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Women in
The appropriate leadership styles senior
in times of crisis: a study of women leadership
positions
in senior leadership positions in
corporate South Africa
Winsome Mashele and Imhotep Paul Alagidede Received 7 October 2020
Revised 29 September 2021
Wits Business School, University of the Witwatersrand, Accepted 21 December 2021
Johannesburg, South Africa

Abstract
Purpose – As women increasingly take on leadership roles during these turbulent times, the differences in
their leadership styles in comparison to males in similar positions will continue to attract attention as it has in
the past. The aim of this paper is to explore appropriate leadership styles that women in senior leadership
positions facing the glass cliff have at their disposal.
Design/methodology/approach – This research method was qualitative. Data was collected through
semi-structured interviews from a total of 17 participants in corporate South Africa; purposive and snowball
sampling was used to select women in senior leadership positions.
Findings – Participants expressed overwhelming support for a transformational leadership style due to its
characteristics; however, women leaders believe a style or combination of styles are used based on the
situation at hand.
Research limitations/implications – Using only qualitative research has limited the scope and
applicability of this study significantly.
Practical implications – The representation of women in senior leadership positions has increased over
the years more especially in organisations where there is crisis, attention now is the difference in kind of
leadership styles they use.
Originality/value – Very few research studies have gone in-depth into the effectiveness of the leadership
styles that were used by women in corporate South Africa. The study, therefore, presents a major implication
indicating that to show positive results, women need to be able to identify an appropriate leadership style
based on carefully reviewing their specific organisational situation.
Keywords Women, Transformational, Transactional, Leadership styles, Glass cliff, Laissez-faire
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
When a crisis strikes, many leaders might assume that they should demonstrate to their
stakeholders that everything is under control. Such challenges can either make or break a
leader. Leadership is a complex phenomenon that is constantly being defined and redefined.
There is lack of consensus on the operational description of leadership (Reed et al., 2019).
According to Ejimabo (2015), leaders are individuals who direct others and followers will be
less committed to the team if the leader doubts their decisions. Effective leaders are required
to acknowledge their mistakes and take the necessary steps to either repair, correct or
amend the situation. From this point of view, leadership has nothing to do with titles. Just
because you have a C-level title does not automatically make you a leader. Leaders can be in Gender in Management: A
contribution to Gestaldt
the workplace, neighbourhood or even in the family setup, all without having a title. A Consulting Group.

comprehensive definition of leadership is that of a process in which an individual influence a

GM group of people to achieve a common goal (Northouse, 2004). Many writers emphasize
leadership as having a significant effect on overall organisational innovation as well as
employees’ creativity in the workplace (Qi et al., 2019). Indeed, by encouraging employee
creativity, leadership can develop organisational innovation overall. Crises can emerge in
many different forms, and they often strike without warning.
South Africa’s economic outlook has improved, and the country is recovering from the
difficulty of 2015 and 2016 which marked the end of the super-commodity cycle and severe
drought. But South Africa remains constrained by its low growth potential. Shung-King
et al. (2018) asserts that South Africa needs to build on its comparative advantages, that of
an industrial skilled economy, to develop new domestic and international markets through
higher productivity and innovation. The importance of strong and transformative
leadership is recognised as essential to the building of resilient and responsive corporate
systems. In this regard, significant efforts must be made towards mainstreaming a gender
perspective in the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals, narrowing
persisting gender gaps, strengthening support to our institutional mechanisms for women’s
empowerment and gender equality in the country (Mcdonagh, 2010).
According to Shung-King et al. (2018), in South Africa, pre-democracy repressive race-
based policies, coupled with strong patriarchy, led to black women, being “left behind” in
terms of career development and progression into senior health leadership positions.
As leadership essentially live in people, social identities are among the multiple
influences that impact on leadership behaviours and experiences within the corporate sector.
According to the report published (United Nations Social and Economic Council, 2016), the
gendered nature of corporate industry, with a variety of professions strongly dominated by
either males or females, is one such influence over the shape and form of leadership. There is
also little research to understand the influence of gender on corporate system in leadership.
As human resource development in the South African corporate sector is deeply rooted in a
race-based, gendered and professionally hierarchical political and economic history
(McDonagh, 2010).
The purpose of this paper is to investigate under what circumstances men and women
differ. To fulfil this aim it is important to understand the gender, gender role, gender
differences, similarities and perceptions in relation to leadership styles.
This study posits that women leaders in corporate South Africa should be able to find
suitable and appropriate leadership styles that fit whatever organisational crisis/situation they
find themselves in, and the leadership characteristics that best match these situations. The
study narrowed down to three main leadership styles based on its findings: transformational
leadership style, transactional leadership styles and the laissez-faire (LF) charismatic leadership
type.

