Table for Fundamentals of Series: Part I: Basic

Properties of Series and Products

August 19, 2011

1 Binomial Identities
Remark 1.1 Throughout these tables, we assume, unless specified, that n, j, k, α and r represent
non-negative integers. Furthermore, we reserve x, and y for arbitrary real(complex) numbers.

1.1 Basic Identities

Pascal’s Formula � � � � � �
x x+1 x
= − (1.1)
k k k−1
Committee/Chair Identity � � � �
r r−1
(n + 1) =r (1.2)
n+1 n
Cancelation Identity � �� � � �� �
n r+a n n−r
= (1.3)
r+a r r a
� �� � � �� � � �� �
n n+r n+r 2r n + r 2r (n + r)!
= = = (1.4)
r r n−r r 2r r (r!)2 (n − r)!
� �� � � �� �
n 2n n+r 2n
= (1.5)
r n r n−r
−1 Transformation � � � �
−x x+r−1
= (−1) r
(1.6)
r r
� � � � � �
n+r n+r −r − 1
= = (−1) n
(1.7)
r n n

1
 �−x+α−1�� x
� � �
n+r α−r−n α
�x� = (−1) n+r
(1.8)
α
n+r
−1
2
Transformation
� −1 � � �
2n 1
2
= (−1) n
(1.9)
n n 22n
1
2
Transformation
�1� � �
2n 1
2
= (−1) n+1
(1.10)
n n − 1)
22n (2n
� �� �� � � �� �� �
α α−n−1 n+1 α j k
= (1.11)
n+1 α−j j−k j k j−n−1

1.2 Binomial Identities From the Gamma Function

Identities from Γ(x)Γ(1 − x) = π
sin(πx)

π
n!(−1 − n)! = (1.12)
sin(n + 1)π
1 1
(−n − )!(n − )! = (−1)n π (1.13)
2 2
22x−1
� �
Identities from Duplication Formula: Γ(2x) = √π Γ(x)Γ x + 12
√
1 π(2n)!
(n − )! = (1.14)
2 22n n!
√
22n (n!)2 n! π
= (1.15)
(2n + 1)! 2(n + 12 )!
�n� �n − 1� √
n! π
! != (1.16)
2 2 2n
� �
n 22n+1
1 = � � (1.17)
2 π 2nn
� �� �
k n−k 22n+2
1 1 = � ��2n−2k� (1.18)
2 2 π 2 2k
k n−k
� �
n 22n ( n−1 )! 22n
n = 2
= � n
� (1.19)
2
n!π π n−1
2

2
1.3 Limit Formulas
� � n1 �
2n (2n)!
lim = lim n
=4 (1.20)
n→∞ n n→∞ (n!)2
n+1 n
lim √ n
= lim √n
=e (1.21)
n→∞ n! n→∞ n!
√
( ne )n 2πn
lim =1 (1.22)
n→∞ n!

3
2 Series: The Basic Properties
2.1 Indices Properties
Remark 2.1 In this chapter, we assume a is a nonnegative integer. We also let [x] denote the floor
of x, i.e. the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
n
� n
� a−1
�
f (k) = f (k) − f (k) (2.1)
k=a k=0 k=0
km m−1 ki+1
� � �
f (j) = f (j), 1≤m≤∞ (2.2)
j=k0 +1 i=0 j=ki +1
n
[2] n n
� � �
2 f (2k) = f (k) + (−1)k f (k), n≥a+1 (2.3)
k=[ a+1
2
] k=a k=a

[ n+1 ] n n
� 2 � �
2 f (2k − 1) = f (k) − (−1)k f (k), n≥a+1 (2.4)
k=[ a+2
2
] k=a k=a

[ n−1 ]� �
� 2
n 1 (1 + x)n − (1 − x)n
x2k = , n≥1 (2.5)
k=0
2k + 1 2 x

2.1.1 Bifurcation Formulas

Bifurcation Formula

n
n
[2] [ n+1 ]
� � �2

f (k) = f (2k) + f (2k − 1), n≥a+1 (2.6)

k=a k=[ a+1 ] k=[ a+2 ]
2 2

√
Let i = −1 in the following two equations.

n [2] n
[ n−1 ]
� 2
� � 2

ik f (k) = f (2k) + i f (2k + 1), n≥1 (2.7)

k=0 k=0 k=0

n
n
[2] [ n−1 ]
� � � 2
[ k2 ] k2
(−1) i f (k) = (−1)k f (2k) + i (−1)k f (2k + 1), n≥1 (2.8)
k=0 k=0 k=0

4
Generalized Bifurcation Formulas
rn−1
� r−1
� n−1
�
f (k) = f (rk + j), r≥1 (2.9)
k=0 j=0 k=0

n r−1 [ n−j ]
� � r�
f (k) = f (rk + j), n−a+1≥r (2.10)
k=a j=0 k=[ a+r−1−j ]
r

n
n
[3] [ n−1 ] [ n−2 ]
� � � 3 � 3

f (k) = f (3k) + f (3k + 1) + f (3k + 2), n≥a+2 (2.11)

k=a k=[ a+2 ] k=[ a+1 ] k=[ a3 ]
3 3

n [4]n
[ n−1 ] [ n−2 ] [ n−3 ]
� � �
4 4� 4�
f (k) = f (4k) + f (4k + 1) + f (4k + 2) + f (4k + 3), (2.12)
k=a k=[ a+3 ] k=[ a+2 ] k=[ a+1 ] k=[ a4 ]
4 4 4

where n ≥ a + 3.

Alternating Bifurcation Formula

n
n
[2] [ n+1 ]
� � � 2

(−1)k f (k) = f (2k) − f (2k − 1), n≥a+1 (2.13)

k=a k=[ a+1 ] k=[ a+2 ]
2 2

Generalized Alternating Bifurcation Formula

n r−1 [ n−j ]
� � � r

(−1)k f (k) = (−1)rk+j f (rk + j), n≥a+r−1 (2.14)

k=a j=0 k=[ a+r−1−j ]
r

n
n
[3] [ n−1 ] [ n−2 ]
� � �3 � 3

(−1)k f (k) = (−1)k f (3k) − (−1)k f (3k + 1) + (−1)k f (3k + 2), (2.15)
k=a k=[ a+2 ] k=[ a+1 ] k=[ a3 ]
3 3

5
 where n ≥ a + 2.

n
n
[4] [ n−1 ] [ n−2 ] [ n−3 ]
� � � 4 � 4 � 4

(−1)k f (k) = f (4k) − f (4k + 1) + f (4k + 2) − f (4k + 3),

k=a k=[ a+3 ] k=[ a+2 ] k=[ a+1 ] k=[ a4 ]
4 4 4

(2.16)

where n ≥ a + 3.

2.1.2 Basic Telescoping Identities

n
� r
�
(f (k) − f (k + r)) = (f (k) − f (k + n) (2.17)
k=1 k=1
f (k+r)−f (k)
Let ∆k,r f (k) = r
. Then,
n r
1� 1�
∆k,r f (k) = ∆k,n f (k) (2.18)
n k=1 r k=1

2.1.3 Greatest Integer Function Identities

n
� 2n �� ��
1� k+1
f (k) = f (2.19)
k=1
2 k=1 2

n
� 2n−1 �� � �
1� k
f (k) = f +1 (2.20)
k=1
2 k=1 2

n
� 2n−1 �� � �
1� [ k2 ] k
(−1) k−1
f (k) = (−1) f +1 (2.21)
k=1
2 k=1 2

2.2 Expansions of (1 + i)n and (1 − i)n

√
Remark 2.2 In Section 2.2, we let i = −1.

