Unidad II Didatic Uses of Maximum Power Transfer

Didactic uses of maximum power transfer
theorem and guided problem solving

Sudarshan R. Nelatury
Behrend College, Pennsylvania State University, Erie, PA, USA
E-mail: srn3@psu.edu
Abstract The maximum power transfer theorem (MPTT) is proved in a number of ways. The paper
asserts pedagogical value and is aimed at evoking critical thinking among students.
Keywords Cauchy-Riemann equations; Lagrange multipliers; maximum power transfer theorem; Mean
value theorem; Rolle’s theorem; STEM education
Teachers are expected to generate new knowledge; but they equally have the de-
ontic task of conserving the old knowledge and prevent it from slipping into
oblivion. This seems to happen in the case of certain simple theorems in calculus.
This paper attempts to deal with this issue in the teaching of maximum power
transfer theorem (MPTT), especially with STEM (Science, Technology, Engineer-
ing and Mathematics) initiatives kept in view.
The MPTT is one of the foundational theorems in the entire electrical engineer-
ing curriculum. It is usually introduced to electrical engineering students at the
sophomore level in basic circuit analysis. After teaching some important theorems
like superposition, Thevenin, Norton etc., MPTT is initially taught in the case of
a d.c. circuit and is taught again later in a.c. phasor analysis.1–3 By this time, al-
most all students have had tuition in basic calculus. Although higher order skills
in math are expected of them, some of the mathematical facts in basic calculus
such as Rolle’s theorem, mean value theorem, root relations of quadratic equa-
tion, Lagrange multipliers and so on are seldom mentioned in the teaching of
electrical engineering.
The object of this paper is to provide alternate proofs to the simple, well-known
MPTT in unsuspected ways not found in standard textbooks. The MPTT can be
proven even using the iso-perimeter or iso-area problem for four-sided polygons.
Although all these proofs lead to the same well-known fact that the load resistance
must equal the source resistance in order to have maximum power transfer from a
d.c. source, the idea is to stimulate students’ creative thinking. This is done by pos-
ing MPTT in the form of guided problems with a prompt, cue or a recipe that
would hopefully produce a desired result. With the increasing emphasis on STEM
education, there is a growing need to lay down concrete steps that would painlessly
lead to higher level of abstraction. This is of especial benefit to a majority of engi-
neering students in the early years of their college study.
After what seems like an exercise of ‘majoring on a minor,’ the proof of MPTT
in the case of an N-port network with a.c. sources and complex impedances is ele-
gantly completed via Brandwood complex gradient. The MPTT is very easy if the
International Journal of Electrical Engineering Education, Volume 51, Number 3 (July 2014) © Manchester University Press
http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/IJEEE.51.3.6
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246 S. R. Nelatury
network is linear, but if the circuit has nonlinear devices like photodiodes it re-
quires special attention. The growing energy crisis has spawned the pursuit of effi-
cient power generation and delivery and a variety of devices and circuits, several
of which are nonlinear, have emerged. They include photovoltaics produced on in-
dustrial and consumer scales, space-based solar energy systems, cordless induc-
tively coupled powering devices, implantable medical devices etc.; many other
examples abound. Matching them for efficient energy extraction and tracking the
maximum power point (MPP) has now become an intriguing research topic. So
students are expected to learn the MPTT from different perspectives. In the next
section we shall solve a series of problems on the MPTT, each stated with a differ-
ent cue or prompt and drive home a basic concept from calculus. For students
learning the MPTT for the first time, this article is expected to serve as a stimulus
to learn it well and try other theorems in the same spirit. And for those coordinat-
ing STEM activities, this paper shows how the content knowledge can be shared
and co-taught by mathematics and electrical engineering faculty.
Problems and Solutions

Problem 1
Consider a d.c. voltage source E with a fixed series resistance RS driving a variable
load of RL as shown in Fig. 1. Express load power PL and find the maximum by
differentiating PL with respect to RL. (This is included here only for the sake of
completeness.)
Solution
Circuit analysis is built on the laws of physics such as Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s
law, and Joule’s law etc. If IL is the current flowing in the circuit, and VL is the
voltage across the load resistor RL, Ohm’s law requires that
VL ¼ RL IL : ð1Þ
RS
IL
+ −
IL RS
+
+
E − VL = IL RL RL
Fig. 1 A simple d.c. circuit with a source voltage E, source resistance RS and a variable
load RL.

