CEH 513: Research Methods

Department of Civil Engineering

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
Lecture Notes by: Emmanuel A. Donkor

Lecture Notes Set 2

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

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PURPOSE

• To describe the requirements of empirical research

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OUTLINE
1. Empirical Research

2. The Research (Scientific) Process

3. Required Output/Deliverables
1. Research Proposal
2. Research Report

4. Key Research Terminology and Scientific Reasoning

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1. EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Definition:

Empirical research is research that poses a question (or set of

questions) on observed phenomenon, collects and analyses data
for purposes of explaining that phenomenon on the basis of a
well-founded theory or hypothesis.

This requires what is known as the Scientific Process

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2. THE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PROCESS/METHOD

1. Step 1: Define the Research Problem (topic)

2. Step 2: Review the Literature and Formulate Research Issues
3. Step 3: Design the Research
4. Step 4: Collect Data
5. Step 5: Analyze Data
6. Step 6: Write and present technical report

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2.2 REQUIREMENTS OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
• A Research Question: this determines the research objectives.
• A particular Design for the research:
• depends on the question
• Defines ways of answering the research question with appropriate use of resources.
• The gathering of Primary Data.
• A particular Method for collecting and analysing the data, such as an
experiment or survey.
• Sampling: The selection of a sample from which results may be generalized.
The sample should be somehow representative of a wider population.
• Reliability: The ability to recreate (replicate) the study and test the results.
• Generalizability: The ability to generalize from the findings to a larger sample
and to other situations.

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3. REQUIRED OUTPUT/DELIVERABLES
• Formal Research Proposal that includes
• Literature review
• Research questions/issues
• Research design
• Schedule
NOTE: proposal serves as a contract document between researcher and advisor

• Technical/Final Report
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Materials and methods
• Results
• Discussion—conclusions and recommendations
• references

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4. KEY RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY

• Variable: observable attribute/characteristic of an entity that can be

measured, example road width, approach speed etch. May or may not
require an operational definition

• Construct: attribute of an entity to be measured, but which is not

observable. Normally used by psychologists and requires operational
definitions to be measured accurately.
• Example customer satisfaction, safe driving, quality of sub-base.

• What would you use to measure each of these?

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 Key Research Terminology
• Operational Definitions: a statement that provides a specific criteria for
measuring a stated attribute/characteristic of an entity.
• Example: in this study, we define quality of sub-base to be the percentage of fines in the
material obtained from the trial pit.

• Propositions and hypotheses: these are declarative statements (claims) that

predict the relationship between variables. The statement can be directional
or otherwise
• Example 1: for construction purposes, the quality of material A will be different from the
quality of material B
• Example 2: for construction purposes, the quality of material A will be better than the
quality of material B

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 Key Research Terminology
• Theory: a set of interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are
advanced to explain and to predict phenomenon (facts). Sometimes, different
theories are propounded to explain the same phenomenon.
• Example: can you explain why gravel roads tend to require more frequent
replacements as compared to bituminous-surfaced roads

• Models: representations of systems that are constructed/developed to study

either a system or some aspect thereof. They tend to be abstracted/simplified
versions of reality. Example, traffic simulation at signaled intersections

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Sound Reasoning for Effective Conclusions

• Inductive reasoning: generalizing from the particulars---leads to

development of theory, from which deductions can be made
• Example:
• survey showed that 95% of respondents from a particular city prefer
taxis as a form of transportation
• Therefore, we conclude that commuters from that city prefer taxis

• Deductive reasoning: particularizing from the general

• Commuters from xyz city prefer taxis
• Joe comes from city xyz
• Therefore Joe will prefer a taxi
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