2. Literature review
2.1 Crisis and leadership
Crisis leadership is a very important part of leading in today’s world. Every organisation goes
through some form of crisis on a day-to-day basis. It is important to understand that one
disaster and even one crisis can lead to additional crises. This is true in the case of tsunami
leading to a nuclear reactor meltdown, and it is also true of a corporate crisis that is
mismanaged that leads to an even larger crisis. There is more value in the planning for a crisis
than in a prescriptive response that can be prepared for a specific crisis, as we never know
precisely what might occur. During time of crises, based on the current literature, the leaders
find themselves holding many roles in the pressure of time and resources constraints; therefore,
leaders are required to have a very complex leadership skill (Bolden, 2011). Lacerda (2019)
claim that leaders who could predict and create future view of the organisation are effective Women in
during financial crisis. Visionary leaders draw the big picture and create hope. Other study senior
ahin et al.,
shows that leader’s ability in building strong relationship during crisis is critical (Özs
2011). Zehir and Narcıkara’s (2016) study about authentic leadership effectiveness during crises
leadership
argues that it fosters employee’s self-efficacy by providing them confidence and trust. positions
Furthermore, authentic leadership also create hope and optimism and strengthen resilience.
Leaders who can manage their emotions are also effective during crises (Madera and Smith,
2009).
Leaders with confidence are defined as leaders who have strong belief in their
capabilities to be successful, as well as self-perceptions of competence in their knowledge,
skills and abilities (Lacerda, 2019). The confident leaders are more visible to the team
member in unfavourable situation. Study has shown that leaders who can show high self-
esteem and confidence are able to make a risky and controversial decision. Effective
leadership during crises is not only ones who have knowledge and capabilities but also ones
who are confident and believe in themselves in leading and making decisions (Hadley et al.,
2009).
More recently, discussion has turned to the relatively subtle form of gender
discrimination experienced by women who have managed to break the glass ceiling. The
glass cliff phenomenon refers to women in leadership positions to be riskier and more
precarious than those of men – like wearing glass slippers on a surface that is slippery
(Bruckmüller and Ryan, 2014). It appears that people who have a senior job not normally
associated with their gender are placed under scrutiny, more likely to be judged, seen as less
competent and less deserving. In such settings, women in senior leadership positions appear
to be more prone to the glass cliff effect than men (Ryan and Haslam, 2007).

2.2 Leadership styles: gender differences

A common thread among participants in response to what they perceived to be their
individual leadership style was that they were “collaborators, consensus builders, and
encouraged teamwork”. This assumed that gender role is an important personality trait that
influences leadership styles; thus, they have related masculinity with task-oriented
leadership styles and femininity with relationship-oriented leadership styles. Sarhan et al.
(2015) suggest that the masculinity/femininity dimension affects the meaning of work in
people’s lives. While men still dominate in leadership positions, there is research suggesting
that when women do occupy leadership positions, and they display different leadership
styles. Belasen (2012) believes that as the number of women in leadership roles increases, it
is important to understand the relationship between gender and leadership style. Debates
about the leadership styles of women and men can be traced back to the 1990s, because of
new research attempting to identify the leadership styles that are especially attuned to
contemporary organisational conditions (Solomon and Steyn, 2017).
As little is known about the leadership styles of women in senior roles during crises, the
Full Range Leadership model presents one method of understanding it. It includes the
components of transformational leadership, transactional leadership and LF leadership
behaviours. This model is also indicative of leader effectiveness because a person
predominantly demonstrating a LF leadership style is generally rated as less effective (Bass
and Riggio, 2006). Figure 1 represents Bernard Bass’s Revised Full Range Leadership Model
focussing on the behaviour of leaders towards the workforce in different work situations,
includes these two styles but also incorporates an avoidant LF style as well.
Transformational and transactional leadership were first discussed by Burns (1978), and
a few years later Bass (1985) extended Burns’s (1978) theory. Bass (1985) introduced the term
GM