Didactic uses of MPTT 247
(Writing VL = RLIL is preferred to VL = ILRL although for a simple circuit such

as the one shown in Fig. 1, both mean the same thing.) Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL) asserts that sum of the voltage rises must equal the sum of the voltage
drops in a closed path in a circuit and for the circuit in Fig. 1 this results in
E ¼ RL IL þ RS IL : ð2Þ
Joule’s law gives a simple formula for the power dissipated in a resistor. The
product of current through RL and voltage across it is the power PL that it dissi-
pates and is given by
PL ¼ IL RL IL : ð3Þ
From (2) we get
IL ¼ ðRL þ RS Þ1 E ð4Þ
so the power PL dissipated in the load resistance RL is
PL ¼ E ðRL þ RS Þ1 RL ðRL þ RS Þ1 E ð5Þ
which after simplification becomes
E 2 RL
PL ¼ : ð6Þ
ðRL þ RS Þ2
The maximum of PL in (6) can be found from the first and the second deriva-
tives of PL given by:
dPL E 2 ðRS RL Þ
¼ ð7Þ
dRL ðRS þ RL Þ3
d2 PL 2E 2 ðRL 2RS Þ
¼ : ð8Þ
dR2L ðR S þ R L Þ4
Equating (7) to zero and solving for RL, we get RL = RS and for this choice, ob-
viously the second derivative of PL is negative from (8) assuring a maximum.
Problem 2
State Rolle’s theorem for real-valued positive functions and use the same to pre-
dict the existence of a maximum for PL in (6). Also, state the mean value

248 S. R. Nelatury
theorem and use the same to prove that there is a unique maximum for PL when
RL = RS.
Solution
Let us state Rolle’s theorem.
Rolle’s theorem
Suppose a real-valued positive function f(x) is continuous on a closed interval
[α,β], differentiable on the open interval [α,β], and if f(α) = f(β), then f'(x) = 0 at
one or an odd number of points in the open interval [α,β]. Referring to the circuit
in Fig. 1, since RL can be continuously varied from 0 to ∞, we can view PL as a
continuous function of RL. Suppose the variable resistor RL is turned all the way to
one extreme so that RL = 0, making it a short circuit. Since a short-circuit con-
sumes no power we find that P L = 0. Likewise, if it is open-circuited so that
RL = ∞, then also, power consumed is zero. Thus PL(0) = PL(∞) = 0 and for other
values of RL, PL(RL) ≠ 0. According to Rolle’s theorem, we suspect that for an odd
number of points or at least for one point RL ∈ (0, ∞), P0(RL) = 0. But power dissi-
pated in a resistor is positive-real valued function, so we expect at least one
maximum.
Next let us turn to the mean value theorem (MVT). Some people aptly say that
the MVT is the most valuable theorem. It is stated as follows:
Mean value theorem

Suppose a real-valued function f(x) is continuous on a closed interval [α,β], β>α,
differentiable on the open interval (α,β), then there exists a value γ in the open in-
terval (α,β) such that
f ðÞ f ðÞ
f 0 ð Þ ¼ : ð9Þ

A typical graph of PL looks as shown in Fig. 2. Also for an arbitrary value

PL = P, there are two possible values of RL. To see this, let us equate the power
function in (6) to a constant P and rearrange terms. We get a quadratic in RL as:

E2
R2L þ 2RS RL þ R2S ¼ 0 ð10Þ
P
whose roots are given by

E2 E pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RL1;2 ¼ RS ∓ E 2 4RS P: ð11Þ
2P 2P

PL
E2
PMAX = 4R S
dPL
dRL
=0
P
0
RL1 RS R L2 RL
Fig. 2 A typical graph of power PL.
Graphically these are the points of intersection of the power curve with a
horizontal. In Fig. 2, these two points are shown as α and β on the power
curve. The difference between the two roots equals the length of the segment
given by:
E pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ RL2 RL1 ¼ E 2 4RS P ð12Þ
P
dRL ¼ 0 at some value in the interval (RL1,