6
Variation of Bifurcation Formula

n [2] n
[ n+1 ]
� � � 2

ik f (k) = (−1)k f (2k) + i (−1)k−1 f (2k − 1) (2.22)

k=a k=[ a+1
2
] k=[ a+2
2
]

Variation of Alternating Bifurcation Formula

n [2] n
[ n+1 ]
� � � 2
k
(−i) f (k) = k
(−1) f (2k) − i (−1)k−1 f (2k − 1) (2.23)
k=a k=[ a+1
2
] k=[ a+2
2
]

2.2.1 Expansion of (1 + i)n

[2]
�
n
� � [ n+1
� 2
] � �
n n
(1 + i)n = (−1)k −i (−1) k
(2.24)
k=0
2k k=1
2k − 1

2.2.2 Expansions Involving (1 − i)n

[2]
�
n
� � [ n+1
� 2
] � �
n n
n
(1 − i) = (−1) k
+i (−1) k
(2.25)
k=0
2k k=1
2k − 1

[2]
�
n
� �
n (1 + i)n + (1 − i)n
(−1) k
= (2.26)
k=0
2k 2

[2]
�
n
� � � nπ �
n √
(−1) k
= ( 2)n cos (2.27)
k=0
2k 4

2n
� � �
4n
(−1) k
= (−1)n 22n (2.28)
k=0
2k

n
� � �
2n n
(−1) k
= (−1)[ 2 ] (1 + (−1)n ) 2n−1 (2.29)
k=0
2k

7
 [ n+1
� ] � �
2
n (1 + i)n − (1 − i)n
(−1) k−1
= (2.30)
k=1
2k − 1 2i

[ n+1
� ] � � [ n−1
� ] � � � nπ �
2
n 2
n √
(−1) k−1
= (−1) k−1 n
= ( 2) sin (2.31)
k=1
2k − 1 k=0
2k + 1 4

2n−1
� � �
4n
(−1) k
=0 (2.32)
k=0
2k + 1
n−1
� � �
2n n
(−1) k
= (−1)[ 2 ] (1 − (−1)n ) 2n−1 (2.33)
k=0
2k + 1
�n � �
2n + 1 n
(−1) k
= (−1)[ 2 ] 2n (2.34)
k=0
2k + 1
�n � �
2n + 1 n+1
(−1) k
= (−1)[ 2 ] 2n (2.35)
k=0
2k

� � � � ��n
2.2.3 Expansions of cos π3 +i sin π3

[2]
�
n
� � � nπ �
n k
(−1) k
3 = 2n cos (2.36)
k=0
2k 3

[ n−1 ] � � √ � nπ �
� 2
n 2n 3
(−1) k k
3 = sin (2.37)
k=0
2k + 1 3 3

� � � � ��n
2.2.4 Expansions of cos π6 +i sin π6

[2] n
� � � √ �n
� n 1 2 3 � nπ �
(−1)k = cos (2.38)
k=0
2k 3k 3 6

[ n−1 ] � � � √ �n
2� n 1 √ 2 3 � nπ �
(−1)k = 3 sin (2.39)
k=0
2k + 1 3k 3 6

8
2.3 Index Shift Formula with Applications
2.3.1 Index Shift Formula
Index Shift Formula: Version 1
n
� n−a
�
f (k) = f (n − k), a≥0 (2.40)
k=a k=0

Index Shift Formula: Version 2

n
� n
�
f (k) = f (a + n − k), a≥0 (2.41)
k=a k=a

2.3.2 Applications of Index Shift Formula

�n � � � �
2n 1 2n
=2 2n−1
+ (2.42)
k=0
k 2 n

n �
� � � �
2n 2n − 1
=2 2n−1
+ , n≥1 (2.43)
k=0
k n
n �
� � n �
� � � �
2n 2n 1 2n
= =2 2n−1
− (2.44)
k=1
n−k k=1
n+k 2 n

�n � � � n � � � �
2n 2n 2n − 1
= =2 2n−1
− , n≥1 (2.45)
k=1
n−k k=1
n+k n

n �
� � � �
2n − 1 2n − 1
=2 2n−2
+ , n≥1 (2.46)
k=0
k n

[2] �
n
� � �
� 2n 1 + (−1)n 2n − 1
=2 2n−2
+ , (2.47)
k=0
2k 2 n

otherwise, if n = 0, the sum equals 1.

�n � � � �
4n 4n − 1
=2 4n−2
+ (2.48)
k=0
2k 2n

9
 [ n−1 ]� � � �
� 2
2n 1 − (−1)n 2n − 1
=2 2n−2
+ , n≥1 (2.49)
k=0
2k + 1 2 n

n−1 �
� �
4n
= 24n−2 = 42n−1 , n≥1 (2.50)
k=0
2k + 1

2 � � � 2 � � � �
[n ] [n ]
� 2n 2n 1 2n
= =2 2n−2
+ (2.51)
k=0
n − 2k k=0
n + 2k 2 n

[2] �
n
� �[2] � � n
� �
� 2n 2n 2n − 1
= =2 2n−2
+ (2.52)
k=0
n − 2k k=0
n + 2k n

n �
� � n �
� � � �
4n 4n 1 4n
= =2 4n−2
+ (2.53)
k=0
2n − 2k k=0
2n + 2k 2 2n

n �
� � n �
� � � �
4n 4n 1 4n
= =2 4n−2
+ (2.54)
k=0
2k k=0
4n − 2k 2 2n
Variation of Index Shift Formula
n
�
n
[2]
� �� ��
1 − (−1)n n+1
f (k) = (f (k) + f (n − k + 1)) + f , n ≥ 2 (2.55)
k=1 k=1
2 2

[ n−1 ]
1 + (−1)n �� n ��
n
� � 2

f (k) = (f (k) + f (n − k)) + f , n≥1 (2.56)

k=0 k=1
2 2

[ n−1 ]� � � �
� 2
n 1 + (−1)n n
=2 n−1
− , n≥1 (2.57)
k=0
k 4 [ n2 ]

n �
� �
2n + 1
= 22n , n≥0 (2.58)
k=0
k
Application of Index Shift Formula with −1 Transformation
� �n − 1 − k �
r+n �r �
n + 2k
�
f (k) = (−1) n
(−1) k
f (k + n), r, n ≥ 0 (2.59)
k=n
k k=0
k

10
2.3.3 Iterated Index Shift Formula
n �
k j
n �
� �
f (k, j) = f (n − k, n − j) (2.60)
k=0 j=0 j=0 k=0

2.4 Series Properties of Periodic Functions

In the following identity, suppose f (x) = f (π − x).
n−1 �
� � �n−1 � �
2k + 1 4k + 1
f π = f π , n≥1 (2.61)
k=0
4n k=0
4n

In the following identity, suppose f (x) = −f (π − x).

n−1
� � � n−1 �
� �
2k + 1 4k + 1
k
(−1) f π = f π , n≥1 (2.62)
k=0
4n k=0
4n

In the following identity suppose f (x) = −f (2π − x)

2n−1
� � � 2n−1
� � �
2k + 1 4k + 1
k
(−1) f π = f π , n≥1 (2.63)
k=0
4n k=0
4n

11
3 Calculus Operations on Series
3.1 Four Basic Integral Formulas
Remark 3.1 In Section 3.1, we assume a and b are nonnegative integers. We assume p is a positive
integer. Furthermore, we assume that ab ≤ ab+1 ≤ ... ≤ an ≤ an+1 ≤ an+2 ≤ an+3 . Lastly, recall
the [x] is the greatest integer in x.