Figure 1.
Bernard Bass’s
revised full range
leadership model

trans-formational leadership and combined it with transactional leadership and LF leadership.

According to Nguyen et al. (2019), transformational leadership consists of four components,
individualised consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation and idealised
influence. Transactional leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focusses on a
specific task and is based on the performance results (Kleefstra, 2019), includes three
components: contingent reward and management-by-exception – active and management by
exception – passive. In contrast to transformational and transactional leadership, Burns (1978)
defined leaders who do not take charge of their leadership as passive or LF leaders. LF
leadership is a style in which leaders are hands-off and allow group members to make the
decisions, suitable for organisations that have long-term employees. It is, however, not suitable
for environments that require direction, quick feedback and praise (Uhl-Bien and Marion, 2009).
The new emphasis is on leadership that is transformational in the sense that it is future-
oriented rather than present-oriented and that strengthens organisations by inspiring
followers’ commitment and creativity. Transformational leadership transcends all other
organisational attributes, it is a process that informs a diversity embracing culture and
appropriate policies and structures (Northhouse, 2001). Leadership that is transformational
and future-oriented was prioritised in strengthening organisations by inspiring followers’
commitment and creativity. In a review of the extant literature on female leadership,
Solomon and Steyn (2017) concluded that among women leaders there tended to be a more
transformational leadership style as compared to men.
Moreover, female leaders seem to be preferring a transformational leadership style
(Solomon and Steyn, 2017). According to think crisis–think female concept, an
organisation in a state of decline represents a situation, in which the leadership
characteristics viewed as required for success are female-oriented rather than male-
oriented (Ryan and Haslam, 2005). One of the spontaneous explanations provided by
participants in the qualitative study conducted by Ryan et al. (2007) referred to the belief
that women possess abilities that are especially useful for leadership positions during
times of crisis. For example, participants mentioned that communication skills and the
ability to motivate others are qualities held by women that would be beneficial in such
circumstances.
 A stereotypical belief is that “women display a more transformational and contingent Women in
reward behavior, and fewer management-by-exceptions and laissez-faire behavior than senior
men” (Vinkerburg et al., 2011). Bass et al. (2003) argue that a leader may use different styles
at different times based on the situation at any given time. Pounder and Coleman (2002) note
leadership
that the literature confirms that female leaders tend to be more transformational than male positions
leaders. Generally, women fit into a “feminine model of leadership built around cooperation,
collaboration, lower control for the leader and problem-solving based on intuition and
rationality”, according to Jogulu and Wood (2006). Dwiedienawati et al. (2021) argue that the
most effective leadership style in time of crises is transformational leadership because it is
quick to respond to change. On the other hand, transactional leadership is focussed on
exchanges, rewards and promises of rewards for performance between leader and followers.
Additionally, Alban-Metcalfe and Alimo-Metcalfe (2007) have identified similar issues and
that transformational leadership is criticised for lacking morality and ethics. From the study
conducted by Eagly et al. (2003), research on gender and leadership suggests that
transformational leadership is more congenial to female leaders. And we argue that such
leadership behaviors constitute a prototype of ideal leaders.
However, Muller-Kahle and Schiehll (2013) argue that female CEOs do not possess as
much structural power as male CEOs when filling a dual CEO/Chair role in the organisation.
They posit that women are more likely to be given the less powerful role of CEO and
President, instead of dual CEO and Chair roles. Nonetheless, it is important to note that
“female CEOs are more likely to gain structural power if they are entrepreneurs, work in
large companies, or possess an elite education” (Muller-Kahle and Schiehll, 2013). Moreover,
this can conclude that women’s classical leadership styles are inclined to be more
transformational than those of men and thus more focussed on aspects of leadership that
anticipate effectiveness.

