How the potentials in different gauges yield the same retarded electric

and magnetic fields

José A. Herasa兲
Departamento de Física, E. S. F. M., Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México D. F. México
and Department of Physics and Astronomy, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803-4001
共Received 19 May 2006; accepted 27 October 2006兲
This paper presents a simple and systematic method for showing how the potentials in the Lorentz,
Coulomb, Kirchhoff, velocity, and temporal gauges yield the same retarded electric and magnetic
fields. The method uses the appropriate dynamical equations for the scalar and vector potentials to
obtain two wave equations whose retarded solutions lead to the electric and magnetic fields. The
advantage of this method is that it does not use explicit expressions for the potentials in the various
gauges, which are generally simple to obtain for the scalar potential but difficult to calculate for the
vector potential. The spurious character of the term generated by the scalar potential in the
Coulomb, Kirchhoff, and velocity gauges is noted. The nonspurious character of the term generated
by the scalar potential in the Lorenz gauge is emphasized. © 2007 American Association of Physics Teachers.
关DOI: 10.1119/1.2400238兴

I. INTRODUCTION rediscovered9 the Kirchhoff gauge10 in which the scalar po-

As is well known, the advantage of the Coulomb gauge is
that the scalar potential in this gauge is simple to obtain, but
the disadvantage is that the vector potential in this gauge is
difficult to calculate. This characteristic of the Coulomb
gauge is why the explicit demonstration that the potentials in
this gauge yield the retarded electric and magnetic fields is
not usually presented in textbooks. Some textbooks1,2 men-
tion a paper by Brill and Goodman3 in which an elaborate
proof that the potentials in the Coulomb and Lorenz gauges
yield the same retarded electric and magnetic fields is pre-
sented; this proof is restricted to sources with harmonic time
dependence.
It is conceptually important to emphasize the fact that the
causal behavior of the retarded electric and magnetic fields is
not lost when they are expressed in terms of potentials in the
Coulomb gauge, despite the result that the scalar potential in
this gauge propagates instantaneously, which suggests a lost
of causality in the electric field. Proofs that the potentials in
other gauges such as the temporal or velocity gauges yield
the retarded electric and magnetic fields are omitted in text-
books. This omission is reasonable because these gauges are
not usually mentioned in textbooks of electrodynamics. The
velocity gauge is one in which the scalar potential propagates
with an arbitrary velocity and the temporal gauge is one in
which the scalar potential is identically zero.
In a recent paper Jackson and Okun4 reviewed the history
that led to the conclusion that potentials in different gauges
describe the same physical fields. In a subsequent paper,
Jackson5 derived novel expressions for the vector potential in
the Coulomb, velocity, and temporal gauges and demon-
strated how these expressions for the vector potential to-
gether with the associated expressions for the scalar potential
lead to the same retarded electric and magnetic fields. Jack-
son emphasized that “…whatever propagation or nonpropa-
gation characteristics are exhibited by the potentials in a par-
ticular gauge, the electric and magnetic fields are always the
same and display the experimentally verified properties of
causality and propagation at the speed of light.”5 Rohrlich
recently discussed causality in the Coulomb gauge.6 The
present author has used two methods7,8 to show that the Cou-
lomb gauge potentials yield the retarded electric field and
tential “propagates” with the imaginary speed ic, where c is
the speed of light. In a recent paper, Yang11 discussed the
velocity gauge.12
To show that potentials in different gauges yield the same
retarded fields, we usually first derive explicit expressions
for the scalar and vector potentials in a particular gauge. The
retarded fields are then obtained by differentiation of the ex-
pressions for the potentials. The practical difficulty of this
approach is that the derivation of explicit expressions for
potentials in most gauges is not simple, particularly for the
vector potential. The question arises: Is it necessary to have
explicit expressions for the potentials in a particular gauge to
show that they lead to the retarded electric and magnetic
fields? The answer is negative, at least for the gauges con-
sidered in this paper.
In this paper we present a simple and systematic method
to show how the potentials in the Lorentz, Coulomb, Kirch-
hoff, velocity, and temporal gauges yield the same retarded
electric and magnetic fields. Instead of using explicit expres-
sions for the scalar and vector potentials in these gauges, we
use the appropriate dynamical equations of the potentials to
obtain two wave equations, whose retarded solutions lead to
the retarded fields.
In Sec. II we define the Lorentz, Coulomb, Kirchhoff, ve-
locity, and temporal gauges. In Sec. III we review the usual
proof that the Lorentz gauge potentials lead to the retarded
fields and use the alternative method to show how these po-
tentials yield the retarded fields. In Sec. IV we apply the
same method to the Coulomb gauge potentials. In Sec. V we
discuss the steps of the proposed method. In Sec. VI we
apply the method to the Kirchhoff gauge potentials, and in
Secs. VII and VIII we apply the method to the velocity
gauge potentials and the temporal gauge vector potential,
respectively. In Sec. IX we emphasize the spurious character
of the gradient of the scalar potential in the Coulomb, Kirch-
hoff, and velocity gauges and the nonspurious character of
the gradient of the scalar potential in the Lorenz gauge. We
suggest that the Lorenz gauge potentials may be interpreted
as physical quantities. In Sec. X we present some concluding
remarks.

