Preacceleration without radiation: The nonexistence of preradiation

phenomenon
Josè A. Herasa兲
Departamento de Física, E. S. F. M., Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México D. F., México and
Department of Physics and Astronomy, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803-4001
共Received 30 January 2006; accepted 8 June 2006兲
An unexpected prediction of classical electrodynamics is that a charge can accelerate before a force
is applied. We would expect that a preaccelerated charge would radiate so that there would be
spontaneous preradiation, an acausal phenomenon. We reexamine the subtle relation between the
Larmor formula for the power radiated by a point charge and the Abraham-Lorentz equation and
find that for well-behaved external forces acting for finite times, the charge does not radiate in time
intervals where there is preacceleration. That is, for these forces preradiation does not exist even
though the charge is preaccelerated. The radiative energy is emitted only in time intervals when the
external force acts on the charge. © 2006 American Association of Physics Teachers.
关DOI: 10.1119/1.2221342兴

I. INTRODUCTION expected to be an observable quantity. But how can radiation

A universally accepted idea is that an accelerated charge
radiates. However, Abbott and Griffiths1 have found some
extended configurations with sinusoidal currents that do not
radiate for certain special frequencies for which the external
fields are exactly zero. They refer to other work in which
similar configurations involving acceleration without radia-
tion have been discussed.1 The fact that acceleration without
radiation occurs when the external fields are exactly zero
cannot be considered a fortuitous result attributable to ex-
tended configurations. We would expect that a point charge
and an extended charge would radiate only when an external
force acts on them. To understand why acceleration without
radiation is possible we should also consider the radiation
reaction force because the emission of radiation is generally
accompanied by a radiation reaction, a recoil force attribut-
able to the fields acting back on the charge.
For a point charge e of mass m acceleration without radia-
tion when the external force vanishes is not supported by the
Larmor formula for the instantaneous power radiated:
P = m␶a2 ,
where ␶ = 2e2 / 共3mc3兲. The Abraham-Lorentz 共AL兲 equation
of motion includes the radiation reaction force:
ma = F + m␶ȧ,
where F共t兲 is an external force and a dot means time differ-
entiation. Equation 共2兲 states that the charge can accelerate
even when F vanishes and it should radiate because of Eq.
共1兲.
It is generally believed that radiation without the interven-
be detected when we have still not acted on the charge? No
direct or indirect experimental evidence of acausal preradia-
tion has been reported. The existence of preradiation could
be questioned because we can have acceleration without ra-
diation when the external fields are zero.1
In this paper we reexamine the subtle relation between
Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲 and find that for well-behaved external
forces acting for finite times, the charge does not radiate in
time intervals where there is preacceleration. That is, for
these forces preradiation does not exist even though the
charge is preaccelerated. The radiative energy is emitted only
in time intervals when the external force acts on the charge.
II. THE PRERADIATION PHENOMENON
We review examples of preradiation for the following ex-
ternal forces: 共a兲 Dirac delta force; 共b兲 a well-behaved force
acting for a finite time; 共c兲 a periodic force, and 共d兲 a con-
stant force acting for a finite time. Examples 共a兲 and 共d兲 are
problems in Griffith’s textbook4–7 and examples 共c兲 and 共d兲
共1兲 are special cases of example 共b兲.
A. The Dirac delta force
共2兲
Preradiation can be illustrated by an example due to Dirac2
in which a charge is disturbed by a momentary pulse repre-
sented by a delta function acting only at t = 0:5
F共t兲 = k␦共t兲, 共3兲
where k ⬎ 0. The nonrunaway solution of Eq. 共2兲 for this
force is given by:5

再
tion of an external force occurs in the preacceleration
effect.2–4 To avoid runaway solutions in Eq. 共2兲 we can as- ket/␶/共m␶兲 共t ⬍ 0兲
sume that a共⬁兲 = 0,3 but Eq. 共2兲 predicts preacceleration: the a共t兲 = 共4兲
charge accelerates before the force acts on it. The charge 0 共t ⬎ 0兲.
should then radiate because of Eq. 共1兲. Therefore, Eqs. 共1兲 The total radiated energy in the interval 共t1 , t2兲 is calculated
and 共2兲 predict the existence of preradiation: the charge ra- using the formula

