Writing - Linking words

A The function of linking words

Linking devices are neither nouns, nor verbs. They provide a text with cohesion and illustrate
how the parts of the text relate to each other.
Here are some of the functions which linking words provide:
o Adding extra information to the main point,
o contrasting ideas,
o expressing cause and effect,
o showing exactly when something happened (narrating),
o expressing purpose (why?) and opinion,
o listing examples,
o making conclusions and
o giving emphasis.

B Position in the text.

Some linking words normally form a link between clauses WITHIN a sentence. It is bad style
to start a sentence with these words:
and but so because then until such as
are examples of this type of linking word.
Another type of linking device is used to form a link BETWEEN sentences. These words must
start with a capital letter and are usually immediately followed by a comma:
Furthermore, Moreover, However, Nevertheless,
Therefore, In conclusion,
are used in this way. Most linking words, however, can either start a sentence or form a link
between sentences. The choice is up to the writer.

C Grammatical differences
Some linking words must be followed by a clause (Subject + Verb + Object).
while why because although so whereas when

Other linking words should be followed by a noun phrase (Linking word + (the) +
Noun/Pronoun or gerund)
because of despite during in spite of

The majority of linking devices can be followed by either a noun phrase or a clause. Here is a list of
the principal linking words in English. The linking words beginning with a capital letter often start a
sentence, For those without, position in a sentence is optional.

Adding and Contrasting Expressing cause / reason

*and *but because
as well as However, as
besides Although since
Moreover, despite As a result,
Furthermore, In spite of This is why
What is more, Nevertheless, because of
In addition, On the contrary, Due to
not only .... but also on the one hand Owing to
another point is that on the other hand, For this reason,
whereas
while

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 Relative clauses Contrasting Expressing effect / result
(continued)
who where but while *so
that which For one thing, so....that
whose to whom In contrast, such a...that
when what Neither...nor Therefore/ Thus
why Consequently,
too...for/to
not enough...for/to
for this reason

Narration Expressing purpose

First (of all) immediately to
At first Once so as to
At the beginning Suddenly in order that
In the beginning As soon as so that
then on for (Non-specific)
next No sooner....than Expressing opinion
Before Hardly...when I would say that
After Finally In my opinion,
After that Eventually I think (that)
afterwards At the end I believe (that)
When In the end Personally
While At last Apparently,
during To begin with,
Soon until
prior to

Giving examples Summing up / concluding Emphasis

for example, All in all especially
for instance, overall particularly
this includes generally Naturally,
such as eg. (for example) In conclusion, exactly because
i.e. (that is) on the whole above all
in the main Whatever
To sum up, Whenever
too / enough
The more ....
* Avoid starting a sentence with these words.
PRACTICE: Read the following sentences and decide if the words in bold have the
meaning of “and” or “but”:
1. Windsurfing is great fun. What is more, it is good exercise.
2. Although she studied hard, she failed the exam.
3. Despite the bad weather, they continued their journey.
4. Travel broadens the mind - it also brings cultures together.
5. Flying is a fast way to travel. However, there are some disadvantages.
6. Having a pet, such as a dog or cat, can give you great pleasure and good company. On the
other hand, a pet can cause many problems.
7. Being an air stewardess, gives you the opportunity to see foreign countries. Furthermore,
you get very cheap air tickets for yourself and your family.
8. In spite of his injury, he finished the match.
9. In addition to teaching, a teacher has to plan a each lesson, photocopy, mark homework,
deal with students’ problems …
10. A great deal of aid and money is sent to the Third World. Nevertheless, people are still
starving and living in poverty.

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Write the sentence again, using the word in brackets. The meaning must stay exactly
the same.
1. She is a very good English speaker. You would think it was her native language.
___________________________________________________________________ (so)
2. There were so many people in the room that we couldn't move.
___________________________________________________________________ (such)
3. We missed the film because there was such a lot of traffic.
___________________________________________________________________ (so)
4. I can't wear this coat in winter, it’s not warm enough.
___________________________________________________________________ (too)
5. When he speaks English, I can't understand what he says.
___________________________________________________________________ (enough)
6. We lost the match although we the better team.
___________________________________________________________________ (despite)
7. In spite of not having eaten for 24 hours, I didn't feel hungry.
_______________________________________________________________ (even though)
8. Despite her injured foot, she managed to walk to the village.
_________________________________________________________________ (although)
9. The football match is still going on.
___________________________________________________________________ (yet)
10. Has Jane got divorced yet?
___________________________________________________________________ (still)
11. Jack used to have long hair and a beard.
_________________________________________________________________ (no longer)
12. I was feeling tired.
_________________________________________________________________ (any longer)
13. I wish I could speak English as well as you do.
___________________________________________________________________ (like)
14. Both in January and in February, the price of basic foods rose.
___________________________________________________________________ (as)
15. He had hoped to do better in the examination.
___________________________________________________________________ (as....as)
16. John is younger than he looks.
___________________________________________________________________ (as....as)
17. Tom is 16 years old, and so is Fred.
___________________________________________________________________ (as....as)
18. He used to be a doctor.
___________________________________________________________________ (as)
19. You're not reading that newspaper. Can I read it?
___________________________________________________________________ (as)
20. He was sitting on the beach when the sun rose.
___________________________________________________________________ (as)
21. You can go to the party if you don't come home very late.
___________________________________________________________________ (as....as)
22. When he arrives, we'll go.
___________________________________________________________________ (as....as)
23. They think that he is the best person for the job.
___________________________________________________________________ (as)

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