3. Method
This current research study used a qualitative explanation of an interpretivist–constructive
paradigm with the focus of the study being the lived experiences of selected women leaders
in corporate South Africa. The reason for using the qualitative approach is based on that
revised literature has revealed a slight rise in the voices of women leaders themselves. It is
noteworthy that previous research used quantitative research methods, particularly
research, to study such things as women’s experiences in leadership positions. From this
perspective, a qualitative research approach was embraced to investigate the appropriate
leadership style of women leaders in corporate South Africa to avoid falling off the glass
cliff, and to date little research has been conducted. Furthermore, the qualitative research
approach is helpful when discovering a case and understanding individuals’ personal and
leadership experiences to attempt a detailed explanation of the specific phenomenon (Bluhm
et al., 2011). Semi structured, open, qualitative interviews were conducted with 17 women in
senior leadership positions (C-suite) in corporate South Africa, who were purposively
selected as participants using the snowball method. All interviews were documented using
pseudonyms. This approach allowed the researchers to recruit the most appropriate sample
to answer the research question (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003). For the purpose of this
study, 17 women leaders were purposively sampled, notably, executives (10), senior
leadership (5) and Board and non-board members (2). Table 1 presents the sample matrix.
Before choosing a methodology, researchers need to know and declare their research
paradigm; together with the purpose of the study, as it influences the choice of methodology
researchers use to find answers to the central research questions. Ontologically, the
interpretivist paradigm helps to illuminate the relationship between paradigm and choice of
GM methodology (Kivunja and Kuyini, 2017). In the process of trying to understand the relevant
leadership style of women in senior leadership positions in organisations during times of
distress, we chose the interpretivist paradigm, as it assumes there is no single reality.
Epistemologically, interpretivists allow for the interpretation of the participants’ perceptions
of their own realities. In this case, an interpretivist epistemology would be ideal because it
undergirds the fact that meaning, or knowledge is not there to be discovered but is
individually or socially constructed.
The protocol began by asking participants in their view:
 the concepts of leadership; and
 necessary skills in occupying the top-level business positions.

The protocol included additional probes to understand if women and men use different
styles of leadership and if a particular style is more suitable and effective during times of
crisis.
Interviews were transcribed within seven days of being recorded and emailed to the
participants to confirm their authenticity. Initially, each case was analysed individually by
looking for prominent themes, then applied to a multi-case design approach to identify
common sets of patterns across the sample of 17 participants. To begin the process of
comparing the themes and categories between and among cases, this process was made
easier and quicker by using a qualitative analysis software, ATLAS.ti to merge the
participants’ individual document coding reports into one document and the process of
refining sub-categories and individual codes. During the process, some of the subcategories
and codes were either merged or deleted where there was not enough relevance and a final
list of codes was formed.

4. Findings
The results focus on identifying the leaderships styles of the 17 women leaders during
times of crisis by presenting seven prominent themes that emerged from the coding
process:
(1) assertiveness;
(2) confidence;
(3) innovative thinking;
(4) prioritisation;
(5) empathetic approach;
(6) effective communication; and
(7) transformational leadership in females.

In this section, we illustrate each of these major themes using extracts from women’s stories.