3.1.1
First Integral Formula
n
� � ar+1 � an+1 n
� � an+1
ϕ(r) f (x) dx = ϕ(b) f (x) dx + (ϕ(r) − ϕ(r − 1)) f (x) dx
r=b ar ab r=b+1 ar
(3.1)
Applications of First Integral Formula
n
� n
�
(ϕ(r) − ϕ(r − 1))(n + 1 − r) = ϕ(r) − (n − a + 1)ϕ(a − 1) (3.2)
r=a r=a

n
� n
�
r
((−1) − (−1) r−1
)(n − r + 1) = (−1)r − (−1)a−1 (n − a + 1) (3.3)
r=a r=a

n
� (−1)n + 2n + 3
(−1)r (nr + 1) = (3.4)
r=0
4

n �� �
� � �� n � �
�
n n n
− (n − r + 1) = (3.5)
r=0
r r−1 r=0
r

n � �
� n
r = n2n−1 (3.6)
r=0
r

n
� n−1
�
f (r) = nf (n) − r (f (r + 1) − f (r)) (3.7)
r=1 r=1

n
� n � �
f (k) nf (n + 1) � f (k + 1) f (k)
= − k − (3.8)
k=1
k n+1 k=1
k+1 k

12
 n
� n−1
�
r! = nn! − r2 r! (3.9)
r=1 r=1

n �
� �k
f (k + 1) (f (n + 1))n
= �n (3.10)
k=1
f (k) k=1 f (k)

n
� n
�
p p
(k − (k − 1) ) f (k) = n f (n + 1) − p
k p (f (k + 1) − f (k)) (3.11)
k=1 k=1

n
� � ��np
�
p
p
(k − (k − 1) ) f (k) = p
(−1) k p−j f (k) j
(3.12)
k=1 j=1
j k=1

n �
� �k p n
�
f (k + 1) p p −k p
= (f (n + 1))n (f (k))(k−1) (3.13)
k=1
f (k) k=1

3.1.2 Second Integral Formula

n � ar+1
� � an+1
f (x) dx = f (x) dx (3.14)
r=b ar ab

Applications of Second Integral Formula

n
� 2r + 3 1
= 1 − (3.15)
r=0
(r + 1)2 (r + 2)2 (n + 2)2

n
� 2r + 5 1 1
2 2
= − (3.16)
r=0
(r + 2) (r + 3) 4 (n + 3)2

n
� 2r + 2a + 1 1 1
2 2
= 2− , a≥1 (3.17)
r=0
(r + a) (r + a + 1) a (n + a + 1)2

�n
3r2 + 9r + 7 1
3 3
=1− (3.18)
r=0
(r + 1) (r + 2) (n + 1)3

13
 ∞
� 3r2 + 3r + 1
=1 (3.19)
r=1
r3 (r + 1)3

n
�
(r2 + 2r)(r!)2 = (n + 1)! − 1 (3.20)
r=0

n
�
((r + 1)p − 1) (r!)p = ((n + 1)!)p − 1 (3.21)
r=0

n
�
rr! = (n + 1)! − 1 (3.22)
r=0

n
� r 1
=1− (3.23)
r=0
(r + 1)! (n + 1)!

n
� r2 + 2r 1
= 1 − (3.24)
r=0
(r + 1)2 (r!)2 ((n + 1)!)2

n �
� �
1 1 1
1− =1− (3.25)
r=0
(r + 1)p (r!) p ((n + 1)!)p

n �
� �
1 1 1
1− √ √ =1− � (3.26)
r=0
r+1 r! ( (n + 1)!

∞
� √
r− r
� =1 (3.27)
r=1 r (r − 1)!

14
3.1.3 Third Integral Formula
n
� � ar+2 � ab+1 � an+2
(−1) r
f (x) dx = (−1) b
f (x) dx + (−1) n
f (x) dx (3.28)
r=b ar ab an+1

Applications of Third Integral Formula

n
�
(−1)r (F (r + 2) − F (r)) = (−1)b (F (b + 1) − F (b)) + (−1)n (F (n + 2) − F (n + 1))
r=b
(3.29)
n
�
(−1)k (k 2 + 3k + 1)k! = (−1)n (n + 1)(n + 1)! (3.30)
k=0

n
� 1 1 (−1)n
(−1)k = + (3.31)
k=0
(k + 1)(k + 3) 4 2(n + 2)(n + 3)

∞
� 1 1
(−1)k = (3.32)
k=0
(k + 1)(k + 3) 4

n
� k 2 + 3k + 1 n+1
(−1)k = (−1)n (3.33)
k=0
(k + 2)! (n + 2)!

∞
� k 2 + 3k + 1
(−1)k =0 (3.34)
k=0
(k + 2)!

3.1.4
Fourth Integral Formula
n
� � ar+3 n
� � ar+1 � a1 � an+3
r r n
(−1) f (x) dx = (−1) f (x) dx + f (x) dx + (−1) f (x) dx
r=0 ar r=2 ar a0 an+2
(3.35)

15
Applications of Fourth Integral Formula

n
� n
�
r
(−1) (F (r + 3) − F (r)) = (−1)r (F (r + 1) − F (r)) + F (1) − F (0)
r=0 r=2

+(−1)n (F (n + 3) − F (n + 2)) (3.36)

n
� 1 + (−1)n
(−1)r = (3.37)
r=0
2

n
� � �
(2n + 1)(−1)n − 1 n n+1
(−1) r =r
= (−1) (3.38)
r=0
4 2

n
� n2 + n
(−1)r r2 = (−1)n (3.39)
r=0
2

3.2 Three Integration by Parts Formulas

3.2.1 First Integration by Parts Formula
n
� n−1
�
f (k)(ϕ(k) − ϕ(k − 1)) = f (n)ϕ(n) − f (1)ϕ(0) − ϕ(k)(f (k + 1) − f (k))
k=1 k=1
(3.40)
Applications of First Integration by Parts Formula
n
� n−1
f (k) f (n) � f (k) − f (k + 1)
= f (1) − − (3.41)
k=1
k(k + 1) n + 1 k=1 k+1

∞
� � ∞
2k + 1 1
2 3
= 3
(3.42)
k=1
k (k + 1) k=1
k (k + 1)

∞
� �∞
1 1 π2
= 1 − = 2 − (3.43)
k=1
k(k + 1)2 k=1
k 2 (k + 1) 6

16
3.2.2Second Integration by Parts Formula
�
Assume a is a nonnegative integer. Let Sn = ni=0 ai .
n
� n
�
ak bk = Sk (bk − bk+1 ) + Sn bn+1 − Sa ba+1 (3.44)
k=a+1 k=a+1

3.2.3 Third Integration by Parts Formula

� n−1 � n �
� �n �� �
n−1
1
ui dun = ui − ui duk (3.45)
i=0 i=1 k=1 i=1
uk

3.3 Taylor’s Theorem

�
Remark 3.2 Let f (x) = ni=0 ai xi , where the ai are independent of x. Let f (k) (x) denote the k th
derivative of f (x). Let f (k) (y) be the k th derivative with respect to x evaluated at y.

Taylor’s Theorem
n
� (x − y)k
f (x) = f (k) (y) (3.46)
k=0
k!
Two Variations of Taylor’s Theorem
n
� xk
f (x + y) = f (k) (y) (3.47)
k=0
k!

n
� xk
f (x) = f (k) (0) (3.48)
k=0
k!

3.4 Taylor’s Theorem for Real Valued Functions of Several Variables

∂ ji
Let ϕ be a real valued function of n variables, say (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ). Let ∂xi
be the partial derivative
(with respect to the variable xi ) of ϕ(x1 , ..., xn ) taken ji times. Then,

ϕ(x1 + h1 , x2 + h2 , ..., xn + hn ) =
∞
� � � �
1 k! ∂ j1 ∂ j2 ∂ jn
hj11 hj22 ...hjnn ϕ(x1 , ..., xn ) (3.49)
k! ∀j,0≤j
j1 !j2 !...jn ! ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
k=0 �n i ≤k,
i=1 ji =k

17
3.5 Leibnitz Formula: Generalized Product Rule for Differentiation
Remark 3.3 In Section 3.5, we assume u and v be r−times differentiable functions of x, where
r ≥ 0 and integral.