冕
diates before the external force acts on it.
t2
Although it is difficult to understand how acausal preac-
celerations can exist in the context of a classical theory, it is WR共t1,t2兲 = m␶ a2dt. 共5兲
t1
even more challenging to understand how spontaneous pre-
radiation can occur. Radiation in classical electrodynamics is For the force in Eq. 共3兲 the total radiated energy is given by:5

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 k2 Eq. 共10兲, which represents another example of preradiation.
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = WR共− ⬁ ,0兲 = , 共6兲
2m C. Periodic force
which is radiated only during the preacceleration interval As a special case of Eq. 共7兲 we consider the periodic force
共− ⬁ , 0兲. Equation 共6兲 is an example of pure preradiation. acting for n cycles:

冦
0 共t 艋 0兲
B. Well-behaved external force F共t兲 = k sin共␻t兲 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共11兲
Preradiation seems to exist for a more realistic external 0 共t 艌 T兲,
force beginning at t = 0 and lasting until t = T,
where T = 2n␲ / ␻. In this case Eq. 共9兲 takes the form

冦
0 共t 艋 0兲
ke−t/␶
F共t兲 = f共t兲 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共7兲 g共t兲 = − 关␻␶ cos共␻t兲 + sin共␻t兲兴. 共12兲
m共1 + ␻2␶2兲
0 t 艌 T,
The nonrunaway solution of Eq. 共2兲 when the external force
where f共t兲 is a well-behaved function of time. We note that is specified by Eq. 共11兲 can be obtained from Eqs. 共8兲 and
Eq. 共7兲 represents a family of forces. By assuming the con- 共12兲:

冦
dition a共⬁兲 = 0, we can obtain the nonrunaway solution of
␣关et/␶ − e共t−T兲/␶兴 共t 艋 0兲
Eq. 共2兲 for the force in Eq. 共7兲:
a共t兲 = ␣关sin共␻t兲/␻␶ + cos共␻t兲 − e共t−T兲/␶兴 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲

冦
关g共T兲 − g共0兲兴et/␶ 共t 艋 0兲
0 共t 艌 T兲,
a共t兲 = 关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴et/␶ 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共8兲
共13兲
0 共t 艌 T兲
where ␣ = k␻␶ / 共m关1 + ␻2␶2兴兲. From Eqs. 共5兲 and 共13兲 or from
where the function g共t兲 is given by Eqs. 共10兲 and 共12兲 we can obtain the total radiated energy:

g共t兲 =
1
m␶
冕 e−t/␶f共t兲dt. 共9兲 WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 =
m ␶ 2␣ 2
2
共1 − e−T/␶兲2 +
m ␶ 2␣ 2
2
1+
T
␶
冉
The total radiated energy WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 is obtained by adding
the contributions in the intervals 共− ⬁ , 0兲 and 共0 , T兲. Note +
T
␶ 3␻ 2
− e−2T/␶ , 冊 共14兲
that WR共T , ⬁ 兲 = 0. From Eqs. 共5兲 and 共8兲 we obtain

冕
where the first term on the right-hand side is the preradiative
m␶2 T
energy emitted during the interval 共− ⬁ , 0兲 and the second
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = 关g共T兲 − g共0兲兴2 + m␶ 关g共T兲
2 0 term is the energy radiated in the interval 共0 , T兲. After a
simple calculation, Eq. 共14兲 becomes
− g共t兲兴2e2t/␶dt.
冉 冊
共10兲
m ␶ 2␣ 2 T T
The first term in Eq. 共10兲 is the energy radiated in the inter- WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = 2 + + 3 2 − 2e−T/␶ . 共15兲
val 共− ⬁ , 0兲 and the second term is the energy radiated in the
2 ␶ ␶␻
interval 共0 , T兲. The external force does not act in 共− ⬁ , 0兲, but To verify that the energy is conserved in the interval
in this interval the charge is preaccelerated 关see Eq. 共8兲兴, 共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 we first need to find the velocities associated with
yielding the radiative energy appearing in the first term of Eq. 共13兲. By assuming v共− ⬁ 兲 = 0 we find

冦
␣␶共et/␶ − e共t−T兲/␶兲 共t 艋 0兲
v共t兲 = ␣关␻␶ sin共␻t兲 − cos共␻t兲 − ␻2␶2e共t−T兲/␶ + ␻2␶2 + 1兴/␻2␶ 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共16兲
0 共t 艌 T兲.

