Creek terminal on Vancouver island. The cables are
insulated with fluid impregnated paper tapes. Since the cables
are laid under 400 m of water, cables and potheads were
designated to operate with an internal fluid pressure of 1.3
MPa to prevent from water leakage. Three compensation
reactor are installed: two 135 Mvar reactors at the line
terminals and a 45 Mvar in the mid-point, on Texada Island
[41]. Two different manufacturer have produced the
submarine cable and two different bonding connection are
used. In the first cable, since it has an extruded polyethylene
jacket between reinforced lead sheath and armour, bonding
connections were placed every 4 km. The second cable uses a
semi-conducting lapped layer and a continuous bonding
connection is formed.
Sea bottom level
Sand & cement
(1:14)
1.5 m in rock
2.0 m in sand
110 mm
cooling pipes
Submarine cables
Fig. 8. Conductors and cooling pipes burial in the Vancouver to Mainland
interconnection
For the sake of overcome thermal limitations above the
low tide level, a cooling system has been made by installing a
110 mm polyethylene pipes alongside each cable and the
system is in closed loop with a cooling station. The cooling
liquid is a mixture of water and glycol, which circulates
through a chiller [42]. It was decided to bury the cables from
the potheads seaward to where the water is 20 m deep at low
tide. In most of shoreline locations, cables and cooling pipes
are protected above the low tide mark by rectangular
reinforced ducts backfilled with sand or sand/cement thermal
material, as it is shown in fig. 8 [43].
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper some of the longest HVAC links have been
presented in order to highlight the interesting installation
choices. The choice between a HVAC and HVDC line is not
trivial, even if the link length is long. In fact, AC link can be
designed and put into operation in relatively shorter periods
and with less space requirements. In the paper it is also shown
how cable links can overcome acceptance problems and
satisfy environmental requirements, differently from OHLs
technology. Overall, each technology entails different benefits
and issues and accurate cost/benefit analyses have to be
achieved in order to determine the best solution for the
particular case study. Even if a wide reference section has
been provided, for other not presented issues (reliability, other
HVAC installations etc…) the reader may refer to [44-50].
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We want to dedicate this work to our colleague and friend,
Luca Russo, tragically died in Barcelona Rambla, on August
17, 2017. His passion and motivation have often inspired us.
We will always remember you with unchanged affection.
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