Leibnitz Formula
�r � � r−k
dr r d u dk v
(uv) = (3.50)
dxr k=0
k dxr−k dxk

3.5.1 Applications of Leibnitz Formula

n � �
� �∞ � �
k xr n+1+k k
x = k
−x n+1
x , |x| < 1 (3.51)
k=0
r (1 − x)r+1 k=0
r

�∞ � �
2n + k 1
k
= 22n (3.52)
k=1
n 2

n � �
� � � r � �
k xr n n n! n � r k! xk
x = k
+ x − x (3.53)
k=0
r (1 − x)r+1 r r! k=0 k (k − r + n)! (1 − x)k+1

2n � �
� � � �n � �
k xn 2n 2n 2n xk
x =k
+ x − x 2n
(3.54)
k=0
n (1 − x)n+1 n k=0
k + n (1 − x)k+1

n �
� � � � n � �
k+n 1 2n n � 2n xk+n
k
x = + x − (3.55)
k=0
n (1 − x)n+1 n k=0
k + n (1 − x)k+1

3.6 Three Versions of the Generalized Chain Rule

Remark 3.4 In Section 3.6, we will let Dz represent differentiation with respect to z. Hence,
Dzn f (x) is the nth derivative of f (x) with respect to z, i.e. Dzn f (x) = Dz Dz ...Dz f (x), where
the product contains n factors. We will let Dx represent differentiation with respect to x. We also
assume that x is a function of z, i.e. x = x(z). Finally, we let, α, unless otherwise specified, denote
a nonnegative integer.

18
3.6.1 Version 1: Hoppe Form of Generalized Chain Rule
n
� α � �
(−1)α � α
Dzn f (x) = Dxα f (x) (−1) j
xα−j Dzn xj (3.56)
α=0
α! j=0
j
Applications of Version 1
1 n
Dzn f (x)|z=a+bx = D f (x), b �= 0 (3.57)
bn x
Remark 3.5 In the following identity, α is any real number. Also, we assume u = u(x).

n
� � ��k � �
α j k
Dxn uα = (−1) k
(−1) uα−j Dxn uj (3.58)
k=0
k j=0 j

Remark 3.6 In the following identity, let x = ez . Then, Dzn = (xDx )n .

Gunnert’s Formula
n
� α � �
(−1)α � α
Dzn f (x) = (xDx ) f (x) =n
Dxα f (x)eαz (−1) j
jn (3.59)
α=0
α! j=0
j

Derivatives of Reciprocal Functions

� � � n � α � �
1 j α 1
Dzn = (−1) j+1
Dzn xj (3.60)
x α=0 j=0
j x

� � � n � �
1 j n+1 1
Dzn = (−1) j+1
Dzn xj (3.61)
x j=0
j + 1 x

� � n �
� α � �
1 α 1
Dxn = (−1) j
Dxn (f (x))j (3.62)
f (x) α=0 j=0
j (f (x))j+1
� � α
� � �
1 n+1 1
Dxn = (−1) j
Dxn (f (x))j (3.63)
f (x) j=0
j + 1 (f (x))j+1
�
Remark 3.7 In the following identity, assume f (x) = ∞ i=0 ai x , with f (0) = a0 �= 0. Note that
i

all ai are independent of x. Furthermore, assume for a nonnegative integer β,

� (β) j (β)
(f (x))β = ∞ j=0 bj x . Once again, all bj are independent of x.

19
 �∞ j � � (k)
1 xj � k j +1
bj
= (−1) (3.64)
f (x) j=0
j! k=0 k + 1 ak+1
0

Remark 3.8 In the following two identities, both u and x are functions of z.

�u� n � �
� k �
� α � �
n α 1
Dzn = Dzn−k u (−1) j
j+1
Dzk xj (3.65)
x k=0
k α=0 j=0
j x

�u� n � �
� k �
� �
n k + 1 (−1)j
Dzn = Dzn−k u Dzk xj (3.66)
x k=0
k j=0
j+1 xj+1

Remark 3.9 In the following two identities, assume f is any n−times differentiable function. Also
assume a is independent of x

� � n
�
(a − x)n+1 n f (x) (a − x)k
Dx = Dxk f (x) (3.67)
n! a−x k=0
k!

� � n
�
(a − x)n+1 n f (a) − f (x) (a − x)k
Dx = f (a) − Dxk f (x) (3.68)
n! a−x k=0
k!

Remark 3.10 In the following identity, �due � to G. H. Halphen, we assume� f�and φ are n−times
differentiable functions. We also let φ(k) x1 denote the k th derivative of φ x1 with respect to x1 .

� � �� � n � � � � � �
1 k n 1 (k) 1 f (x)
Dxn f (x)φ = (−1) k
φ n−k
Dx (3.69)
x k=0
k x x xk

20
Remark 3.11 The following identity is a generalization of the Version 1 due to R. Most. He as-
sumes that both f and φ are (n + m−)times differentiable functions, where m is an arbitrary
nonnegative integer.

n+m
� �k � � � j �
(−1)k k j k x
Dzn f (x) = Dx (f (x)φ(x)) (−1) k−j n
x Dz (3.70)
k=0
k! j=0
j φ(x)

Remark 3.12 In the following identity, due to R. Most, α and β are arbitrary real numbers.

� � n+m
� � �
n+m−α−β n + m xα+β−j
Dzn xα = (α + β) (−1) j
Dzn xj−β (3.71)
n+m j=0
j α+β−j

3.6.2 Version 2: Operator Form of Generalized Chain Rule

�
Dzn f (x) = An j
j (z)Dx f (x), (3.72)
j=0

where Anj (z) are independent of f and calculated by

1 � �
An
j (z) = Dtj e−tx Dzn etx |t=0 (3.73)
j!

3.6.3 Version 3: Faa di Bruno’s Formula for the Generalized Chain Rule
�n � � � �j α
1 � n! 1 k1 j 1 1
n
Dz f (x) = k
Dx f (x) D x ... kα
D x , (3.74)
k=1
k! j1 !j2 !...jα ! k1 ! z kα ! z
� �
where the inner sum is extended over all partitions such that αi ji = k and αi=1 ji ki = n.

21
4 Iterative Series
Remark 4.1 In this chapter, recall that [x] is the greatest integer in x.

4.1 First Example of an Iterative Series

r n
[2]
n � [2] n
� � �
Ar,k = Ar,k (4.1)
r=0 k=0 k=0 2k

4.1.1 Applications of the First Iterative Series

n � �
� �n� � n �2
r
=n − (4.2)
r=0
2 2 2

n
n � � �n� �
n [ 2 ] 2k−1
� r � �
f (r) = f (r) − f (r) (4.3)
r=0
2 2 r=0 k=1 r=0

n
� �n� 1 + (−1)n � n �
(−1) r
= (4.4)
r=0
2 2 2

n � �� � [ 2 ] 2k−1 � �
n
� n r �n� � � n
= 2n − (4.5)
r=0
r 2 2 k=1 r=0
r

n � �
� � n � 1 + 3n[ n ] − 4[ n ]2
r 2
= 2 2
(4.6)
r=0
2 2 3

Remark 4.2 In the following identity, assume {an }∞

n=0 is a sequence which obeys the Fibonacci
recurrence, i.e. an = an−1 + an−2 for n ≥ 2

[2 �
n �
r
� n
� r−k �
= ar = an+2 − 1 (4.7)
r=0 k=0
k r=0

22
 n � rπ � √ � �
� 2n+1 3 (n + 1)π
2r cos = sin (4.8)
r=0
3 3 3

Generalization of First Iterative Series

k n
[r]
n � [r] n
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k , (4.9)
k=a i=a i=a ri

where r and a are integers such that r ≥ 1 and a ≥ 0.