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II. ELECTROMAGNETIC GAUGES 1
䊐 2⌽ L = − ␳, 共9a兲
It is well known that the electric and magnetic fields E and
⑀0
B are determined from the scalar and vector potentials ⌽ and
A according to 䊐2AL = − ␮0J. 共9b兲
⳵A The notation ⌽L and AL indicates that these potentials are in
E = − ⵱⌽ − , 共1a兲
⳵t the Lorenz gauge. An advantage of the Lorenz gauge is that
the retarded solutions of Eq. 共9兲 are well known,
B = ⵱ ⫻ A.
We use SI units and consider fields with localized sources in
共1b兲
⌽L共x,t兲 =
1
4␲⑀0
冕 1
d3x⬘ ␳共x⬘,t − R/c兲,
R
共10a兲
vacuum. The fields E and B are invariant under the gauge

冕
transformations ␮0 1
AL共x,t兲 = d3x⬘ J共x⬘,t − R/c兲, 共10b兲
⳵␹ 4␲ R
⌽⬘ = ⌽ − , 共2a兲
⳵t
where R is the magnitude of the vector R = x − x⬘ with x the
field point and x⬘ the source point. The integrals in Eq. 共10兲
A⬘ = A + ⵱␹ , 共2b兲 are over all space. An advantage of the Lorenz gauge is that
where ␹ is an arbitrary time-dependent gauge function. The it can be written in the relativistically covariant form ⳵␮A␮
inhomogeneous Maxwell equations together with Eq. 共1兲 = 0, where ⳵␮ ⬅ 共共1 / c兲 ⳵ / ⳵t , ⵱兲 and A␮ ⬅ 共⌽ / c , A兲. Greek in-
lead to the coupled equations dices run from 0 to 3; the signature of the Minkowski metric
is 共1 , −1 , −1 , −1兲 and summation on repeated indices is un-
1 ⳵ derstood. Equations 共9兲 and 共10兲 can also be written in a
ⵜ 2⌽ = − ␳ − 共⵱ · A兲, 共3a兲
⑀0 ⳵t relativistically covariant form.
Another characteristic of the Lorenz gauge is that the sca-

冉 1 ⳵⌽
冊 lar potential yields a retarded term that can be written as

冕 ⬘冉
䊐 2A = − ␮ 0J + ⵱ ⵱ · A + , 共3b兲
c2 ⳵ t 1 R̂
− ⵱⌽L共x,t兲 = d 3x ␳共x⬘,t − R/c兲
where 䊐 ⬅ ⵜ − 共1 / c 兲⳵ / ⳵t is the D’Alambertian operator
2 2 2 2 2 4␲⑀0 R2
and ␳ and J are the charge and current densities, respectively.
The arbitrariness of the gauge function ␹ in Eq. 共2兲 allows a
gauge condition to be chosen. We will consider five gauge
+
R̂ ⳵␳共x⬘,t − R/c兲
Rc ⳵ 共t − R/c兲
, 冊 共11兲
conditions,
where R̂ = R / R. This form displays the properties of causal-
1 ⳵⌽ ity and propagation at the speed of light. We anticipate that
⵱·A+ = 0, Lorenz gauge,1,2 共4兲
c2 ⳵ t the gradient of the scalar potential in the other gauges con-
sidered in this paper does not satisfy the above properties.
⵱ · A = 0, Coulomb gauge,3,5 共5兲 Given the potentials ⌽L and AL, the electric and magnetic
fields can be derived by the usual prescription

⵱·A−
1 ⳵⌽
c2 ⳵ t
= 0, Kirchhoff gauge,9 共6兲 E = − ⵱⌽L −
⳵ AL
⳵t
=−⵱
1
4␲⑀0
冉 冕 1
d 3x ⬘ 关 ␳ 兴
R
冊
⵱·A+
1 ⳵⌽
v2 ⳵ t
= 0, Velocity gauge,5,11,12 共7兲 − 冉 冕
⳵ ␮0
⳵ t 4␲
1
d3x⬘ 关J兴 ,
R
冊 共12a兲

⌽ = 0, Temporal gauge.5
We note that the velocity gauge contains the Lorenz gauge
共8兲 B = ⵱ ⫻ AL = ⵱ ⫻ 冉 冕 ␮0
4␲
1
d3x⬘ 关J兴 ,
R
冊 共12b兲

共v = c兲, the Coulomb gauge 共v = ⬁ 兲, and the Kirchhoff gauge where we have introduced the retardation symbol 关 兴 to indi-
共v = ic兲. cate that the enclosed quantity is to be evaluated at the re-
tarded time t⬘ = t − R / c.
After an integration by parts, Eq. 共12兲 becomes the usual
electric and magnetic fields
III. LORENZ GAUGE

The most popular gauge is the Lorenz gauge, which al-

lows us to uncouple Eq. 共3兲 so that the scalar and vector
E=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
, 册 共13a兲

potentials are described by symmetrical 共uncoupled兲 equa-

tions, which is a characteristic of this gauge. If we assume
the Lorenz gauge 共4兲, then Eq. 共3兲 becomes B=
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共13b兲

177 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007 José A. Heras 177

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 Equation 共13兲 can also be obtained without considering
Eq. 共10兲 by first taking the negative of the gradient of Eq.
共9a兲 and the negative of the time derivative of Eq. 共9b兲,
⌽C共x,t兲 =
1
4␲⑀0
冕 1
d3x⬘ ␳共x⬘,t兲,
R
共20a兲

− 䊐2⵱⌽L =
1
⑀0
⵱␳ , 共14a兲 AC共x,t兲 =
␮0
4␲
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冉
关J共x⬘,t − R/c兲 − cR̂␳

− 䊐2
⳵ AL
⳵t
⳵J
= ␮0 .
⳵t
共14b兲 ⫻共x⬘,t − R/c兲兴 +
c2R̂
R
冕
0
R/c
冊
d␶␳共x⬘,t − ␶兲 .