The mean value theorem assures that dPL
RL2). This actually happens when the two points α and β coalesce, or speaking in
E2
algebraic terms, when the discriminant in (11) becomes zero. Then P ¼ 4R S
, and
2
the single root of RL = RS. Also we note that if P > 4R
E
S
, the two points α and β do
not exist, and RL1,2 become complex, a non-physical situation for a d.c. circuit.
E2
Hence, the maximum power is 4R S
and occurs at RL = RS.
Problem 3
Use KVL in (2) and the fact from real analysis that for any x ∈ R, x2 > 0 and
E2
prove that the maximum of (6) is 4R s
which occurs for RL = RS.
Solution
When it comes to proving theorems, certain chain of steps might appear too legal-
istic and run the risk of disdain sometimes. For instance, the fact that 1 > 0 is but
self-evident. However, in real analysis the proof is indeed crisp. It starts with the
distinction between a real number and an imaginary number that the former is one
whose square is greater than zero, while the square of the latter is less than zero.4
Then 1 is recognized as 12 and the proof is complete. Given a pair of real and
positive numbers x and y, such that x + y = c > 0, the product xy is maximum

250 S. R. Nelatury
when x = y. The proof of this statement is trivial if we start with the fact that the
square of a real number is positive as said just now. We can write
c 2
x ≥0 ð13Þ
2
c 2
x ≤0 ð14Þ
2
c2 c 2 c2
x ≤ ð15Þ
4 2 4
c2 c2 c 2
) xy≤ ∵ x ¼ xy ð16Þ
4 4 2
2
This implies that the function xy has a maximum value of c4 and that it occurs for
x ¼ 2c. Thus, with the condition x + y = c > 0, the product xy is maximum if and only
if x ¼ 2c ¼ y . Now returning to the circuit in Fig. 1, if we allow ILRL and ILRS to
play the role of x and y respectively, from KVL in (2) their sum is fixed. The load
E2
power PL ∝ xy. It has a maximum value of magnitude 4R s
and it occurs when ILRL = -
ILRS or RL = RS. This proof is very similar to what is given by Paul and Gardner.5
Problem 4
Of all the rectangles of fixed perimeter, find the one with maximum area. Use this
fact to prove maximum power transfer theorem.
Solution
This is also recognized in geometry as an isoperimetric problem for a 4-gon, which
states that the area of a rectangle with a fixed perimeter is maximum for the case
when it is a square. Niven6 has provided a rich collection of techniques to find
minima or maxima without calculus. If x and y are treated as two sides of a rectan-
gle, KVL constrains their sum to be fixed. The area of the rectangle xy is propor-
tional to the load power PL as shown in Fig. 3. Referring to Problem 3, xy is
maximum if x = y, implying RL = RS.
Problem 5
Show that if x and y are two positive real numbers and xy = c2, the quantity x + y
is minimized if x = y = c. In other words, of all the rectangles of fixed area, find
the one with minimum perimeter. Use this fact to prove maximum power transfer
theorem.

RS
+ −
x = IL RS
IL +
+ x = ILRS
E − y = IL RL RL
y = RLIL
Area ∝ PL
−
Fig. 3 A simple d.c. circuit and an isoperimetric problem. The two sides of the rectangle
represent the drop across the source and the load resistances and their sum is constant. The
area of the rectangle is proportional to the power PL, which is maximum if the rectangle is
a square, implying that the condition for maximum power is RL = RS.
Solution
This is dual to the preceding case and is known as an iso-area problem for a 4-gon
that states that the perimeter of a rectangle with a fixed area is minimum for the
case when it is a square.6 Let us again start with the fact
that the square
of a real
pffiffiffi
2
number is positive. Let xy = c and consider the square of x pffiffix :
c

pffiffiffi c 2
x pffiffiffi ≥ 0 ð17Þ
x
c2
x 2c þ ≥0 ð18Þ
x
) x þ y ≥ 2c: ð19Þ
2
This implies that the minimum of x + y is 2c, where y ¼ cx . Taking equality, and
pffiffiffi
solving x pcffiffix ¼ 0 , we find that the minimum occurs for x = c = y. Now
returning to (6), after taking the reciprocal and rearranging terms we get,

E2 RS RL
2 ¼ þ : ð20Þ
RS PL RL RS

E2
Instead of maximizing PL, we could minimize RS PL 2 : Such alternatives are
familiar in the context of primal-dual optimization problems. Now this can be