The work done by the periodic external force 共11兲 is

=
m ␶ 2␣ 2
冉 T
␶ ␶␻
T
2 + + 3 2 − 2e−T/␶ . 冊 共17c兲

冕 T 2
Wext = F共t兲v共t兲dt 共17a兲
0
Equation 共17c兲 shows that the energy is conserved in the

冕
interval 共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲: the work done by the external force is
T
k sin共␻t兲␣
= 共␻␶ sin共␻t兲 − cos共␻t兲 equal to the change of kinetic energy 关in this case it is zero
␻ 2␶
0 because v共± ⬁ 兲 = 0兴 plus the radiated energy which is given
− ␻2␶2e共t−T兲/␶ + ␻2␶2 + 1兲dt 共17b兲 by Eq. 共15兲.

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D. Constant external force III. THE NONEXISTENCE OF PRERADIATION
PHENOMENON
As another special case of Eq. 共7兲, consider the constant
force beginning at t = 0 and lasting until t = T:6 In Sec. II we presented several examples of acausal prera-

冦
diative terms. However, acausal terms are physically unac-
0 共t ⬍ 0兲
ceptable in purely classical considerations. The consistency
F= k 共0 ⬍ t ⬍ T兲 共18兲 of classical electrodynamics demands that acausal terms
0 共t ⬎ T兲. should not contribute to observable quantities.8 Therefore,
acausal preradiative terms should be naturally and systemati-
This force is not continuous at t = 0 and t = T, but its accel- cally eliminated from the total radiative energy.
eration is continuous at these times.6 For this case Eq. 共9兲 We note in particular that the second term in Eq. 共21兲 can
becomes be written as
k k 2␶ 2 k 2␶
g共t兲 = − e−t/␶ . 共19兲 共− 3 + 2T/␶ + 4e−T/␶ − e−2T/␶兲 = 共T − ␶ + ␶e−T/␶兲
m 2m m

The corresponding nonrunaway solution of Eq. 共2兲 can be k 2␶ 2

− 共1 − e−T/␶兲2 . 共25兲
obtained from Eqs. 共8兲 and 共19兲:6 2m

冦
k共et/␶ − e共t−T兲/␶兲/m 共t 艋 0兲 The last term of Eq. 共25兲 exactly cancels the first 共preradia-
共t−T兲/␶ tive兲 term: k2␶2共1 − e−T/␶兲2 / 共2m兲 of Eq. 共21兲 so that Eqs. 共21兲
a共t兲 = k共1 − e 兲/m 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共20兲
and 共25兲 imply Eq. 共22兲 for the total radiated energy. A simi-
0 共t 艌 T兲. lar cancellation of the preradiative term in Eq. 共14兲 occurs,
that is, the second term of Eq. 共14兲 contains a part that ex-
The energy radiated can be calculated with Eqs. 共5兲 and 共20兲 actly cancels its first 共preradiative兲 term so that the total en-
or with Eqs. 共10兲 and 共19兲: ergy radiated is given by Eq. 共15兲. Equation 共25兲 seems to be
k 2␶ 2 k 2␶ 2 the result of an integration by parts. Thus, let us consider an
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = 共1 − e−T/␶兲2 + 共− 3 + 2T/␶ integration by parts for the general case given by Eq. 共10兲.
2m 2m After integration by parts, we see that the second term in
+ 4e−T/␶ − e−2T/␶兲. 共21兲 Eq. 共10兲,

The first term on the right-hand side is the preradiative en-

ergy emitted during the interval 共− ⬁ , 0兲 and the second term
m␶ 冕0
T
关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴2e2t/␶dt = ␶ 冕 0
T
关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴et/␶ · f共t兲dt
is the radiated energy during the interval 共0 , T兲. After a
simple calculation, Eq. 共21兲 becomes7 m␶2
− 关g共T兲 − g共0兲兴2 , 共26兲
2
k 2␶
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = 共T − ␶ + ␶e−T/␶兲. 共22兲 contains a part that exactly cancels its first 共preradiative兲
m
term, so that Eqs. 共10兲 and 共26兲 give the effective radiated
The integration of Eq. 共20兲 and the condition v共− ⬁ 兲 = 0 energy
yields6
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = ␶ 冕 T
关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴et/␶ · f共t兲dt. 共27兲