Gender Age Level Target population Sample

Female 30–55 Executives (C-suite) 15 10

Senior Leadership (Directors and General Managers) 10 5
Table 1. Board and non-board members 3 2
Sample matrix Total 28 17
4.1 Leadership skills: assertiveness Women in
From the findings, it was noted that the women in the study preferred a more participative, senior
empathetic, caring and empowering leadership style. Assertiveness is one of the prominent
skills that a leader should possess, especially in a corporate setting where their leadership
leadership
style is projected towards their peers and subordinates. Assertiveness in this case refers to positions
the fact that women in a leadership position should still be able to show that she has a firm
hand on the operations within the company and that the “mother” or “woman-ness” in this
regard will not be projected too strongly which could possibly allow subordinates and peers
to not take the leader (being of a female gender) seriously. For example, Fusi gives a good
example of how she asserts herself as a female executive:
In terms of the leadership style, I think it depends on the situation and the role you are playing in
an organisation. Operations environment is still male dominated. Even if you are a nurturer in
some cases I need to put my foot down to be heard.
The participants of this study agree that the preferred leadership style for women in
leadership roles during a crisis period is a democratic, accessible and a consultative team-
based style, which is consistent with findings in other studies where women described their
leadership style as more transformational than transactional.

4.2 Leadership skill: confidence

One of the most prominent skills that participants indicated as required is confidence.
Confidence is a key element that allowed these women leaders to climb the corporate ladder,
as it allowed them to take on certain tasks that other women would not have otherwise been
“confident” enough to take on. It is due to this high level of confidence that these women can
make major decisions for a major corporate company and provide constructive input. Due to
the nature of the corporate industry that originated as a male based ecology, it is still the
standard that women must prove themselves to be on the same level as men, regardless of
the significance of their contributions to the company.
Many divulged how their confidence allowed them to seek and accept feedback and
criticism. To reiterate, Hosana’s light-hearted comment says it all:
Being confident, as I deal with figures and presentation of the financial results and all. I find it
necessary to work on my confidence, if I don’t believe in myself who else is going to believe in
what I am presenting? I started talking positivity to myself, attending motivational speaking
seminars as well as investing in leadership programmes.
While all the women felt that they did not need to change themselves as women to lead, they
acknowledged the need to have confidence, to be tougher and more assertive and to learn to
be calm under pressure.
“Also, the board or your EXCO becomes extremely critical, if you don’t get the support you
quickly look like a lone-ranger. You will not be able to handle the situation by yourself” Bonang
Mama.
Nicola shares that women are always taking on challenging and risky roles despite the
societal perception that women are more capable in the home environment and not in the
workplace. In her words:
Women are not scared of challenges, positions that are easy do not excite them. Additionally, women
take risky positions to prove a point that they are capable though society believes that women belongs
in the kitchen as they are very fragile. And they put more effort to make sure they are successful, if
they fail, they are judged very harshly.
GM 4.3 Leadership skills: innovative thinking
This theme refers to the woman in leadership being quite innovative in the leadership role.
This is of great importance, especially in times of crisis where the individual will require the
capability to develop newly formed ideas and approaches to sustain the company in their
endeavours:
“Innovation is not a choice and creativity have also been found to be dominant traits in women
leaders and are qualities they also encourage in their teams. It is interesting to note that
innovation plays a crucial role during crisis. I do it all the time. The need to innovate appears to be
more decisive in crisis times” Thobile.
Participants feel very strongly that leaders who are innovative and creative survive during
times of crisis. It is important to value employees by communicating and updating them on
progress made and on new developments in the organisation.

4.4 Leadership skills: prioritisation

This theme addresses how participants manage their workload and ability to do so in an
effective manner by using their time effectively and efficiently. Participants indicated that
when they prioritise important work, it is reflective of their skill capacity and contributions
in support of the organisation’s continued growth and progress. Viewed from a different
perspective, if an individual is able to prioritise their workload with increased efficiency,
they will potentially have more time to spend on their personal life and have more time to
reflect on certain decisions to be made:
“Because strategy is direction. So, if you poorly execute a strategy it can also go spectacularly
wrong. Look at Teresa May, who wrecked her strategy to win over Brexit. If you carry through a
bad strategy you are taking people to the doldrums with you. So, strategy is tough in the sense
that you are always thinking about the other people” Damase.
The extract above emphasises the importance of understanding the value of prioritizing, in
terms of strategic planning, when carrying out responsibilities as a leader. She concludes her
narrative by using the example that the reason for the failure of Teresa May’s strategy was
based on the error made in not identifying what needed to be prioritised the most. There is
however no conclusive evidence based on research clearly showing that leaders fail due to a
lack of prioritisation. When a leader lacks a sense of direction, the team is most likely not
going to have a sense of focus and this leads to unproductivity.
Helena notes that:
Prioritising is very important for me and I identified a gap in my personality to do so. When you
don’t prioritise it normally holds your talent back. I learned to give myself time to understand the
most important thing to be working on at any given time. When it is done well, I see it creating
space and allows me to be creative and be effective.