252 S. R. Nelatury
RL
x= RS
RL
RS
y=
Area = 1
Fig. 4 MPTT posed as a unit iso-area problem. The perimeter is minimized for RL = RS
when it is a square.
RS
identified as an iso-area problem for rectangles of unit area and sides given by RL
RL
and RS as shown in Fig. 4. The minimum perimeter condition implies RL = RS.
Problem 6
Treat the load power PL = VLIL as a function of two decision variables VL and IL
which, in turn are tied up to the constraint of KVL given by VL = E − ILRS. This
constraint represents a line in the VL-IL plane and is called the source line. The
source line is an idea similar to the load line encountered in basic diode and tran-
sistor circuits. Sketch a source line and indicate the splitting of E between RS and
RL. Plot the contours of PL in the same plane and find the maximum power
condition.
Solution
A typical source line is plotted in Fig. 5. For the simple d.c. circuit shown in
Fig. 1 it gives the relation between VL and IL arising from KVL (2) as VL = E − ILRS.
In general, this line describes how the source voltage E splits between RS and RL
IL
E
RS
Q
IQ
V
L =
E
−
IL
R
S
VQ E
VL
drop across R L + drop across R S = E
Fig. 5 KVL graphically shown by the source line.

IL
VL I L = constant
E VL
RS =
E
−
IL
R
S
α
E
2R S
O
VL
E E
2
Fig. 6 Isopower contours (brown) and the load line (blue). An arbitrary contour intersects
the loadline at two points (orange) α and β, which merge into one point shown as •, where
the load line becomes tangential to the maximum power contour (dark green).
for a given quiscent current IQ as indicated in Fig. 5. The source line describes the
nature of the Thevenin circuit to the left of the load. The power expression VLIL =
PL may be graphically depicted in the VL-IL plane by the contour-plot shown in
Fig. 6. The isopower contours are seen to be hyperbolas spreading away from the
origin for greater values of power. If a hyperbolic contour corresponding to an ar-
bitrarily small value of power P is superimposed on the source line, it intersects at
two points shown in Fig. 6 as α and β. To find them let us consider the system of
equations
VL IL ¼ P ð21Þ
E VL
IL ¼ ð22Þ
RS
which yield
VL2 EVL þ PRS ¼ 0 ð23Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
E∓ E 2 4PRS
) VL1;2 ¼ ð24Þ
2

254 S. R. Nelatury
But as the contour is gradually moved in search of higher power, α and β coa-
lesce into a single point of tangency and that corresponds to the maximum power.
Beyond this, there is no intersection between any of the contours and the source
line, implying a non-feasible power in the load. At the point of tangency, the dis-
E2
criminant is zero, proving that maximum power is 4R S
and the single root is the
sought-for value of VL ¼ 2 which happens for RL = RS.
E
Problem 7
Considering the power expression as the objective function to be maximized, use
the method of Lagrange multipliers to
Maximize : PL ðVL ; IL Þ :¼ VL IL ð25Þ
Subject to : SðVL ; IL Þ :¼ VL þ IL RS E ¼ 0: ð26Þ
Solution
Choosing a Lagrange multiplier λ, we take the Lagrange function as Λ(VL, IL) = PL
(VL, IL) + λS(VL, IL) and the optimum is found by solving the system:
∂Λ
¼ VL þ IL RS E ¼ 0 ð27Þ
∂
∂Λ
¼ IL þ λ ¼ 0 ð28Þ
∂VL
∂Λ
¼ VL þ λRS ¼ 0 ð29Þ
∂IL
which yields VL = E/2, IL = E/(2RS), λ = −E/(2RS). Since IL = E/(RS + RL), we also

get RL = RS. The Lagrange multipliers method can be successfully used in the case
of photovoltaic diodes or other sources with nonlinearities. The source line men-
tioned here would then become a curve described by the governing equations of
the device and the point of tangency between the source curve and the power con-
tours would be the sought-for MPP.
Problem 8
Replace the d.c. source in Fig. 1 with an a.c. source of rms voltage E ∠ 0∘ and the
source resistance RS with the complex impedance ZS = RS + jXS and the load with
ZL = RL + jXL, find the conditions for the maximum power transfer by partially dif-
ferentiating PL with respect to RL and XL. Determine the Hessian matrix and its ei-
genvalues. Ensure if it is negative definite.