冦
k␶共et/␶ − e共t−T兲/␶兲/m 共t 艋 0兲 0

v共t兲 = k共t + ␶ − ␶e共t−T兲/␶兲/m 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共23兲 We can verify Eq. 共27兲 for the force in Eq. 共11兲. If we use
kT/m 共t 艌 T兲. Eqs. 共11兲 and 共12兲 in Eq. 共27兲, we obtain the result given in
Eq. 共15兲:

冕 冋
The work done by the external force is then given by7 T
sin共␻t兲
Wext = 冕 T
kv共t兲dt 共24a兲
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = ␶
0
␣
␻␶
+ cos共␻t兲

册
− e共t−T兲/␶ k sin共␻t兲dt 共28a兲

冕 T
k 2
共t + ␶ − ␶e共t−T兲/␶兲dt 共24b兲
冋 册
=
0 m m ␶ 2␣ 2 T T
= 2 + + 3 2 − 2e−T/␶ . 共28b兲
2 ␶ ␶␻
kT k␶
2 2 2
= + 共T − ␶ + ␶e−T/␶兲. 共24c兲 Equations 共10兲 and 共27兲 represent the same energy, but the
2m m trouble with Eq. 共10兲 is that it explicitly exhibits a mislead-
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 共24c兲 is the final ing time separation of energy in the interval of preaccelera-
kinetic energy 共the initial kinetic energy is assumed to be tion 共− ⬁ , 0兲 and the interval 共0 , T兲, although Eq. 共27兲 shows
zero兲 and the second term is the total radiated energy. There- that the energy is radiated only during 共0 , T兲, which is the
fore Eq. 共24c兲 shows that the energy is conserved, that is, the interval when the force acts. We conclude that there is no
work done by the external force is equal to the change of effective energy radiated during 共− ⬁ , 0兲, which is the inter-
kinetic energy plus the total radiated energy. val when there is preacceleration. In other words: there does

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not exist preradiation for the family of external forces speci- dTR
fied by Eq. 共7兲, even though the charge is preaccelerated. P = ␶a · F + . 共32兲
dt
Rohrlich9 has emphasized that there are many equations
that have multiple solutions some of which are not realized The integration of Eq. 共32兲 over the interval 共t1 , t2兲 gives the
in nature, and we should distinguish between the existence of energy radiated during that interval:
a mathematical solution and its physical existence. For in-
stance, the AL equation has two solutions: a = 0 and a共t兲
= a共0兲et/␶, but only the former is physically possible. Ad-
vanced solutions of Maxwell’s equations violating the cau-
WR共t1,t2兲 = ␶ 冕 t1
t2
a · Fdt + ⌬TR共t1,t2兲, 共33兲