4.5 Leadership skills: empathetic approach

This theme addresses the ability to be empathetic towards peers and subordinates. It is
important for subordinates to see that the leader understands the situation and context of
the issue at hand. Chrissie sees empathy as a critical leadership skill, and she says:
One of the critical skills in my journey and I felt it is important to grasp is empathy. I believe it is
an important leadership skill. The ability to put myself in other’s shoes and understand their
perspectives is critical to my long-term success as a leader. Empathy allows me to be more open
and create a space for listening rather than only me who is always talking. Empathy allows me to
 take a few moments before writing an email, sending out a newsflash or even giving my team Women in
critical feedback.
senior
In the extract above, the participant’s response displays intentional objective to build the leadership
characteristic of being empathetic. Further analysis of her response draws attention to the positions
emotional component and value placed on feeling compassion for another person:
“I believe that women leaders understand that making the work environment feel safe is critical to
success and that empathy can influence their negotiation style as well. It works very well when
engaging with labour colleagues” Kgari.

4.6 Leadership skills: effective communication

Effective communication skills support values such as trust, transparency, loyalty and
builds a cohesive corporate community collectively working towards achieving the same
goals. Leaders can communicate more effectively and openly with their peers and
subordinates. This can have a huge ripple effect on the synergy of the organisation. Martha
notes that:
“Information, in most cases in terms of crisis most people are too paralyzed they start forgetting
the simplest thing, which is to communicate how bad the situation is. Depending on your style
some people are afraid to tell the truth especially if you’re bossy. More than often, my team would
call me “bossy”.
Martha draws our attention to the negative results that a lack of communication can
produce. This communication must go both ways, from the leaders to their subordinates and
from the subordinates to the leader. When a woman in a leadership position asserts her
authority and delegates as her position necessitates, she is regarded as being “bossy” and
denigrated for carrying out her responsibilities in the same way as her male counterparts
have always done. Bossiness and female leadership are not mutually exclusive and need to
be separated and not highlighted as an exclusive and negative female leadership trait.
Helena speaking from her own context and experience believes that:
Previous research has portrayed women as better communicators than men which is one of the
personality traits for transformational leadership style.
The participants’ general position regarding this issue is that to communicate; a leader
needs to have a wide range of communication skills and resources, to enable him or her to
effectively connect with people and to be able to resolve problems and tackle challenges.

4.7 Transformational leadership in females

This theme contextualises the qualities of transformational leadership in females,
highlighting the assumptions that women are perceived to have a certain leadership style
that seems to be different from the traditional or rather transactional leadership style. It is
perceived that companies prefer to appoint women during a crisis, as their leadership style
is a better approach and the company is better positioned to deal with various forms of
challenges from a different perspective. The transformational leadership style favoured by
female executives appears to have benefitted companies that need to achieve certain short-
term goals, or that require interventions to make changes during a crisis.
Martha believes that the style is collaborative and inspirational. Seeking advice is crucial
when experiencing a crisis. However, women understand the value of continuity and are
more willing to make transitions as smooth as possible. Women will receive advice from
GM their subordinates, their approach is significantly different from that of men in this context.
Damase highlights this trait as being important for a leader in the statement below:
In homes, I mean who runs homes? Whenever there is a divorce, who collapses? It is very rarely
you find that it is a woman. So, I think organisations are beginning to realize that. So, it is not
[. . .], let’s not look only at the negative side that we are given the tough jobs. There is a positive
side that some people go out of their way to look for women. They get out of their way to look for
women, because they know women will make a difference.
Damase’s statement above provides a context to address the challenge around the way
women’s authorities are often undermined in a leadership position. Dignity and respect are
key drivers in this role. Malawe, however, believes there is no leadership style designated for
women. In her view, women adapt different leadership styles to suit different situations.
Katso’s view is different from Damase’s, Malawe’s and Martha’s views. She believes women
need to define their own leadership style, being competent in each of the different models is
advisable. One cannot only adapt the transformational leadership style, as it is likely that
you may drop the ball on the way if you are not flexible in your approach. It was generally
agreed by participants that female leaders have qualities that are more transformational.
McMahon observed that there are women who want to be treated differently because of
their gender, which she found to be problematic, she noted:
Don’t use gender as an excuse, I find it very irritating. Work hard, persevere, and do not take
things personally. There is nothing wrong to say I do not have the answer now I will get back to
you. There are good stories from a lot of women.