The retarded solutions of Eq. 共14兲 are given by 共20b兲

− ⵱⌽L =
1
4␲⑀0
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关− ⵱⬘␳兴,
R
共15a兲 Equation 共20a兲 is a well known instantaneous expression,
and Eq. 共20b兲 is a novel expression derived recently by
Jackson.5 By making use of Eq. 共20兲, Jackson5 obtained the
−
⳵ AL ␮0
⳵t
=
4␲
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 册
−
⳵J
⳵ t⬘
. 共15b兲
retarded electric field in the form given by Jefimenko13 and
the usual retarded form of the magnetic field in Eq. 共13b兲. A
disadvantage of the Coulomb gauge condition is that it can-
Alternatively, the curl of Eq. 共9b兲 gives not be written in a relativistically covariant form.
The scalar potential yields the instantaneous term
䊐2共⵱ ⫻ AL兲 = − ␮0⵱ ⫻ J, 共16兲
with the retarded solution − ⵱⌽C共x,t兲 =
1
冕 d 3x ⬘
R̂
␳共x⬘,t兲. 共21兲

冕
␮0 1 4␲⑀0 R2
⵱ ⫻ AL = d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴. 共17兲
4␲ R This term does not display the properties of causality and
propagation at the speed of light, and therefore its explicit
Equations 共15兲 and 共17兲 yield the usual form of the retarded presence in the expression for the retarded electric field E
electric and magnetic fields = −⵱⌽C − ⳵AC / ⳵t seems to indicate an inconsistency. We re-

E = − ⵱⌽L −
⳵ AL
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
, 册 call that an instantaneous field is in conflict with special
relativity, which states that no physical information can
propagate faster than c in vacuum.
共18a兲 To understand the role played by the acausal term −⵱⌽C
in the electric field E = −⵱⌽C − ⳵AC / ⳵t, we apply the method
B = ⵱ ⫻ AL =
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共18b兲
discussed in Sec. III and show that the potentials ⌽C and AC
lead to the fields E and B.
In the first step we symmetrize Eq. 共19a兲 with respect to
This alternative method of obtaining the electric and mag- Eq. 共19b兲 by adding the term −共1 / c2兲⳵2⌽C / ⳵t2 on both sides
netic fields, which works directly with Eq. 共9兲, does not have of Eq. 共19a兲 to obtain
any practical advantage for the Lorenz gauge compared to
the traditional method that uses Eq. 共10兲. We will see in the 1 1 ⳵ 2⌽ C
䊐 2⌽ C = − ␳− 2 2 . 共22兲
next sections that the alternative method is advantageous ⑀0 c ⳵t
when applied to potentials in other gauges.
In the second step we take the negative of the gradient of
Eq. 共22兲 and the negative of the time derivative of Eq. 共19b兲
IV. COULOMB GAUGE to obtain two equations involving third-order derivatives of
the potentials,
A less popular gauge in textbooks is the Coulomb gauge. 1 1 ⳵ 2⌽ C
In this gauge the scalar potential satisfies an instantaneous − 䊐2⵱⌽C = ⵱␳ + ⵱ 2 2 , 共23a兲
Poisson equation, which is a peculiar characteristic of this ⑀0 c ⳵t
gauge. If we assume the Coulomb gauge in Eq. 共5兲, then Eqs.
共3兲 become the coupled equations: ⳵ AC ⳵J 1 ⳵ 2⌽ C
− 䊐2 = ␮0 − ⵱ 2 2 . 共23b兲
1 ⳵t ⳵t c ⳵t
ⵜ 2⌽ C = − ␳ , 共19a兲
⑀0 In the third step we add Eqs. 共23a兲 and 共23b兲 to obtain the
wave equation

䊐 2A C = − ␮ 0J + ⵱
1 ⳵ ⌽C
c2 ⳵ t
, 共19b兲
冉
䊐2 − ⵱⌽C −
⳵ AC
⳵t
1
冊 ⳵J
= ⵱␳ + ␮0 ,
⑀0 ⳵t
共24兲

where we have used the notation ⌽C and AC to specify that with the retarded solution

冋 册
these potentials are in the Coulomb gauge. As pointed out in
Sec. I, the advantage of the Coulomb gauge is that the solu-
tion of Eq. 共19a兲 is particularly simple to obtain, but its dis-
advantage is that the solution of Eq. 共19b兲 is difficult to
−
⳵ AC
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
+ ⵱⌽C . 共25兲

calculate. Equation 共25兲 shows that the term −⳵AC / ⳵t always contains
Let us write the solutions of Eq. 共19兲 in the explicit form the instantaneous component ⵱⌽C, which cancels exactly