sality principle are another example of solutions that are not
physical. Analogously, acausal preaccelerations 共of well-
behaved external forces兲 exist mathematically 共as an impli-
cation of the AL equation兲, but not physically because they
do not originate radiation.
IV. PRERADIATION AND THE KINETIC-
RADIATIVE ENERGY
We note that the preradiative term in Eq. 共10兲 effectively
depends on the value of the acceleration at t = 0:
m␶2 m␶2关a共0兲兴2
WR共− ⬁ ,0兲 = 关g共T兲 − g共0兲兴2 = . 共29兲
2 2
It follows that from a formal point of view the elimination of
preradiation implied by Eqs. 共10兲 and 共26兲 occurs at t = 0. To
find the general dependence of the preradiative energies on
the values of the acceleration, we separate the interval of
preacceleration 共− ⬁ , 0兲 into the intervals 共− ⬁ , −t0兲 and
共−t0 , 0兲. After a simple calculation, we find WR共− ⬁ , −t0兲
= m␶2关a共−t0兲兴2 / 2 and WR共−t0 , 0兲 = m␶2共关a共0兲兴2 − 关a共−t0兲兴2兲 / 2.
The latter term depends on the value of the acceleration at
the initial and final times of the interval 共−t0 , 0兲. But the time
−t0 is arbitrary and thus we have here a first lesson on pre-
radiation: the energy emitted during the interval of preaccel-
eration depends on the initial and final values of the accel-
eration in that interval.
Equations 共15兲 and 共22兲 are examples of energy radiated
by a charge during the interval 共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲. To calculate these
energies we have essentially combined Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲, as-
sumed the condition a共⬁兲 = 0, and integrated from t = −⬁ to
where ⌬TR共t1 , t2兲 = TR共t2兲 − TR共t1兲. If the force vanishes in the
interval 共t1 , t2兲, then
WR共t1,t2兲 = ⌬TR共t1,t2兲, 共34兲
according to which the radiated energy in 共t1 , t2兲 is given by
the change of the kinetic-radiative energy in that interval. In
particular, preradiation occurs when the external force is zero
and therefore the preradiative terms satisfy Eq. 共34兲. We have
here a second lesson on preradiation which makes more pre-
cise the first lesson: the energy emitted in the interval of
preacceleration 共t1 , t2兲 is given by the change of the kinetic-
radiative energy in that interval.
A well-behaved force subject only to the condition that it
is switched on in the distant past and switched off in the
distant future, that is, f共± ⬁ 兲 = 0, is physically realizable. In
solving Eq. 共2兲 for the force in Eq. 共7兲 we imposed the
condition3 a共⬁兲 = 0 to obtain the nonrunaway solution 共8兲,
which implies the condition a共− ⬁ 兲 = 0. In other words, the
nonrunaway solutions of Eq. 共2兲 for the well-behaved forces
in Eq. 共7兲 satisfy the boundary conditions a共± ⬁ 兲 = 0,10 which
indicates that the charge begins and ends the motion as a free
particle11 and implies ⌬TR共± ⬁ 兲 = 0. We have a third lesson
on preradiation: the nonrunaway solutions of the AL equa-
tion for well-behaved external forces satisfy ⌬TR共± ⬁ 兲 = 0
and therefore the associated preradiative energy vanishes.
On the other hand, if the solution of Eq. 共2兲 in the interval
共t1 , t2兲 is such that it vanishes at t = t1 and t = t2 then
⌬TR共t1 , t2兲 = 0 and Eq. 共31兲 reduces to
WR共t1,t2兲 = ␶ 冕 t1
t2
a · Fdt, 共35兲

t = ⬁. The justification for the combination of Eqs. 共1兲 and 共2兲 which causally links the radiated energy with the external
is that the emission of radiation is generally accompanied by force in such a way that the energy is radiated only in the
a radiation reaction. The justification for the assumption interval when the force acts. From Eqs. 共5兲 and 共33兲 we
a共⬁兲 = 0 is that it implies nonrunaway solutions. The justifi- obtain
cation for the integration over all time is that radiation is a
process that occurs during a time interval rather than at one
time.
To generalize the method used to obtain Eqs. 共15兲 and
m␶ 冕t1
t2
a2dt = ␶ 冕 t2

t1
a · Fdt + ⌬TR共t1,t2兲, 共36兲

共22兲, we identify the acceleration in Eq. 共1兲 with that appear-

ing in Eq. 共2兲 and obtain which shows that the subtle difference between Eqs. 共5兲 and
共35兲 is that the latter equation implicitly assumes
P = ␶a · F +
dt
冉 冊
d m ␶ 2a 2
2
. 共30兲
⌬TR共t1 , t2兲 = 0.
Let us now apply Eq. 共35兲 to the family of forces specified
by Eq. 共7兲. The associated nonrunaway solution satisfies
In analogy to the kinetic energy T = mv2 / 2, we define the ⌬TR共± ⬁ 兲 = 0. If Eqs. 共7兲 and 共8兲 are used in Eq. 共35兲 with
kinetic-radiative energy as t1 = −⬁ and t2 = ⬁, we obtain the result in Eq. 共27兲:

TR =
m ␶ 2a 2
2
. 共31兲 WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = WR共0,T兲 = ␶ 冕 0
T
关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴et/␶ · f共t兲dt.