5. Discussion
Existing research often suggests that on the rise of women to leadership positions in
corporate environment, the term glass cliff describes patterns in the advancement of women
and minorities to positions of leadership where there is a disproportionate chance of their
failure (Ryan and Haslam, 2005). A recent review of glass cliff effects from 74 independent
studies affirmed that these conditions arise in a large variety of domains, including politics
(Morgenroth et al., 2020). This research deepens the understanding on the relevant
leadership styles and skills women leaders uses during times of crisis.
Closely tied to the participants’ perception of leadership was their own leadership style.
A common thread among participants’ in response to what they perceived to be their
individual leadership style was that they were “collaborators, consensus builders, and
encouraged teamwork”. Describing where they thought their personal leadership style fitted
in, Nicci was adamant that as a leader her style was to act confident and make decisions
without fear.
Malawe recognised that different situations required different leadership styles. She felt that
her ability to resolve each situation as it arises allowed her to respond to the needs of her
followers at the time. Malawe stated “I quickly assess what is needed, how to go for it, and get it
done”. On the question regarding an appropriate leadership style for women leaders, the
participants agreed that men are agentic in the way they lead, and women are communal.
Mpola was adamant that men are rigid, prescriptive, authoritarian and transactional. Women
are listeners, act and follow-up. Nicci was reluctant to describe the relevant leadership style
during crises, however, eventually stated that “women are more empathetic leaders and group
oriented”. Fusi noted that the primary difference between the male and female leadership styles
is that “women spend more time collaborating, building consensus and allowing all to
contribute, as compared to men who are generally more task oriented and less people oriented”.
 The study showed that women are more disposed to, and favour the transformational Women in
leadership style, as well as more collaborative styles because that is how they have been senior
socialised and nurtured. Additionally, most of the participants portrayed a deep sense of
awareness on their roles and responsibilities were in correlation to the key components of
leadership
the “authentic leadership” style as theorised by Wong and Cummings (2009). This varies positions
across industries and is subject to the situation at hand, and there is nothing that is cast in
stone.
Moreover, the stances adopted by the participants are also aligned with Yukl’s (2006)
assumptions that integrate three crucial elements of effective leadership: task-oriented,
relation-oriented and change-oriented behaviours. Similar assumptions are shared by
Arnold et al. (2017) who found through their investigations, a multiplicity of factors
influencing leadership and a link among leaders’ personalities, context and situation in
shaping styles. A key finding of the theme investigated shows that there are other reasons
preventing women leaders from breaking through the glass ceiling and causing them to fall
off the glass cliff.
Additionally, a lot of time was invested in the coding stage, with the result of a
conclusively emerging theme that identified role players required in the strategies for
women to succeed in senior leadership roles. Participants’ view was an intersection of
different role players at different levels important for successful strategies for winning in
senior roles. This resulted in the identification of five main elements, namely, leadership/
board support, mentoring, personal development, research/expanding knowledge,
networking/support structures. Bonang Mama asserted that for women leaders,
empathy, vulnerability, transparency and hope are crucial to navigate through difficult
times.
The results of this research have implications for the role of gender in leadership style in
a corporate environment. These women, who were largely able to define their own
organisational role, gravitated towards a leadership style (transformational) that does not
conflict with gender roles. This is consistent with research that suggests that certain
genderrole-specific traits remain despite organisational role (Eagly and Sczesny, 2019).
However, it is also possible that these leaders were reflecting general trends towards a more
transformational style, considered to be more effective in the current culture (Bass and
Riggio, 2006).