Solution
Equations (1)–(6) for an a.c. situation become
VL ¼ ZL IL : ð30Þ
E ¼ ZL IL þ ZS IL : ð31Þ

ZL þ ZL∗
PL ¼ IL∗ IL : ð32Þ
2
IL ¼ ðZL þ ZS Þ1 E ð33Þ

1 ZL þ ZL∗
PL ZL ; ZL∗ ¼E ∗
ZL∗ þ ZS∗ ðZL þ ZS Þ1 E ð34Þ
2
E 2 RL
PL ðRL ; XL Þ ¼ n o: ð35Þ
ðRL þ RS Þ2 þ ðXL þ XS Þ2
Differentiating (35) partially with respect to XL and RL respectively, we get
∂PL 2E 2 RL ðXL þ XS Þ

¼n o2 ð36Þ
∂XL 2 2
ðRL þ RS Þ þ ðXL þ XS Þ
n o
∂PL E 2 R2S R2L þ ðXL þ XS Þ2
¼n o2 : ð37Þ
∂RL
Equating (36) to zero we get XL = −XS. Substituting this in (37) and equating to
zero we find RL = RS. The Hessian matrix is found as
2 3
∂2 PL ∂2 PL
6 ∂R2 ∂RL ∂XL 7
H¼6
4 ∂2 PL
L 7 ð38Þ
∂2 PL 5
∂XL ∂RL ∂XL2

256 S. R. Nelatury
where 2 3
2 2
∂ PL
2 R
6 L
3
3R L R 2
S þ ð X L þ X S Þ 2RS R 2
S þ ð XL þ X S Þ 7
¼ 2E 2 4 n o3 5 ð39Þ
∂RL2
2 3
2
∂ PL2
þ 2RL RS ðXL þ XS Þ 7
2
63RL R2S
¼ 2E 2 ðXL þ XS Þ4 n o3 5 ð40Þ
∂RL ∂XL
∂2 PL
¼ ð41Þ
∂XL ∂RL
2 3
2 2
∂ PL
2
6 3ðXL þ XS Þ ðRL þ RS Þ 7
¼ 2E 2 RL 4n o3 5 ð42Þ
∂XL2
and the two eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 are

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2RS ∓2 ðRL RS Þ2 þ ðXL þ XS Þ2
1;2 ¼ n o2 : ð43Þ
Of the two eigenvalues in (43), λ1 < 0 and λ2 seems arbitrary. But the contours
of it in the RL-XL plane within which it is negative helps us to assess the goodness
of the load for matching. For the choice RS = 5 Ω, XS = 10 Ω, Fig. 7 shows the
contours of λ2. Note that on the circle centered at (RS,−XS) having a radius RS, λ2
is zero and inside the circle it is negative. This is the region where H is negative
definite.
Evaluating the Hessian and its eigenvalues at the critical point {RL = RS, XL =
− XS}, we get
2 3
1
0 7
6 8R3
H R ¼ R ¼ 6 4
S
1 5:
7 ð44Þ
L S
0
XL ¼ XS 8R3S

λ1 R ¼ R ¼ λ2

¼ 1 : ð45Þ
L S RL ¼ RS 8R3S
X ¼ X X ¼ X
L S L S

20
10
XL 0
−10
−20
0 10 20 30
RL
Fig. 7 Contours of λ2. Inside the shaded circle ðRL RS Þ2 þ ðX L þ X S Þ2 ¼ R2S the
Hessian is negative definite.
The eigenvalues of H for this choice are both equal and negative, indicating that
it is negative definite, denoted by H < 0, a condition for assuring that the critical
point {RL = RS, XL = − XS} pertains to a maximum. Thus the load impedance cor-
responding to maximum power transfer must equal the complex conjugate of the
source impedance, i.e. ZL ¼ ZS∗: If the load impedance is anywhere inside the
shaded circle shown in Fig. 7, the load may be considered as a ‘good’ match; al-
though the goodness can be qualified based on other quantities like standing wave
ratio, they are not dealt with in the present paper.
Problem 9
Obtain maximum
power condition by formally differentiating the complex func-
tion PL ZL ; ZL∗ in (34).
Solution
By differentiating PL(RL, XL) with respect to RL and XL separately, we were able to
obtain maximum power point. The power expression involving ZL and its complex
conjugate ZL∗ , is of course real-valued. But if we still view it as a complex function
of ZL, it is not analytic because Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied7 and
attempting to differentiate it with respect to ZL does not make sense. Extremizing
real-valued functions of complex vectors was explained by Brandwood8 with the
use of complex gradient. According to this method the variables ZL and ZL∗ are
treated as independent and the objective function to be extremized is formally