178 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007 José A. Heras 178

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the instantaneous part −⵱⌽C of the electric field E = −⵱⌽C
− ⳵AC / ⳵t. This well known result3 has recently been
emphasized.5,14
Equation 共25兲 has also recently been obtained by applying
another more complicated method.15 The explicit presence of
the acausal term −⵱⌽C in the electric field is irrelevant be-
cause such a term is always canceled by one of the compo-
nents ⵱⌽C of the remaining term defined by −⳵AC / ⳵t. The
field −⵱⌽C is physically undetectable and can be interpreted
as a spurious field. Hence, when Eq. 共25兲 is used in
E = −⵱⌽C − ⳵AC / ⳵t, we obtain the usual retarded form of the
electric field
For the special case of the Lorentz gauge, it is necessary
first to solve Eq. 共14兲 derived in step 2. The retarded solu-
tions of Eq. 共15兲 are used in step 3 to obtain the usual re-
tarded form of the electric field.16
VI. KIRCHHOFF GAUGE
According to Ref. 1, the first published relation between
the potentials is due to Kirchhoff10 who showed that the
Weber form of the vector potential A and its associated sca-

冋 册
lar potential ⌽ satisfy the equation 共in modern notation兲,
E = − ⵱⌽C −
⳵ AC
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
.
⵱ · A − 1 / 共c2兲 ⳵ ⌽ / ⳵t = 0, that is, Eq. 共6兲, which was originally
obtained for quasistatic potentials in which retardation is ne-
glected. Of course, the electromagnetic gauge invariance had
共26兲
not been established at that time. The present author has
In the fourth step we take the curl of Eq. 共19b兲 to obtain proposed calling Eq. 共6兲 the Kirchhoff gauge.9 In the Kirch-
the wave equation hoff gauge 共6兲, Eq. 共3兲 becomes
䊐2共⵱ ⫻ AC兲 = − ␮0⵱ ⫻ J, 共27兲
1 ⳵ 2⌽ K 1
with the retarded solution ⵜ 2⌽ K + 2 =− ␳, 共30a兲
c ⳵t
2
⑀0

⵱ ⫻ AC =
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共28兲
2 ⳵ ⌽K
䊐 2A K = − ␮ 0J + ⵱ . 共30b兲
Equation 共28兲 is the usual retarded form of the magnetic field c2 ⳵ t

B = ⵱ ⫻ AC =
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共29兲 We note that Eq. 共30a兲 is an elliptical equation, which does
not describe a real propagation. After the substitution
c2 = −共ic兲2, Eq. 共30a兲 may be written as
Note that neither the simple solution 共20a兲 of Eq. 共19a兲 nor
the complicated solution 共20b兲 of Eq. 共19b兲 was required to
show that the Coulomb gauge potentials yield the electric 1 ⳵ 2⌽ K 1
ⵜ 2⌽ K − 2 =− ␳. 共31兲
and magnetic fields. 共ic兲 ⳵ t
2
⑀0

Equation 共31兲 formally states that ⌽K propagates with the

V. THE FOUR STEPS OF THE METHOD imaginary speed ic, which emphasizes the unphysical char-
acter of ⌽K. The solutions of Eq. 共30兲 can be expressed as9
As noted in Sec. IV, the method can be defined by four

冕
steps:
1 1
共1兲 Apply one of the Lorentz, Coulomb, Kirchhoff, velocity, ⌽K共x,t兲 = d3x⬘ ␳共x⬘,t − R/共ic兲兲, 共32a兲
4␲⑀0 R
and temporal gauges to Eq. 共3兲 and symmetrize, if nec-

冉
essary, the gauged equation for the charge density with
respect to the gauged equation for the current density.
共2兲 Calculate the negative of the gradient of the gauged 共and
possibly symmetrized兲 equation for the charge density
AK共x,t兲 =
␮0
4␲
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
关J共x⬘,t − R/c兲 − cR̂␳

and the negative of the time derivative of the gauged c

equation for the current density. As a result, two equa- ⫻共x⬘,t − R/c兲兴 + R̂␳共x⬘,t − R/共ic兲兲
i

冊
tions containing third-order derivatives of potentials are
obtained: one involving the gradient of the charge den-
sity and the other involving the time derivative of the
current density.
+
c2R̂
R
冕 R/c

R/共ic兲
d␶␳共x⬘,t − ␶兲 . 共32b兲

共3兲 Except for the Lorenz gauge, add the third-order equa-
tions obtained in step 2 to obtain a wave equation whose
retarded solution gives an equation for the time deriva-
tive of the vector potential, which is substituted into the
expression for the electric field in terms of the potentials
to obtain the retarded electric field.
共4兲 Take the curl of the third-order equation for the current
density obtained in step 2 to obtain a wave equation
whose retarded solution gives an equation for the curl of
the vector potential, which is substituted into the expres-
sion for the magnetic field in terms of the vector poten-
tial to obtain the retarded magnetic field.
It was noted in Ref. 9 that the potential ⌽K in Eq. 共32a兲
exhibits the same form as the scalar potential in the corre-
sponding Lorenz gauge of an electromagnetic theory formu-
lated in Euclidean four-space.17,18 This interesting result
shows how the same potential can be defined in different
gauges and in different spacetimes. It is clear that the Kirch-
hoff gauge cannot be written in a relativistically covariant
form. Also, in Ref. 9 it was shown that Eq. 共32兲 yields the
retarded electric and magnetic fields. However, as shown in
Ref. 9, the derivation of Eq. 共32兲 is not so simple.
We note that the potential ⌽K yields the imaginary term9