5.1 Theoretical contributions

Previous research has presented arguments based on women’s decisions to accept
senior leadership positions even when the organisation is experiencing times of
difficulty (Adams et al., 2009). As reported by Laud and Johnson (2013) when taking
all evidence from the existing research into consideration, the decisions were deduced
as being influenced by the lack of women in executive leadership roles due to an
innate bias against women as leaders. This study contributes to academic research,
from the context of the limited literature regarding which leadership styles motivate
women leaders. One major theoretical contribution of this study is a proof of the
applicability of the full range leadership theory by Bass (1985) in corporate South Africa work
setting. It confirms the extension of the theory’s universality. This study may serve as an
original contribution to body of knowledge, providing a solid foundation that can be expanded
through further research. Leaders are pulse of any organisation; therefore, any organisation’s
performance and sustainability are tied directly to its leader and employees’ performance
(Masa’deh et al., 2016).
GM The main organisational contribution of the study is directed at human capital
departments that are interested in developing employee performance. Given the importance
of the combination of the transformational and transactional leadership styles to employee
performance during crisis, these companies ought to pay attention to improving on
approaches to leadership. More specifically, leadership training is a possibility for
developing positive leadership behaviors. Bass (1985) also presented a training manual that
can be used by organisations as a tool for developing transformational leadership
(Chammas and Hernandez, 2019) based on their necessities.

5.2 Practical implications

To assist women to become more successful in senior leadership roles, activities should be
developed and implemented in examining how various policies, procedures and norms may
limit the success of women. The first implication focusses on the fact that corporations should
engage in critical reflection about issues of inclusion and expand the opportunities for diverse
leadership styles and for women at all levels. The second implication concerns leadership and
mentoring programs. It seems appropriate for human resource professionals and organisations
to consider increasing both the formal and informal socialization opportunities for women to
meet potential mentors on an informal basis.
Additionally, given that most corporate companies in South Africa have carried out
several gender equality initiatives, decision-makers should be cognizant of potential
consequences of gendered policies that they offer to women in times of distress. This study
reveals that transformational leadership helps in establishing a value system along with
providing the employees an opportunity to develop their skills and abilities. It is important
for a leadership style to offer opportunities to employees, a sense of belonging along with
allowing them to participate in the decision-making. In this context, it is recommended that
organisations should focus on a style or combination of styles used based on the situation at
hand.

6. Limitations and future recommendations

This study has provided deep insights into the effectiveness the appropriate women
leadership styles on leading organisations during crises. This study is not without its
limitations; it has used qualitative research only. This has significantly reduced the
scope and applicability of the study. Therefore, it is recommended that future research
studies should focus on using other relevant research methods, along with quantitative
methods, for investigating the appropriate women leadership style during times of
crisis.
Future research could include larger samples and incorporate a variety of methods
to improve data representativity. The findings of this study will be beneficial for the
field of culture studies for instance culture diversification and its relationship with
leadership styles. Further research is needed on how women lead, why they lead in
particular ways and the effectiveness of different leadership styles in corporate
setting.

7. Conclusion
In conclusion, the transformational leadership style is highly effective approach in crises
situations. Transformational leaders could inspire followers to look beyond considerations
of narrow self-interest and to work together for the interest of all. Those with a more
transactional style are less likely to accomplish this. However, a transformational style of
leadership is hard to maintain over the long-term in times of relative normality. Therefore, it
would be beneficial for women leaders to consolidate both the transformational and Women in
transactional leadership styles to achieve desired goals rather than using only one style, as senior
that will be limiting.
leadership
positions
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Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14 No. 6, pp. 807-834.

Corresponding author
Winsome Mashele can be contacted at: info@gestaldt.com

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