258 S. R. Nelatury
differentiated with respect to ZL∗; equated to zero and solved for ZL or equivalently,
differentiated by ZL and solved for ZL∗: This technique is now routinely used in ar-
ray processing and adaptive filtering
applications.

The complex gradient of PL ZL ; ZL∗ is found by differentiating it partially with

respect to ZL∗ . It gives maximum rate of change in general. Equating it to zero
gives the stationary point where PL is maximum and the load impedance corre-
sponding to this is found as:
(
)
∂PL E 2 ZL ZS∗
¼
ð46Þ
∂ZL∗ 2ðZL þ ZS Þ Z ∗ þ Z ∗ 2
L S
¼0 ð47Þ
) ZL ¼ ZS∗ : ð48Þ
Alternatively, differentiating PL partially with respect to ZL, equating to zero

(
)
∂PL E 2 ZL∗ ZS
¼ ∗
ð49Þ
∂ZL 2ðZL þ ZS Þ2 ZL þ ZS∗
¼0 ð50Þ
) ZL∗ ¼ ZS ð51Þ
) ZL ¼ ZS∗ : ð52Þ
Problem 10
Consider an N-port source network consisting of several independent a.c. voltage
sources and impedances connected to a load network as shown in Fig. 8. Using a
Thevenin model, to describe the action of this complex N-port, find the condition
for maximum power transfer via Brandwood complex gradient.
Solution
The maximum power transfer theorem in the standard textbooks is proved taking
load at only one port. For an N-port circuit with complex sources and impedances
feeding power to another N-port network consisting of complex load impedances,

E1 I1
−
+
E2 I2
−
+
.. .. ..
ZS . . . ZL
EN IN
−
+
Fig. 8 An N-port circuit with sources E and impedance ZS driving another N-port load of
impedance ZL.
the proof could be given in terms of matrices. The original network could be re-
placed by its generalized Thevenin model. If we were to extend the derivation for
multi-port networks, we need to work with complex matrices. The proof seems ele-
gant if we perform matrix differentiation instead of differentiating with respect to
each variable separately. Simple examples showing matrix differentiation are found
in Brandwood's paper.8
We can write the expression for power as:

ZL þ Z∗
PL ¼ IH
L
L
IL ð53Þ
2

1 ZL þ Z∗
¼E H
ZH
L þ ZH
S
L
ðZL þ ZS Þ1 E ð54Þ
2
where the superscripts H and * represent conjugate transpose and ordinary conju-
gate operations respectively. Assume that ZL and ZS are symmetric; thereby,
∗
L ¼ ZL
ZH ð55Þ
∗
S ¼ ZS
ZH ð56Þ

260 S. R. Nelatury
Taking the complex gradient of PL with respect to the matrix Z∗

L we get
∗ 1 ∗ T 1

∗
1
∇Z∗L PL ¼ Z∗
L þ ZS E E ðZL þ ZS Þ1 ZL þ Z∗
L ZL þ Z ∗
S
2
∗ 1 ∗ T 1
þ Z∗
L þ ZS E E ðZL þ ZS Þ1 ð57Þ
2
1 ∗
1 ∗ T n
∗
o
1 ∗ 1
¼ ZL þ Z∗
S E E ð Z L þ Z S Þ I Z L þ Z ∗
L Z L þ Z S ð58Þ
2
1 ∗
1 ∗ T