4.2 Second Example of an Iterative Series

√ √
n [�
� k] [
�n] n
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.10)
k=1 i=1 i=1 k=i2

4.2.1 Applications of the Second Iterative Series

√
n [ n] n
� √ � �
[ k]f (k) = f (k) (4.11)
k=1 i=1 k=i2

�n � √ √ �
√ √ 2[ n]2 + 3[ n] + 1
[ k] = [ n] n + 1 − (4.12)
k=1
6

√ √
�n [ n]
� √
[ k] 1 [ n]
=2 − n (4.13)
k=1
2k i=1
2i2 2

�∞ √ ∞
[ k] � 1
= (4.14)
k=1
2k i=1
2i2 −1

23
4.3 Third Example of an Iterative Series
−1 i n −1
n 2�
� 2� n
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.15)
i=1 k=1 k=1 i=1+[log2 k]

4.3.1 Applications of the Third Iterative Series

n −1
2� n −1
2� −1
n 2� i
�
[log2 k]f (k) = n f (k) − f (k) (4.16)
k=1 k=1 i=1 k=1

n −1
2�
[log2 k] = (n − 2)2n + 2 (4.17)
k=1

n −1
2�
[log2 (2k)] = (n − 1)2n + 1 (4.18)
k=1

n−1
2�
[log2 (2k − 1)] = (n − 2)2n−1 + 1 (4.19)
k=1

n −1
2�
(−1)k [log2 k] = 0 (4.20)
k=1

2 n
�
(−1)k [log2 k] = n (4.21)
k=1

−1 i n −1
n 2�
� 2� n
�
f (i) = f (i) (4.22)
i=1 k=1 k=1 i=1+[log2 k]

4.4 Standard Interchange Formula for Iterative Series

Remark 4.3 In Section 4.4, we assume a is a nonnegative integer with a ≤ n.
n �
� k n �
� n
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.23)
k=a i=a i=a k=i

24
4.4.1 Variations of Standard Interchange Formula
n �
� k n−a
� n−k
�
Ai,k = Ai,n−k (4.24)
k=a i=a k=0 i=a

n �
� k n �
� n−i
Ai,k = Ai,k+i (4.25)
k=a i=a i=a k=0

n �
� k n−a �
� n
Ai,k = An−i,k (4.26)
k=a i=a i=0 k=n−i

n �
� k n−a �
� i
Ai,k = An−i,k+n−i (4.27)
k=a i=a i=0 k=0

� k
n � n−a �
� n−a
Ai,k = An−i,k+n−i (4.28)
k=a i=a k=0 i=k

n �
� k n
� n−a
�
Ai,k = An−i,k−a+n−i (4.29)
k=a i=a k=a i=k−a

n �
� k n �
� n
Ai,k = An−i+a,k+n−i (4.30)
k=a i=a k=a i=k

4.4.2 Applications of Standard Interchange Formula

n 2n−k
� � 2n �
� i 2n
� i
�
Ai,k = Ai−k,k − Ai−k,k (4.31)
k=0 i=0 i=0 k=0 i=n+1 k=n+1

n �
� k n �
� n
f (j) = f (j) (4.32)
k=a j=a j=a k=j

25
 n
� n
� n �
� k
jf (j) = (n + 1) f (j) − f (j) (4.33)
j=a j=a k=a j=a

� � � n �
x� �x�
�n
x + 2k−1
k k
= k
− (n + 1) n
+ [x] (4.34)
k=1
2 k=1
2 2

�n � � � �
k mn + n + m n + 1
k = (4.35)
k=0
m m+2 m+1

where m is a nonnegative integer

4.5 Fourth Example of an Iterative Series

Remark 4.4 In Section 4.5, we assume a and r are integers such that 0 ≥ a ≥ n and r ≥ 1.
n �
� rk rn
� n
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.36)
k=a i=a i=a k=[ i+r−1 ]
r

4.5.1 Applications of the Fourth Iterative Series

n �
� 2k 2n
� n
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.37)
k=1 i=1 i=1 k=[ i+1 ]
2

n �
� 3k 3n
� n
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.38)
k=1 i=1 i=1 k=[ i+2 ]
3

rn �
� �
i−1 rn(n − 1)
= (4.39)
i=1
r 2

i
n �
2k 2n i−[ n+1 ](i−n)
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.40)
k=0 i=k i=0 k=[ i+1 ]
2

26
 ∞ �
� 2k ∞
� i
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.41)
k=0 i=k i=0 k=[ i+1 ]
2

∞ �
� 3k ∞
� i
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.42)
k=0 i=k i=0 k=[ i+2 ]
3

i
∞ �
2k [2]
∞ �
� �
Ai,k = Ai,i−k (4.43)
k=1 i=k i=1 k=0

4.6 Fifth Example of an Iterative Series

Remark 4.5 In Section 4.6, we assume p is a positive integer.
n �
k p np n
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.44)
√
p
k=1 i=1 i=1 k=1+[ i−1]

4.6.1 Applications of the Fifth Iterative Series

n �
k 2 n 2 n
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.45)
√
k=1 i=1 i=1 k=1+[ i−1]

n �
k 3 n 3 n
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.46)
√
k=1 i=1 i=1 k=1+[ 3
i−1]

i
∞ �
k 2 ∞ [2]
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.47)
√
k=2 i=2k i=2 k=1+[ i−1]

27
4.7 Two Special Iterative Series
Remark 4.6 In the following identity, we define !−1 as the inverse function of !. That is, x! = n if
and only if !−1 n = x. Furthermore, we assum !−1 1 = 1.

n �
� k! n!
� n
�
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.48)
k=2 i=2 i=2 k=1+[!−1 (i−1)]

Remark 4.7 In the following identity, we assume g(x) is a function such that xx = z if and only if
x = g(z).

n �
k 2 n n n
� � �
Ai,k = Ai,k (4.49)
k=2 i=2 i=2 k=1+[g(i−1)]

4.8 Iterations of the Hockey Stick Identity

Let
n kr kr−1 k2
� � � � �
f (k1 ) ≡ ... f (k1 )
(r)k1 kr =0 kr−1 =0 kr−2 =0 k1 =0

be the r−fold iterated sum of f (k1 ).

Iterated Hockey Stick Identity

n � �
� � �
j n+r
= , r≥1 n, k ≥ 0 (4.50)
k k+r
(r)j

4.9 Iterated Sums with Deleted Terms

n �
� n n
� n �
� n n �
� n
Ai,j − Ai,i = Ai,j = Ai,j (4.51)
j=0 i=0 i=0 j=0 i=0 i=0 j=0
i�=j j�=i

28
4.9.1 Applications of Deleted Terms Identity
Remark 4.8 In the following identities, let Ai,j = ui vj .

n
� n
� n �
� n n
�
vj i
u = ui v j − ui v j (4.52)
j=0 i=0 j=0 i=0 i=0
i�=j

n �
� n n
�
i
u =n ui (4.53)
j=0 i=0 i=0
i�=j

n
� n
� n
� n
�
... u k1 = n r−1
uj , (4.54)
kr =0 kr−1 =0 k1 =0 j=0
kr �=kr k1 �=k2

where the left hand side is an r−fold iterated sum for fixed positive integers r and n.
n � n
� n �n
� �
ui = ui (4.55)
j=0 i=0 i=0
i�=j

n n n
� n
�nr−1
� � � �
... uk1 = uj (4.56)
kr =0 kr−1 =0 k1 =0 j=0
kr �=kr k1 �=k2

where the left hand side is an r− iterated product, for r and n fixed positive integers.
n �
� n n n
n2 + 3n � �
(j + 1)ui = ui − iui (4.57)
j=0 i=0
2 i=0 i=0
i�=j

n
� � n
� (−1)n + 1
ui = (n − 1) ui + u[ n2 ] (4.58)
j=0 i=0 i=0
2
i�=j,n−j

n �
� n n
� n
� �
Ai,j − Ai,n−i = Ai,j (4.59)
j=0 i=0 i=0 j=0 i=0
i�=n−j

29
5 Three Convolution Formulas for Finite Series
5.1 First Convolution Formula
n �
n
� n
�� n
�
� � �
f (i)ϕ(j) = f (i) ϕ(j)
j=1 i=1 i=1 j=1
n
� � n−j
n−1 �
= f (k)ϕ(k) + (f (i)ϕ(i + j) + f (i + j)ϕ(i)) , n ≥ 2 (5.1)
k=1 j=1 i=1

5.1.1 Applications of First Convolution Formula

� n �� n � n n �n−r
� � � �
Ai Bj = Ak Bk + (Ak Bk+r + Ak+r Bk ) , n ≥ 1 (5.2)
i=0 j=0 k=0 r=1 k=0
� �2 n−1
n
� n
� 2
� n−r
�
f (i) = (f (k)) + 2 f (k)f (k + r), n ≥ 2 (5.3)
i=1 k=1 r=1 k=1

� n
�2 n n−1 �
n−r
� 1 � 1 � 1
= + 2 , n≥2 (5.4)
k=1
k! k=1
(k!)2 r=1 k=1
k!(k + r)!