179 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007 José A. Heras 179

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 − ⵱⌽K共x,t兲 =
1
4␲⑀0
冕 冉 R̂
d x⬘ 2 ␳共x⬘,t − R/共ic兲兲
3
R
䊐2共⵱ ⫻ AK兲 = − ␮0⵱ ⫻ J,
with the retarded solution
共39兲

+
R̂ ⳵␳共x⬘,t − R/共ic兲兲
Ric ⳵ 共t − R/共ic兲兲
. 冊 共33兲 ⵱ ⫻ AK =
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共40兲

Equation 共40兲 is identified with the usual retarded form of

The reader might find surprising the presence of the instan-
the magnetic field
taneous term −⵱⌽C in the retarded expression for the elec-
tric field in terms of the Coulomb gauge potentials
E = −⵱⌽C − ⳵AC / ⳵t. The reader probably would find even
more surprising the presence of the imaginary term −⵱⌽K in
B = ⵱ ⫻ AK =
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共41兲

the observable electric field in terms of the Kirchhoff gauge Therefore, we do not require the complicated Eq. 共32兲 to
potentials E = −⵱⌽K − ⳵AK / ⳵t. We suspect that, like the in- verify that the Kirchhoff gauge potentials yield the retarded
stantaneous term −⵱⌽C, the imaginary term −⵱⌽K does not electric and magnetic fields.
play a physical role in the electric field. To understand the
role of −⵱⌽K in Eq. 共33兲, we will apply the four step method
given in Sec. V. We will show that the Kirchhoff potentials VII. VELOCITY GAUGE
⌽K and AK lead to the retarded fields E and B.
Step 1. After applying the Kirchhoff condition 共6兲 to Eq. The velocity gauge 共v-gauge兲 is one in which the scalar
共3兲, we have already obtained Eq. 共30兲. We then symmetrize potential propagates with an arbitrary speed. This gauge is
Eq. 共30a兲 with respect to Eq. 共30b兲 by adding the term not well known despite the fact that it was proposed several
−共2 / c2兲⳵2⌽K / ⳵t2 on both sides of Eq. 共30a兲 to obtain years ago.12 The v-gauge is really a family of gauges that
contains the Lorenz and Coulomb gauges as particular cases
1 2 ⳵ 2⌽ K and also includes the Kirchhoff gauge.9 The v-gauge has
䊐 2⌽ K = − ␳− 2 2 . 共34兲 recently been emphasized by Drury,19 Jackson,5 and Yang.11
⑀0 c ⳵t
If we assume the v-gauge defined by Eq. 共7兲, then Eq. 共3兲
Step 2. We take the negative of the gradient of Eq. 共34兲 become
and the negative of the time derivative of Eq. 共30b兲 to obtain 1 ⳵ 2⌽ 1
the equations ⵜ 2⌽ v − = − ␳, 共42a兲
v2 ⳵ t2 ⑀0
2 ⳵ ⌽K 2

冉 冊
1
− 䊐2⵱⌽K = ⵱␳ + 2 ⵱ 2 , 共35a兲 1 c2 ⳵ ⌽v
⑀0 c ⳵t 䊐 2A v = − ␮ 0J + ⵱ 1 − . 共42b兲
c2 v2 ⳵ t
⳵ AK ⳵ J 2 ⳵ 2⌽ K The generality of Eq. 共42兲 becomes evident when we observe
− 䊐2 = ␮0 − 2 ⵱ 2 . 共35b兲
⳵t ⳵t c ⳵t that it reduces to Eq. 共9兲 when v = c, to Eq. 共19兲 when v = ⬁,
and to Eq. 共30兲 when v = ic. The solutions of Eq. 共42兲 are
Step 3. We add Eq. 共35兲 to obtain the wave equation given by5

冉
䊐2 − ⵱⌽K −
⳵ AK
⳵t
1
冊
⑀0
⳵J
= ⵱␳ + ␮0 ,
⳵t
共36兲 ⌽v共x,t兲 =
1
4␲⑀0
冕 1
d3x⬘ ␳共x⬘,t − R/v兲,
R
共43a兲

with the retarded solution

−
⳵ AK
=
1
冕 1
冋 1 ⳵J
d 3x ⬘ − ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2 + ⵱⌽K . 册 共37兲
Av共x,t兲 =
␮0
4␲
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冉关J共x⬘,t − R/c兲 − cR̂␳

⳵t 4␲⑀0 R c ⳵ t⬘
c2
⫻共x⬘,t − R/c兲兴 + R̂␳共x⬘,t − R/v兲
As can be seen, the term −⳵AK / ⳵t in Eq. 共37兲 contains the v
imaginary component ⵱⌽K, which exactly cancels the
imaginary part −⵱⌽K of the electric field E = −⵱⌽K
− ⳵AK / ⳵t. In other words, the explicit presence of the imagi-
nary term −⵱⌽K in the electric field is irrelevant because
+
c2R̂
R
冕R/v
R/c
d␶␳共x⬘,t − ␶兲 .冊 共43b兲

such a term is canceled by one of the components ⵱⌽K of
the Kirchhoff-gauge vector potential −⳵AK / ⳵t. This result
has recently been emphasized.14 When Eq. 共37兲 is used in the
field E = −⵱⌽K − ⳵AK / ⳵t, we obtain the usual retarded form
of this field,
As expected, Eq. 共43兲 reduces to Eq. 共10兲 when v = c, to Eq.
共20兲 when v = ⬁, and to Eq. 共32兲 when v = ic. According to
Eq. 共42a兲, the potential ⌽v propagates with an arbitrary
speed v, which may be subliminal 共v ⬍ c兲 or luminal 共v = c兲
or superluminal 共v ⬎ c兲 including the instantaneous limit 共v