Therefore 共37兲

1028 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 11, November 2006 José A. Heras 1028

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V. ENERGY CONSERVATION Eq. 共27兲 and more generally Eq. 共33兲 apply to continuously
differentiable forces.
To verify that the energy is conserved in the time interval
共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 if the external force is given by Eq. 共7兲, we need to
find the velocities associated with Eq. 共8兲. By assuming VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS
v共− ⬁ 兲 = 0, we find
Preaccelerations are commonly ignored by appealing to

冦
␶关g共T兲 − g共0兲兴et/␶ 共t 艋 0兲 the argument that for electrons they occur in times so small
v共t兲 = V共t兲 − V共0兲 + ␶关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴et/␶ 共0 艋 t 艋 T兲 共of order ␶ = 6.24⫻ 10−24 s兲 that they would be practically
unobservable. Preaccelerations have also been connected
V共T兲 − V共0兲 共t 艌 T兲, with the point charge model assumed in the derivation of the
共38兲 AL equation so that the classical electrodynamics of a point
charge seems to be a questionable theory.12 The idea of aban-
where V共t兲 is the velocity of the charge when the radiation doning the point charge model to avoid preacceleration has
reaction is not considered. The work done by the external been successfully developed by several authors.12,13 Here we
force 共7兲 is then given by have demonstrated that for well-behaved external forces act-

Wext = 冕 ⬁

−⬁
f共t兲 · v共t兲dt = 冕0
T
f共t兲 · v共t兲dt 共39a兲
ing over finite times, a preaccelerated point charge does not
have radiative effects, which is consistent with the idea that
preacceleration exists mathematically but not physically. Pre-
radiation is eliminated because the nonrunaway solutions of
=
m共v共T兲兲2
2
+␶ 冕
0
T
f共t兲 · 关g共T兲 − g共t兲兴et/␶dt. 共39b兲
the AL equation for well-behaved external forces satisfy
⌬TR共± ⬁ 兲 = 0, where TR = m␶2a2 / 2 is the kinetic-radiative en-
ergy. The radiative energy is emitted only in time intervals
The first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 共39b兲 is the final when the external force acts on the charge.
kinetic energy 共the initial is assumed to be zero兲 and the
second term is the total radiated energy given by Eq. 共37兲.
Equation 共39b兲 indicates that the energy is conserved in the ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
interval 共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲, that is, the work done by the external force
equals the change of kinetic energy plus the total radiated The author thanks Professor R. F. O’Connell for useful
energy. It follows that energy conservation in Eq. 共39b兲 sup- discussions. He also thanks the Department of Physics and
ports the conclusion that the energy is radiated only during Astronomy of the Louisiana State University for its hospital-
the interval when the force acts. Applications of Eq. 共39b兲 ity.
are given by Eqs. 共17c兲 and 共24c兲.
a兲
Electronic mail: heras@phys.lsu.edu
1
T. A. Abbott and D. J. Griffiths, “Acceleration without radiation,” Am. J.
Phys. 53, 1203–1211 共1985兲.
VI. DISCONTINUOUS FORCES 2
P. A. M. Dirac, “Classical theory of radiating electrons,” Proc. R. Soc.
London, Ser. A 167, 148–169 共1938兲.
We have successfully applied Eq. 共27兲 to the force 共7兲 3
G. N. Plass, “Classical electrodynamic equation of motion with radiative
which is not differentiable at t = 0 and t = T. We can also reaction,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 33, 37–61 共1961兲.
4
apply Eq. 共27兲 to the force 共18兲 which is not continuous at D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics 共Prentice Hall, Engle-
wood, NJ, 1999兲, 3rd ed., Sec. 11.2.2.
t = 0 and t = T. If we use Eqs. 共18兲 and 共20兲 in Eq. 共27兲 and 5
Reference 4, Problem 11.28.
integrate from ␧ to T − ␧, we have 6
Reference 4, Problem 11.19.