∞ �
� ∞ �� ∞ k−1
1 1 π4
= = (5.5)
r=1 k=r+1
k 2 (k − r)2 k=2 r=1
k 2 (k − r)2 120
� n
�� n
� n−1 n
� � 1 � � (f (k − r))2 + (f (k))2
f (k) =n+ , n≥2 (5.6)
k=1 k=1
f (k) r=1 k=r+1
f (k − r)f (k)

n
� n−1 n−r � �
1 1 �� 1 1
= + , n≥2 (5.7)
j=1
j n − 1 r=1 k=1 k+r k

5.2 Cauchy Convolution Formula

Remark 5.1 In this Section 5.2, we let [x] denote the greatest integer in x.
� n
�2 2n
k+1
k−[ n+1 ](k−n)
� � �
f (k) = f (i)f (k − i) (5.8)
k=0 k=0 i=[ k ](k−n)
n+1

30
5.2.1 Applications of Cauchy Convolution Formula
Vandermonde Convolution
k � ��
� � � �
n n 2n
= (5.9)
i=0
i k−i k

�k � �� � � �
r q r+q
= , (5.10)
i=0
i k − i k

where k, r, and q are nonnegative integers.

n � �2
� � �
n 2n
= (5.11)
i=0
i n
� n � �
�� n � �
� 2n k � �� �
� n � n � � n n
i
x f (i) j
x ϕ(j) = x k
f (i)ϕ(k − i) (5.12)
i=0
i j=0
j k=0 i=0
i k−i
� ∞
�2 ∞ �
k
� �
a k xk = ai ak−i xk (5.13)
k=0 k=0 i=0
∞
� ∞
� k � �
(2x)k xk � k
e 2x
= = (5.14)
k=0
k! k=0
k! i=0
i

�∞ k �
� �
x2k 2k 1 1
(cosh x) = 2
= cosh(2x) + (5.15)
k=0
(2k)! j=0
2j 2 2

� ∞
�2 ∞
� xk � (2k)!
= xk (5.16)
k=0
(k!)2 k=0
(k!)4

Companion Binomial Theorem: Let n be a positive integer

inf ty �
� ∞ �n
1 � k + n − 1� �
= x k
= xi , |x| < 1 (5.17)
(1 − x)n k=0
k i=0

31
5.2.2 r th Power of an Infinite Series
�∞
Let r be a positive integer. Assume f (x) = i=0 a1,i xi . Then,
∞
�
r
(f (x)) = ar,k xk , (5.18)
k=0

where
k
�
ar,k = ar−1,i a1,k−i
i=0

5.3 Third Formula Convolution Formula

Remark 5.2 In Section 5.3, we let [x] denote the greatest integer in x.

n [ n−1 ]
� � 2
1 + (−1)n
ai an−i = 2 ai an−i + a2[n ] , n≥1 (5.19)
i=0 i=0
2 2

Variation of Third Convolution Formula

n
n [2]
� � 1 − (−1)n
ai an−i+1 = 2 ai an−i+1 + a2[n+1 ] , n≥2 (5.20)
i=1 i=1
2 2

5.3.1 Applications of Third Convolution Formula

2n
� n
�
ai a2n−i+1 = 2 ai a2n−i+1 , n≥1 (5.21)
i=1 i=1

2n+1
� n
�
ai a2n−i+2 = 2 ai a2n−i+2 + a2n+1 , n≥1 (5.22)
i=1 i=1

n−1
� a2n−1
ak a2n−1−k = (5.23)
k=1
2

[ n−1 ]� �2 � � � �2
� 2
n 1 2n 1 + (−1)n n
= − �n� , n≥1 (5.24)
i=0
i 2 n 4 2

32
 n−1 �
� �2 � � � �2
2n 1 4n 1 2n
= − , n≥1 (5.25)
i=0
i 2 2n 2 n

n �
� �2 � �
2n + 1 1 4n + 2
= , n≥1 (5.26)
i=0
i 2 2n + 1

6 Finite Products: Elementary Properties

Remark 6.1 In this chapter, we assume, unless otherwise specified, that a and p are nonegative
integers.

6.1 Basic Properties

6.1.1 Communativity Property
n
� n
� n
�
f (k)ϕ(k) = f (k) ϕ(k) (6.1)
k=a k=a k=a

Applications of Communativity Property

n
� n
�p
� �
(f (k))p = f (k) , p≥1 (6.2)
k=a k=a

n
� 2n+1
�
f (2k)f (2k + 1) = f (k), n≥0 (6.3)
k=0 k=0

n
� 2n+1
�
f (2k) k
= (f (k))(−1) (6.4)
k=0
f (2k + 1) k=0

∞
� � ∞
f (2k) k
= (f (k))(−1) (6.5)
k=0
f (2k + 1) k=0

33
6.1.2 Exponent Property
n
� �n
αf (k) = α k=a f (k)
(6.6)
k=a

Applications of Exponent Property

n
�
α = αn−a+1 (6.7)
k=a

n
� n2 2
n −a +a
αk = α 2 (6.8)
k=a

n
� k n
x(−1) (k ) = 1, n �= 0, x �= 0 (6.9)
k=0

otherwise, the previous product equals x, when n = 0.

n
� n
x( k ) = x2
n
(6.10)
k=0

6.1.3 Logarithm of Product Property

n
� n
�
logb (f (k))p = p logb f (k) (6.11)
k=a k=a

6.1.4 Product as an Exponential Function

n
� �n
f (k) = e k=a ln f (k)
(6.12)
k=a

n
� �n �∞
�n j−1 (f (k))
j
j=2 (−1)
(1 + f (k)) = e k=a f (k)
e k=a j , |f (x)| < 1, a ≤ x ≤ n (6.13)
k=a

34
6.1.5 Factorial as a Finite Product
n
�
k = n! (6.14)
k=1

Remark 6.2 In the following identity, we assume b is a nonnegative integer. If the reader wants to
let b be an arbitrary complex number, then he or she must use the convention Γ(b) = (b − 1)!.
n
� (n + b)!
(k + b) = (6.15)
k=a
(b + a − 1)!

Remark 6.3 In the following identity, we assume b is a positive integer greater than n. Otherwise,
the reader must use the fact that Γ(b) = (b − 1)! whenever b is a complex number which is not a
negative integer.
n
� (b − a)!
(b − k) = (6.16)
k=a
(b − n − 1)!

Remark 6.4 In the next eight identities, x is any complex number for which the corresponding
factorial expression will be defined via the Gamma function (see Remark 6.2).

n � �
� n + x2 !
(2j + x) = 2n+1
�x � , n≥0 (6.17)
j=0 2
− 1 !

n � �
� n − x2 !
(2j − x) = 2 n+1
� x �, n≥0 (6.18)
j=0
−2 − 1 !

n � � � �
� n + x
! n − x
!
(4j 2 − x2 ) = 22n+2 � x 2� �
x
2 �
, n≥0 (6.19)
j=0 2
− 1 ! −2 − 1 !

n � �
� n+ x+1
!
(2j + 1 + x) = 2 n+1
� x+1 2 �
, n≥0 (6.20)
j=0 2
−1 !

n � �
� n + −x+1 !
(2j + 1 − x) = 2 n+1
� −x+1 2 � , n≥0 (6.21)
j=0 2
−1 !

35
 n
� � �� �
� � n + x+1 n − x−1
2
(2j + 1) − x 2
=2 2n+2 2 2 ((n + 1)!)2 , n≥0 (6.22)
j=0
n+1 n+1

n
� x(x + n)!
(x2 − j 2 ) = , n≥0 (6.23)
j=0
(x − n − 1)!

n
� x(x + n)!
(j 2 − x2 ) = (−1)n+1 , n≥0 (6.24)
j=0
(x − n − 1)!