冋 册
= ⬁ 兲. In Ref. 5 it was shown that Eq. 共43兲 yields the retarded
E = − ⵱⌽K −
⳵ AK
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
. electric and magnetic fields. Jackson has emphasized:5 “The
v-gauge illustrates dramatically how arbitrary and unphysical
共38兲 the potentials can be, yet still yield the same physically sen-
sible fields.” The velocity gauge cannot be written in a rela-
Step 4. We take the curl to Eq. 共30b兲 to obtain the wave tivistically covariant form.
equation The v-gauge scalar potential ⌽v generates the field5

180 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007 José A. Heras 180

Downloaded 26 Nov 2012 to 132.248.9.8. Redistribution subject to AAPT license or copyright; see http://ajp.aapt.org/authors/copyright_permission
 − ⵱⌽v共x,t兲 =
1
4␲⑀0
冕 ⬘冉d 3x
R̂
R2
␳共x⬘,t − R/v兲 ⵱ ⫻ Av =
␮0
4␲⑀0
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共51兲

+
R̂ ⳵␳共x⬘,t − R/v兲
Rv ⳵ 共t − R/v兲
. 冊 共44兲
Equation 共51兲 gives the usual retarded form of the magnetic
field

This term does not display the property of propagation at the

B = ⵱ ⫻ Av =
␮0
4␲⑀0
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴.
R
共52兲
speed of light c. In particular, when v is superluminal, we
have a conflict with special relativity. We suspect that the We see that we do not require the complicated Eq. 共43兲 to
term −⵱⌽v does not play a physical role in the electric field. show that the potentials in the velocity gauge yield the re-
To understand the role played by the term −⵱⌽v in the field tarded electric and magnetic fields.
E = −⵱⌽v − ⳵Av / ⳵t, we apply the four step method to show
that the potentials ⌽v and Av yield the fields E and B.
Step 1. If we apply the velocity condition 共7兲 to Eq. 共3兲, VIII. TEMPORAL GAUGE
we obtain Eq. 共42兲. We symmetrize Eq. 共42a兲 with respect to
Eq. 共42b兲 by adding the term −共1 / c2兲⳵2⌽v / ⳵t2 on both sides We have pointed out that the scalar potential can be in-
of Eq. 共42a兲. The resulting equation can be written as stantaneous, imaginary, and superluminal depending on the
gauge 共Coulomb, Kirchhoff, and velocity gauges, respec-

䊐 2⌽ v = −
1
⑀0 c
1
v
冉 冊
c 2 ⳵ 2⌽ v
␳− 2 1− 2
⳵ t2
. 共45兲
tively兲. Now we will see that the scalar potential can also not
exist. The temporal gauge is one in which the scalar potential
is identically zero,5 which means that the electric and mag-
Step 2. We take minus the gradient of Eq. 共45兲 and minus netic fields are defined only by the vector potential:
the time derivative of Eq. 共42b兲. The resulting equations are ⳵ AT
E=− , 共53a兲
1
⑀0 c
1 c 2 ⳵ 2⌽ v
− 䊐2⵱⌽v = ⵱␳ + 2 ⵱ 1 − 2
v ⳵ t2
,冉 冊 共46a兲
⳵t

B = ⵱ ⫻ AT . 共53b兲

冉 冊
The temporal gauge cannot be written in a relativistically
2 ⳵ Av
⳵J 1 c 2 ⳵ 2⌽ v covariant form. The reader might wonder why the scalar po-
−䊐 = ␮0 − 2 ⵱ 1 − 2 . 共46b兲
⳵t ⳵t c v ⳵ t2 tential in the temporal gauge does not exist, despite the fact
that there is a nonzero charge density. The simple answer is
Step 3. We add Eq. 共46兲 to obtain the wave equation that the values of the charge density do not necessarily lead

冉 冊
to a scalar potential in all gauges. The existence of a scalar
⳵ Av 1 ⳵J potential generally depends on the adopted gauge. In other
䊐2 − ⵱⌽v − = ⵱␳ + ␮0 , 共47兲
⳵t ⑀0 ⳵t words, the retarded values of the charge density always con-
tribute physically to the electric field, but they do not lead to
with the retarded solution a scalar potential in the temporal gauge.
If we assume the temporal gauge defined by Eq. 共8兲, then

−
⳵ Av
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
+ ⵱⌽v . 册 共48兲
Eq. 共3兲 becomes
⳵ 1
共⵱ · AT兲 = − ␳ , 共54a兲
⳵t ⑀0
We observe that the term −⳵Av / ⳵t in Eq. 共48兲 contains the
component ⵱⌽v, which cancels the term −⵱⌽v. In other 䊐2AT = − ␮0J + ⵱共⵱ · AT兲. 共54b兲
words, the explicit presence of a term possessing an arbitrary
5
propagation −⵱⌽v in the electric field is irrelevant because The solution of Eq. 共54兲 is given by
such a term is canceled by one of the components ⵱⌽v of the
v-gauge vector potential 共−⳵Av / ⳵t兲. This cancellation means
that the field −⵱⌽v is spurious field and the propagation at
AT共x,t兲 =
␮0
4␲
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冉兵J共x⬘,t − R/c兲 − cR̂␳