冕
7
T−␧
k 2␶ k 2␶ Reference 4, Problem 11.27.
共1 − e共t−T兲/␶兲dt =
8
WR共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲 = 共− 2␧ + T There is another example of an acausal term in electrodynamics. The
␧ m m Coulomb-gauge scalar potential ⌽C and hence its gradient −ⵜ⌽C propa-
gate instantaneously, which violates causality. However, the second term
+ ␶e␧−T/␶ − ␶e−␧/␶兲. 共40兲 of the electric field E = −ⵜ⌽C − 共1 / c兲 ⳵ AC / ⳵t contains ⵜ⌽C, which ex-
actly cancels the acausal term −ⵜ⌽C, so that the field E, is given by its
After taking the limit ␧ → 0, we obtain the result given in Eq. usual retarded expression. See, for example, J. D. Jackson, “From Lorenz
共22兲.7 to Coulomb and other explicit gauge transformations,” Am. J. Phys. 70,
We should not apply directly Eq. 共27兲 to the delta function 917–928 共2002兲; J. A. Heras, “Comment on ‘Causality, the Coulomb
force in Eq. 共3兲 because in this case the associated accelera- field, and Newton’s law of gravitation,’ F. Rohrlich 关Am. J. Phys. 70,
411–414 共2002兲兴,” ibid. 71, 729–730 共2003兲; “Instantaneous fields in
tion is not continuous at t = 0. In this case we can apply Eq.
classical electrodynamics,” Europhys. Lett. 69, 1–7 共2005兲.
共34兲 with t1 = −⬁ to t2 = −␧. The result is 9
F. Rohrlich, “Time in classical electrodynamics,” Am. J. Phys. 74, 313–
k2 −2␧/␶ 315 共2006兲.
WR共− ⬁ ,− ␧兲 = e , 共41兲 10
The conditions a共± ⬁ 兲 = 0 are sufficient to guarantee the vanishing of the
2m change of the Schott energy 共Es = m␶v · a兲 during the time interval
共− ⬁ , ⬁ 兲, that is, ⌬ES = Es共⬁兲 − Es共− ⬁ 兲 = 0. See J. A. Heras and R. F.
which represents apparent preradiation. However, we ob- O’Connell, “Generalization of the Schott energy in electrodynamic radia-
serve that WR in Eq. 共41兲 can be considered as an effective tion theory,” Am. J. Phys. 74, 150–153 共2006兲. We note that energy
function of ␧. Therefore we can write WR = Weff共␧兲 conservation requires ⌬ES = 0 to infer the radiative force m␶ȧ. See J. D.
= k2e−2␧/␶ / 共2m兲. In the limit ␧ → 0, we obtain Weff共0兲 Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics 共Wiley, New York, 1999兲, 3rd ed., p.
749. However, Ford and O’Connell have obtained Eq. 共2兲 without using
= k2 / 共2m兲, that is, Eq. 共6兲. Thus the energy is radiated at t the condition ⌬ES = 0. See G. W. Ford and R. F. O’Connell, “Radiation
= 0, the only time at which the delta function force acts and reaction in electrodynamics and the elimination of runaway solutions,”
hence preradiation is also eliminated in this case. Of course, Phys. Lett. A 157, 217–220 共1991兲.

1029 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 11, November 2006 José A. Heras 1029

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11
The condition in the distant future a共⬁兲 = 0 in Eq. 共2兲 fixes the condition
in the distant past a共− ⬁ 兲 = 0 if well-behaved external forces, f共± ⬁ 兲 = 0,
12
are considered. If instead, we consider these same forces and assume
a共− ⬁ 兲 = 0, then the solution of Eq. 共2兲 in the distant future becomes
infinite, a共⬁兲 = ⬁. In this sense the physics of the AL equation is consis- 13
tent with the idea that the future determines the past. We note also that
1030 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 11, November 2006
Downloaded 26 Nov 2012 to 132.248.9.8. Redistribution subject to AAPT license or copyright; see http://ajp.aapt.org/authors/copyright_permission
f共± ⬁ 兲 = 0 and a共± ⬁ 兲 = 0 are sufficient conditions to guarantee the vanish-
ing of the radiation reaction force m␶ȧ at t = ± ⬁.
R. F. O’Connell, “The equation of motion of an electron,” Phys. Lett. A
313, 491–497 共2003兲.
See the recent review of A. D. Yaghjian, “Relativistic dynamics of a
charged sphere 共Springer, New York, 2006兲, 2nd ed.
José A. Heras 1030