Remark 6.5 In the following identity, we assume b is a positive integer. The resulting factorial
expressions are evaluated by use of the Gamma function (see Remark 6.2).
n � �
� bn n + 1b !
(1 + bk) = �1� (6.25)
k=1 b
!
n
� (2n + 1)!
(2k + 1) = , n≥1 (6.26)
k=1
2n n!
n
�
2k = 2n n!, n≥1 (6.27)
k=1

n
�
(1 + k)p = ((n + 1)!)p (6.28)
k=1

6.1.6 Binomial Coefficient as Finite Product

�n � � �a � � � �
a n n+a
1+ = 1+ = , n ≥ 1, a≥1 (6.29)
k=1
k k=1
k a

��
n−1
1
�p
1+ = np , n≥1 (6.30)
k=1
k

n �
� n � (2n)!
1+ = , n≥1 (6.31)
k=1
k (n!)2

��
n−1
n�
1− = (−1)n+1 , n≥2 (6.32)
k=1
k

36
Remark 6.6 In the following three identities, we assume a is a positive integer. The corresponding
factorials are evaluated via the Gamma function (see Remark 6.2).

n �
� � � �
1 n+ a1
1+ = , n≥1 (6.33)
k=1
ak n

n � � � � � �
� 1 n + a1 ! n − a1 !
1− 2 2 = � 1 � � −1 � , n≥1 (6.34)
k=1
ak a
! a !(n!)2

∞ � � � �
� 1 1 sin πa
1− 2 2 = � 1 � � −1 � = π (6.35)
k=1
ak a
! a ! a

��
k−1
n2
� � � k � ��
(−1)k−1 k 2 2k � 2n n − j
�
1− 2 = (6.36)
j=1
j 22k n2 j=0
2j k−j

��
n−1
n2
� � �
(−1)n−1 2n
1− 2 = , n≥1 (6.37)
j=1
j 2 n

6.1.7 Index Shift Formula

n
� n
�
f (k) = f (n − k + a) (6.38)
k=a k=a

Applications of Index Shift Formula

n
�
k 2 = (n!)2 , n≥1 (6.39)
k=1

n−1
�
(kn − k 2 ) = ((n − 1)!)2 , n≥2 (6.40)
k=1

n �
� �
n+1
−1 = 1, n≥1 (6.41)
k=1
k

37
 n
� n−1
� n−1
� n
�
k! = (k + 1)n−k = (n − k)k+1 = (n − k)! (6.42)
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0

�n
1
n−1
� ��
n−1
k
�−(k+1)
−(k+1)
= n 1− , n≥1 (6.43)
k=1
k! k=0 k=0
n

6.1.8 Two Cancellation Properties

n
� f (k + 1) f (n + 1)
= (6.44)
k=a
f (k) f (a)
n
� f (k − 1) f (a − 1)
= , a≥1 (6.45)
k=a
f (k) f (n)
Applications of the Cancellation Properties
n �
� �p
1
1+ = (n + 1)p , n≥1 (6.46)
k=1
k

� r �
n � �p n
�
1
1+ = (r + 1)p = ((n + 1)!)p , n≥1 (6.47)
r=1 k=1
k r=1

n �
� �p � �
1 n+1
1+ = , a≥1 (6.48)
k=a
k a

n �
� �p � �p
1 a−1
1− = , a≥2 (6.49)
k=a
k n

n �
� �p � � ��p
1 a−1 1
1− 2 = 1+ , a≥2 (6.50)
k=a
k a n

∞ �
� �p � �p
1 a−1
1− 2 = , a≥2 (6.51)
k=a
k a

38
 n
� n
k+1 n2 + n �
= = k, n≥2 (6.52)
k=2
k−1 2 k=1

n
� n
� n
� � �
n2 + n
ln(k + 1) − ln(k − 2) = ln k = ln , n≥2 (6.53)
k=2 k=2 k=1
2

n
� (1 + k)2p
= (n + 1)2p (n!)p , n≥1 (6.54)
k=1
kp

n �
� �k r
r+k 1 �
= r
(n + j)n−r+j , r, n ≥ 1 (6.55)
k=1
k (n!) j=1

39
Remark 6.7 In the following identity, we assume r is a positive integer such that r ≥ n + 1,
for fixed integer n ≥ 1. If the reader prefers to let r represent an arbitrary complex number, the
factorials must be evaluated by the Gamma function (See Remark 6.2).

n
� r
�
� r−k n+1 (r − 1)!
= �r � = (6.56)
k=1
k+1 1
(n + 1)!(r − n − 1)!

Remark 6.8 In the following identity, we assume r = 0 or r = 1. If the reader prefers to let r be
any complex number which is not a positive integer greater than or equal to 2, he or she should
ignore the binomial coefficient representation and evaluate the factorial by the Gamma function
(See Remark 6.2).
n �n+1�
� k+1 (n + 1)!(1 − r)!
= �1r� = , n≥1 (6.57)
k=1
k + 1 − r r
(n + 1 − r)!

6.1.9 Three Product Identities From Identity (3.7)

n �
� �k
1 (a − 1)!(n + 1)n
1+ = , a �= 1 (6.58)
k=a
k aa−1 n!

n
� �n � �k 2
k
n2
k 2k−1
= (n + 1) , n≥1 (6.59)
k=1 k=1
k + 1

n
� n �
� �k 2
1 2
k 2k−1
1+ = (n + 1)n , n≥1 (6.60)
k=1 k=1
k

6.1.10 Iterative Product Formula

n �
� i n
� n
�
f (k) = (f (k))n−k+1 = (f (n − k))k+1 (6.61)
i=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
Applications of Iterative Product Formula
n
�
k k k! = (n!)n+1 , n≥1 (6.62)
k=1

n
�
k k−1 k! = (n!)n , n≥1 (6.63)
k=1

40
6.2 Trigometric Products
Remark 6.9 In Section 6.2, we assume the reader is familiar with the Weirstrass Factorization
Theorem. The reader may find this important theorem on the Wikkipedia website.

Product for sin(θ)

∞ �
� �
θ2
sin(θ) = θ 1− 2 2 (6.64)
k=1
k π

Product for cos(θ)

∞ �
� �
4θ2
cos(θ) = 1− (6.65)
k=1
(2k − 1)2 π 2

7 Intermediate Level Calculations Involving Products

Remark 7.1 In the following chapter, we assume, unless otherwise specified, that r and n are
positive integers.

7.1 Defining n! as a Product Limit

rn n!
lim = n! (7.1)
r→∞ (r + 1)(r + 2)...(n + r)

rn r!
lim = n! (7.2)
r→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2)...(n + r)

r
� 1
lim r n
� � = n! (7.3)
r→∞
k=1
1 + nk

r �
−n
� n� 1
lim r 1+ = (7.4)
r→∞
k=1
k n!

41
7.2 Products From a Recursive Sequence
Remark 7.2 In Section 7.2, we assume a such that a ≥ 2. We assume n is a nonnegative integer.
We define the sequence (u0,n )∞
n=0 by the recursive definition (an − 1)u0,n = u0,n+1 with u0,1 = 1.

r−1
�
u0,n+1 = u0,n−r+1 (an − ka − 1) (7.5)
k=0

n
�
u0,n+1 = u0,0 (an − ka − 1) (7.6)
k=0

Remark 7.3 In the following four identities, we let a = 2. Also, any noninteger factorial is
evaluted by the Gamma function, i.e. Γ(x + 1) = x, for all complex numbers x, except negative
integers.