冕 冊
the speed of light c of the electric field is not lost. Therefore,
t−t0
when Eq. 共48兲 is used in the expression E = −⵱⌽v − ⳵Av / ⳵t, c2R̂
we obtain the usual retarded form of the electric field ⫻共x⬘,t − R/c兲其 − d␶␳共x⬘,t − ␶兲 .
R R/c

E = − ⵱⌽v −
⳵ Av
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
. 册 In Ref. 5 it was demonstrated that the potential AT in Eq.
共55兲

共49兲 共55兲 yields the retarded electric and magnetic fields. To un-
derstand this result, we apply our method to show that AT
Step 4. We take the curl of Eq. 共42b兲 to obtain the wave yields the retarded fields E and B.
equation Step 1. After applying the temporal condition 共8兲 to Eq.
共3兲, we obtain Eq. 共54兲. It is not necessary to symmetrize Eq.
䊐2共⵱ ⫻ Av兲 = − ␮0⵱ ⫻ J, 共50兲 共54a兲 with respect to Eq. 共54b兲.
Step 2. We take minus the gradient of Eq. 共54a兲 and minus
with the retarded solution the time derivative of Eq. 共54b兲 to obtain

181 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007 José A. Heras 181

Downloaded 26 Nov 2012 to 132.248.9.8. Redistribution subject to AAPT license or copyright; see http://ajp.aapt.org/authors/copyright_permission
 ⳵ 1 is not canceled by part of the remaining term −⳵AL / ⳵t of the
− ⵱共⵱ · AT兲 = ⵱␳ , 共56a兲 electric field.
⳵t ⑀0
Therefore, we can conclude that −⵱⌽L is not a spurious
term like the terms −⵱⌽C, −⵱⌽K, and −⵱⌽v. It follows that
⳵ AT ⳵J ⳵
− 䊐2 = ␮0 − ⵱共⵱ · AT兲. 共56b兲 −⵱⌽L can be interpreted as a physical quantity. Similarly,
⳵t ⳵t ⳵t the term −⳵AL / ⳵t also satisfies the properties of causality and
Step 3. We add Eq. 共56兲 to obtain the wave equation propagation at the speed of light, which indicates that this

冉 冊
term should not be interpreted as being spurious. Thus,
⳵ AT 1 ⳵J −⳵AL / ⳵t can also be interpreted as a physical quantity. The
䊐2 − = ⵱␳ + ␮0 , 共57兲
⳵t ⑀0 ⳵t physical character of each one of the terms −⵱⌽L and
−⳵AL / ⳵t is strongly supported by the fact that the combina-
with the retarded solution tion −⵱⌽L − ⳵AL / ⳵t, that is, the electric field, is physically

−
⳵ AT
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 1 ⳵J
− ⵱ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
. 册 共58兲
detectable.20
The Lorenz gauge potentials ⌽L and AL naturally yield the
electric and magnetic fields with the physical properties of
In the temporal gauge there is no unphysical term on the causality and propagation at the speed of light, which sug-
right-hand side of Eq. 共58兲. When Eq. 共58兲 is used in the gests that the Lorenz gauge potentials 共and not the Coulomb,
expression E = −⳵AT / ⳵t, we obtain the usual retarded form of Kirchhoff, and velocity potentials兲 can be interpreted as
the electric field physical quantities.

E=−
⳵ AT
⳵t
=
1
4␲⑀0
冕 d 3x ⬘
1
R
冋 1 ⳵J
− ⵜ ⬘␳ − 2
c ⳵ t⬘
. 册 共59兲 X. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Jackson has pointed out that:5 “It seems necessary from
Step 4. We take the curl of Eq. 共54b兲 to obtain the wave time to time to show that the electric and magnetic fields are
equation independent of the choice of gauge for the potentials.” We
䊐2共⵱ ⫻ AT兲 = − ␮0⵱ ⫻ J, 共60兲 have demonstrated that the fields are independent of the
choice of gauge for potentials in a variety of gauges 共Lor-
with the retarded solution entz, Coulomb, Kirchhoff, velocity, and temporal gauges兲.

⵱ ⫻ AT =
␮0
4␲
冕 1
d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴,
R
共61兲
Our proposed method can be used to demonstrate that the
potentials in these gauges yield the same retarded electric
and magnetic fields. Instead of using explicit expressions for
which leads directly to the usual retarded form of the mag- the scalar and vector potentials in the various gauges, the
netic field method uses the dynamical equations of these potentials to