∗
1
¼ Z þ Z∗ E E ðZL þ ZS Þ1 Z∗ ∗ ∗
L þ ZS ZL þ Z L ZL þ Z∗
2 L S S
ð59Þ
1 ∗
1 ∗ T
∗
∗ 1
¼ ZL þ Z∗
S E E ðZL þ ZS Þ1 Z∗
S ZL Z L þ ZS ð60Þ
2
where I is an identity matrix. Equating this to zero matrix requires
ZL ¼ Z∗
S: ð61Þ
This shows that the loading network should have an impedance matrix equal to
the conjugate of the Thevenin impedance of the source network if it is reciprocal.
In case of a non-reciprocal network we can find that ZL ¼ ZH S . It may be noted
that the loading network may have several equivalent topologies. But if the ele-
ments of the impedance matrices match, maximum power transfer is possible.
Conclusions
The MPTT is one of the well-known theorems in basic circuit analysis. This tuto-
rial attempts to challenge students to construct its proof in other possible ways than
are normally discussed in textbooks. The objective is to foster analytical abilities,
find applications to otherwise abstract theorems in calculus and mathematical anal-
ysis. Students should extend the scope of application from d.c. to a.c., from one
port to N-port, from linear situation to nonlinear situation, etc. Instead of dispens-
ing with theorems in calculus to prove MPTT, one might use assorted proofs to
make the very theorems come alive. Parenthetically, the well-known pythagorean
theorem has about 103 proofs.10 It is believed that the present problems and solu-
tions with all the spirit behind them serve a didactic purpose. Faculty teams en-
gaged in STEM activities must be constantly preparing content knowledge. The
present paper with all the varied flavors used to prove a well-known theorem is a
modest ensample.

References
1 C. K. Alexander and M. N. O. Sadiku, Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 5th edn (McGraw-Hill,
New York, 2009).
2 J. D. Irwin and R. M. Nelms, Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis, 9th edn (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ,
2008).
3 J. W. Nilsson and S. Riedel, Electric Circuits, 8th edn (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
2008).
4 W. Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis, 3rd edn (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1987).
5 D. K. Paul and P. Gardner, ‘Maximum power transfer theorem: A simplified approach,’ Int. J.
Elect. Enging Educ., 35 (1998), 271–273.
6 I. Niven, Maxima and Minima without Calculus (The Mathematical Association of America,
Washington, DC, 1981).
7 E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9th edn (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2006).
8 D. H. Brandwood, ‘A complex gradient operator and its application in adaptive array theory’, IEE
Proc., Pts. F and H, 130 (1983), 11–14.
9 S. Haykins, Adaptive Filter Theory,’ 4th edn (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1996).
10 http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/index.shtml, (last accessed 29 March, 2014).

Unidad II Didatic Uses of Maximum Power Transfer

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Didactic uses of maximum power transfer

theorem and guided problem solving

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Problems and Solutions

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(Writing VL = RLIL is preferred to VL = ILRL although for a simple circuit such

From (2) we get

IL ¼ ðRL þ RS Þ1 E ð4Þ

so the power PL dissipated in the load resistance RL is

PL ¼ E ðRL þ RS Þ1 RL ðRL þ RS Þ1 E ð5Þ

which after simpliﬁcation becomes

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Mean value theorem

A typical graph of PL looks as shown in Fig. 2. Also for an arbitrary value

whose roots are given by

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Fig. 2 A typical graph of power PL.

dRL ¼ 0 at some value in the interval (RL1,

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drop across R L + drop across R S = E

Fig. 5 KVL graphically shown by the source line.

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VL2 EVL þ PRS ¼ 0 ð23Þ

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Maximize : PL ðVL ; IL Þ :¼ VL IL ð25Þ

Subject to : SðVL ; IL Þ :¼ VL þ IL RS E ¼ 0: ð26Þ

which yields VL = E/2, IL = E/(2RS), λ = −E/(2RS). Since IL = E/(RS + RL), we also

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IL ¼ ðZL þ ZS Þ1 E ð33Þ

Diﬀerentiating (35) partially with respect to XL and RL respectively, we get

∂PL 2E 2 RL ðXL þ XS Þ

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and the two eigenvalues λ1 and λ2 are

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The complex gradient of PL ZL ; ZL∗ is found by diﬀerentiating it partially with

Alternatively, diﬀerentiating PL partially with respect to ZL, equating to zero

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Taking the complex gradient of PL with respect to the matrix Z∗

where I is an identity matrix. Equating this to zero matrix requires

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