� �
2n−1 2n − 1
u0,n = √ Γ (7.7)
π 2

n
� � �
2n 1
(2n − 2k − 1) = − √ n− ! (7.8)
k=0
π 2

r−1 ��
� n − 12 !
(2n − 2k − 1) = 2 � r
1
� (7.9)
k=0
n − r − 2
!

n
� √
2n+1 π
(2k + 1) = � �
n+1 −n − 3 !
(7.10)
k=0
(−1) 2

42
7.3 Applications of Binomial Coefficient as Product Formula
� 2r+1 � � ��
r
n+ 1 2n 2n + 2k + 1
2
= , (7.11)
n 22n 2 k=0
2k + 1
where n is a positive integer and r is a nonnegative integer.
� � � �
n + 12 2n 2n + 1
= (7.12)
n n 22n

� 3
� � �
n+ 2n (2n + 1)(2n + 3)
2 = (7.13)
n n 3 ∗ 22n

� 5
� � �
n+ 2n (2n + 1)(2n + 3)(2n + 5)
2 = (7.14)
n n 3 ∗ 5 ∗ 22n

� 7
� � �
n+ 2n (2n + 1)(2n + 3)(2n + 5)(2n + 7)
2 = (7.15)
n n 3 ∗ 5 ∗ 7 ∗ 22n

Remark 7.4 In the following three identities, any non integer factorials are evaluated via the
Gamma function (see Remark (7.3))
� � � �
n + α2 (2n + α)! α−1 !
= 2n � 2
� , (7.16)
n 2 α!n! n + α−1 2
!
where n is a positive integer and α is a nonnegative integer.
� � � �
n+k (2n + 2k)! 2k−1 !
= 2n � 2
� , (7.17)
n 2 (2k)!n! n + 2k−1 2
!

where n is a positive integer and k is any real number.

� �� � � �� �
2n + 2k 2n n+k n + 2k−1
=2 2n 2 , (7.18)
2n n n n

where n is a nonnegative integer and k is any real number.

43
Remark 7.5 In the following three identities x is an arbitrary complex number, h is any nonzero
complex number and n is a positive integer.

n−1
� �x �
+n−1
(x + kh) = h n! n h (7.19)
k=0
n

n−1
� �x�
(x − kh) = h n! n h (7.20)
k=0
n

�x�
lim h n!n h = xn (7.21)
h→0 n

7.4 Induction on Three Product Expansions

Remark 7.6 In Section 7.4, we let [x] denote the greatest integer in x.

7.4.1 First Product Expansion

n 2 −1
n�
� √
k 2k−1
= (1 + [ k]), n≥2 (7.22)
k=2 k=1

√
[ n] n
√ √ � � √
n−[ n]2 +1
([ n] + 1) k 2k−1
= (1 + [ k]), n≥2 (7.23)
k=2 k=1

7.4.2 Second Product Expansion

n �
� �
(−1)k−1 1 − (−1)n
1+ =1+ , n≥1 (7.24)
k=1
k 2n

n �
� �
(−1)k 1 1 − (−1)n
1− = + , n≥2 (7.25)
k=2
k 2 4n

∞ �
� �
(−1)k−1
1+ =1 (7.26)
k=1
k

44
7.4.3 Third Product Expansion

n �
� �
(−1)k 1 + (−1)n
1+ =1+ , n≥2 (7.27)
k=2
k 2n

7.5 Three Product Functions

7.5.1 First Product Function

n
� 2n
� n
�
i
(1 + x )(1 − x 2i−1
= (1 − x ) = j
(1 − xj+n ) (7.28)
i=1 j=n+1 j=1

7.5.2 Second Product Function

n
� 2n
�
(1 − x2i )(1 − x2i−1 ) = (1 − xj ) (7.29)
i=1 j=1

7.5.3 Third Product Function

n
� n
�
(1 + x2i )(1 + x2i−1 ) = (1 + xj ) (7.30)
i=1 j=1

�n k �n k
7.6 The Product Functions k=0 x
a
and a
k=0 (1 + x )
Remark 7.7 In Section 7.6, we assume a is any nonzero real number, except 1. Also, we may
assume that x is any nonzero complex number for which the products and resulting functions are
defined.
n
� k an+1 −1
xa = x a−1 (7.31)
k=0
n
� � � � �
1 x 1
1+ = 1− (7.32)
k=0
x2 k x−1 x2n+1
n �
� � n+1
2k
x2 −1
1+x = (7.33)
k=0
x−1

45
 ��
n−1 � 1 − x2
n
2k
1+x = (7.34)
k=0
1−x

n
� k
� k
� n+1
x2 x2 − 1 = x2 − x2 , n≥1 (7.35)
k=1

�n � �
1 1 1 1
2 k 1 − 2 k = 2
− 2n+1
, n≥1 (7.36)
k=1
x x x x

�∞ � �
1 1 1
2 k 1 − 2k = 2 , |x| ≥ 1 (7.37)
k=1
x x x

Remark 7.8 In the following four identities, we let x = 2.

n
� k n+1 −1
2 2 = 22 (7.38)
k=0

n �
� � � �
1 1
1 + 2k =2 1− (7.39)
k=0
2 22n+1

n �
� �
k n+1
1 + 22 = 22 −1 (7.40)
k=0

∞ �
� �
1
1 + 2k =2 (7.41)
k=0
2

7.6.1 Product Identities Involving Geometric Series

n −1
n r−1
� � r� n
ir k−1
1 − xr
x = j
x = , n, r ≥ 1, x �= 1 (7.42)
k=1 i=0 j=0
1−x

n �
� � n
3k−1 1 − x3
1+x +x 2∗3k−1
= , n ≥ 1, x �= 1 (7.43)
k=1
1−x

46
8 Relationships Between Finite Series and Finite Products
8.1 Series as a Product
n n
� �
� � f (k)
f (k) = f (1) 1 + �k−1 , n≥2 (8.1)
k=1 k=2 i=1 f (i)

8.1.1 Applications of Series as Product Formula

�n �n � �
1 1 1
k−1
= 1+ k = 2 − n−1 (8.2)
k=1
2 k=2
2 −2 2

∞ �
� �
1
1+ k =2 (8.3)
k=2
2 −2

n
� n �
� �
1 1 2n
2 = 1+ 2 = (8.4)
k=1
k(k + 1) k=2 k −1 n+1

∞ �
� �
1
1+ 2 =2 (8.5)
k=2
k −1

n
� n � �
1 1� 4(k + 1) 1 n(3n + 5)
= 1+ = (8.6)
k=1
k(k + 2) 3 k=2 (k − 1)(k + 2)(3k + 2) 4 (n + 1)(n + 2)

∞ �
� �
4(k + 1) 9
1+ = (8.7)
k=2
(k − 1)(k + 2)(3k + 2) 4

n
� n �
� �
k k 2
2 = 1+ =2− (8.8)
k=1
(k + 1)! k=2 (k + 1)! − k − 1 (n + 1)!

∞ �
� �
k
1+ =2 (8.9)
k=2
(k + 1)! − k − 1

47
 n
� n � �
k(k + 2) 3� k(k + 2) 1
2 2
= 1+ 2 2
=1− (8.10)
k=1
(k + 1) (k!) 4 k=2 (k + 1) ((k!) − 1) ((n + 1)!)2

∞ �
� �
k(k + 2) 4
1+ = (8.11)
k=2
(k + 1)2 ((k!)2 − 1) 3

8.2 Product as a Series

n
� n
� k−1
�
(1 + f (k)) = 1 + f (1) + f (k) (1 + f (i)) (8.12)
k=1 k=2 i=1

8.2.1 Applications of Product as Series Formula

Remark 8.1 In the following five identities, we assume r and n are positive integers.
n �
� � � �
k+r−1 1 1 n+r 1
= − (8.13)
k=1
r k r r r

n � �
1 � k+r−1 1 1
lim n−1 = (8.14)
r→∞ r r k n!
k=1

n � � �n+r�
� k+r 1 −1
= r
(8.15)
k=1
k k + r r

n � �
1 � k+r 1 1
lim n−1 = (8.16)
r→∞ r r k+r n!
k=1

�n+r� n
−1 � 1
lim r
= (8.17)
r→0 r k=1
k

Remark 8.2 In the following two identities, we assume 00 = 1.

n
� (1 + k)k − k k (n + 1)n
= (8.18)
k=0
k! n!

� n
� n1
� (1 + k)k − k k
lim =e (8.19)
n→∞
k=0
k!

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8.3 Schlomilch Series to Product Identity
n n−1 �k+1
� u0 � ui
i=0
ui = �k (8.20)
i=0
1 k=0 i=0 ui

8.4 Schlomilch Product to Series Identity

n
�
vj = v0 + v0 (v1 − 1) + v0 v1 (v2 − 1) + ... + v0 v1 v2 ...vn−1 (vn − 1) (8.21)
j=0

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