冕
obtain two wave equations, whose retarded solutions lead to
␮0 1 the retarded fields. We identified the spurious character of the
B = ⵱ ⫻ AT = d3x⬘ 关⵱⬘ ⫻ J兴. 共62兲
4␲ R gradient of the scalar potential in the Coulomb, Kirchhoff,
and velocity gauges and have emphasized the nonspurious
The complicated form of Eq. 共55兲 is not required to show character of the scalar potential in the Lorenz gauge. Finally,
that the vector potential in the temporal gauge yields the we suggested that the Lorenz gauge potentials can be inter-
retarded electric and magnetic fields. preted as physical quantities.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IX. THE NONSPURIOUS CHARACTER OF −⵱⌽L
The author is grateful to an anonymous referee for his/her
The fact that the Coulomb gauge scalar potential ⌽C valuable comments and to Professor R. F. O’Connell for the
propagates instantaneously is of no concern if we assume kind hospitality extended to him in the Department of Phys-
that the electromagnetic potentials are not physically measur- ics and Astronomy of the Louisiana State University.
able quantities. As pointed out by Griffiths:2 “The point is
that V 关the Coulomb-gauge scalar potential兴 by itself is not a a兲
Electronic mail: heras@phys.lsu.edu
physically measurable quantity.” It follows that the instanta- 1
J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. 共Wiley, New York,
neous term −⵱⌽C 关Eq. 共21兲兴 must also be an unphysical 1999兲, p. 242.
2
quantity. The subtle point is that −⵱⌽C is part of the physical D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. 共Prentice Hall,
electric field expressed in terms of the Coulomb gauge po- Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1999兲, p. 421.
3
tentials: E = −⵱⌽C − ⳵AC / ⳵t. We have pointed out that the O. L. Brill and B. Goodman, “Causality in the Coulomb gauge,” Am. J.
Phys. 35, 832–837 共1967兲.
presence of −⵱⌽C in the electric field is irrelevant because it 4
J. D. Jackson and L. B. Okun, “Historical roots of gauge invariance,”
is canceled by a component of the remaining term −⳵AC / ⳵t. Rev. Mod. Phys. 73, 663–680 共2001兲.
We have noted that −⵱⌽C is a formal result of the theory and 5
J. D. Jackson, “From Lorenz to Coulomb and other explicit gauge trans-
has no physical meaning. We have drawn similar conclusions formations,” Am. J. Phys. 70, 917–928 共2002兲.
for the term with imaginary propagation −⵱⌽K 关Eq. 共33兲兴
6
F. Rohrlich, “Causality, the Coulomb field, and Newton’s law of gravita-
and for the term with arbitrary propagation −⵱⌽v 关Eq.共44兲兴. tion,” Am. J. Phys. 70, 411–414 共2002兲.
7
J. A. Heras, “Comment on ‘Causality, the Coulomb field, and Newton’s
We cannot come to the same conclusion for the term −⵱⌽L law of gravitation,’ by F. Rohrlich 关Am. J. Phys. 70, 411–414 共2002兲兴,”
关Eq. 共11兲兴 due to the Lorenz gauge potential ⌽L, because this Am. J. Phys. 71, 729–730 共2003兲.
term displays the experimentally verified properties of cau- 8
J. A. Heras, “Instantaneous fields in classical electrodynamics,” Euro-
sality and propagation at the speed of light—the term −⵱⌽L phys. Lett. 69, 1–7 共2005兲.

182 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007 José A. Heras 182

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 9
J. A. Heras, “The Kirchhoff gauge,” Ann. Phys. 321, 1265–1273 共2006兲.
10
G. Kirchhoff, “II. Ueber die Bewegung der Elektricität in Leitern,” Am.
J. Phys. 102, 529–544 共1857兲. Reprinted in Gesammelte Abhandlungen
von G. Kirchhoff 共J. A. Barth, Leipzig, 1882兲, pp. 154–168.
11
K.-H. Yang, “The physics of gauge transformations,” Am. J. Phys. 73,
742–751 共2005兲.
12
K.-H. Yang, “Gauge transformations and quantum mechanics. II. Physi-
cal interpretation of classical gauge transformations,” Ann. Phys. 共N.Y.兲
101, 97–118 共1976兲.
13
O. D. Jefimenko, Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd ed. 共Electret Scientific,
Star City, WV, 1989兲, p. 516. See also Ref. 1, p. 247.
14
J. A. Heras, “Comment on ‘A generalized Helmholtz theorem for time-
varying vector fields,’ by Artice M. Davis 关Am. J. Phys. 74, 72–76
共2006兲兴,” Am. J. Phys. 74, 743–745 共2006兲.
15
J. A. Heras, “Comment on ‘Helmholtz theorem and the v-gauge in the
problem of superluminal and instantaneous signals in classical electrody-
183 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 75, No. 2, February 2007
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namics,’ by A. Chubykalo et al. 关Found. Phys. Lett. 19, 37–49 共2006兲兴,”
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16
In the proposed method we could also choose the advanced solutions
共those evaluated at the advanced time t⬘ = t + R / c兲 of the wave equations
derived in steps 3 and 4. This choice would lead to the advanced form of
the electric and magnetic fields.
17
E. Zampino, “A brief study of the transformations of Maxwell’s equations
in Euclidean four space,” J. Math. Phys. 27, 1315–1318 共1986兲.
18
J. A. Heras, “Euclidean electromagnetism in four space: A discussion
between God and the Devil,” Am. J. Phys. 62, 914–916 共1994兲.
19
D. M. Drury, “The unification of the Lorentz and Coulomb gauges of
electromagnetic theory,” IEEE Trans. Educ. 43共1兲, 69–72 共2000兲.
20
Even though the combination −⵱⌽L − ⳵AL / ⳵t can be detected, it can be
argued that this possibility does not necessarily imply that each term can
be detected separately.
José A. Heras 183