International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 1

Integrated Geological, Geophy Sicaland Geotechnical

Assessment of Building Failure in Lagos;
A Case Study of Ogudu Lagos South Western Nigeria
Emmanuel Oyem Ubido, Ogbonnaya Igwe, Bernadette Uche Ukah
Engineering unit, Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Corresponding Author
Emmanuel Oyem Ubido
Engineering unit
Department of Geology
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Phone: +234-8069722240
Email:oyememmanuel@yahoo.com

Abstract-- Incessant incidences of building collapse in Lagos
have continued unabated in recent times. Although, several
probable causes have been highlighted .Unfortunately, the
subsurface earth conditions have rarely been given any serious
consideration prior to construction exercise. Geophysical and
geotechnical laboratory test on soil samples were done on the
subsoil within the study area. Cone penetrometer test and a
standard penetration test were also conducted to identify the
depth to competent layer as a compliment for VES survey. The
VES identified three distinct geo-electric layers; the top soil,
peaty clayey sand, medium grained clayey sand and very stiff
clayey sand. The resistivity and thickness of each layer were in
the range of 145-351.34 Ωm and 3.1-4.3m; 49.1-97.2 Ωm and
10.7- 11.4m, 41.4-105.6Ωm respectively. The CPT and SPT tests
show that the subsurface around the area consist of materials of
very low shear strength (< 80 kgf/cm2) interpreted as peat/clay at
near surface to a depth of 11.50 m (being the maximum depth
probed by the CPT test) and 11.4 m for the SPT. The Plastic,
Liquid Limit, Plasticity Index, Natural moisture Content,
Maximum Dry Density, Optimum Moisture Content and
Unconfined Compressive Strength ranges are 20-40%, 40-
70%,20-30%,1.71-2.04g/cm3, 3.76-6.224% and 75– 90KN/m2
respectively. The existence of loose sand, peat and clay near at
the surface is capable of endangering building structures. The
result so far proved that the buildings in this area is on a shallow
foundation which is considered inappropriate, hence the
differential settlement of the structure.
Index Term-- I Distress building, Foundation, Settlement, Soil.
INTRODUCTION
The quality of the built environment, both natural and man-
made, depends on its management, that is, its process of
control and organization. Often, there are forces that cause
events that lead to unsafe built environment for water, land
and air inhabitants. While these forces are generally
categorized into natural and man-made, their resultant effects
are multifarious, calamitous and disastrous. These resultant
effects are generally called disasters. Disaster occurs in
different parts of the world at different times and in various
scales leaving behind various magnitude of loss to lives and
properties (Adedeji 2013). At other times man-made disasters
results from civil conflict like riot, unethical, non-professional
and careless endeavours like fire outbreak, damaged pipelines,
building collapse, chemical spill, road accident, food
poisoning, epidemic industrial disaster, crisis, deforestation,
war, environmental pollution and plane crash, among others.
Still yet, disasters may occur from natural forces like
earthquake, volcanic eruption acting negatively on man-made
inventions like buildings, boats, ships, cities and artificial
islands. Furthermore, the National Programme for Capacity
Building of Architects for Earthquake Risk Management
(NPCBAERM) in India (2009) saw building collapse as the
major issue in earthquake vulnerability and argued that
earthquakes are natural hazards but the disasters are man-
made. The programme pointed out that “earthquakes don’t
kill, unsafe buildings do” and “the Latur earthquake of 1993
caused large-scale collapse of non-engineered houses, due to
faulty design, weak construction material and poor
maintenance, non-compliance to seismic safety regulations in
engineered buildings lead to extensive collapses. In Nigeria,
building collapse is defined as a state of complete failure when
the structure has literally given way and most members have
either caved-in crumbled or buckled (Obiechina 2005).
Indeed, building collapse has become a common feature of
Nigeria cities. For instance, 57 people were buried as a
building collapsed on them in Ebutte Meta, Lagos on 18th
July, 2006 (Opara 2006). On 12th June, 1997 the collapse of
an unfinished three-storey building in Enugu killed 20 people
(News24/Africa 2009). In Lagos, a four-storey residential
building caved-in suddenly in July, 2006 killing 37 people and
leaving 50 survivors to be pulled out of the rubble
(News24/Africa 2009). The cases of building collapse in
Nigeria has reached a worrisome level in view of its alarming
loses. It has been the concern of numerous authors
(Oyewande1992; Weihen 1999; Chinwokwu 2000; Opara
2006 2007; Windapo 2006) to search for the causes of this
monster, in order to proffer adequate solution of prevention,
mitigation or preparedness. The Nigerian Institute of Building
said 84 buildings had collapsed in the past 20 years in Nigeria,
claiming more than 400 lives based on reported cases only
(News24/Africa 2009). Oyewande(1992) discovered that 50%
of building failure cases in Nigeria is attributed to design
faults, 40% to construction fault and 10% to product failures.

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06
According to Chinwokwu (2000) and Windapo (2006) about
37% of these collapses are believed to be caused by
carelessness and greed on the part of construction professional
and 22% are traceable to design faults (Roddis 1993; Ameh et
al 2007; Oyedele et al., 2009). Also, about 40% of the reported
cases of collapse building are residential (Windapo 2006).
Uzokwe(2006) stated that the cause of a building failure is
almost always unique to the particular building in question.
However, he advanced some general reasons why buildings
may be susceptible to collapse which includes the quality of
the blocks used, the quality of the concrete used, poor
compaction and consolidation of foundation soil and weak
soil. According to Thisday newspaper (July 27 th 2016) Lagos
State has the highest case of severe incidences of building
failures in Nigeria, resulting to loss of lives and material
resources. Lagos, population 21 million, is now one of the
biggest cities in the world, and its 3.2 percent growth rate has
forced development on land that can’t support multi-story
buildings (Olamide 2014; Ayininuola and Olalusi 2014). A
study by Littlejohn et al (1994) indicated that the greatest
element of risk in a building project lies within the
uncertainties in ground conditions. Series of research work
have been done on causes of building; foundation failure and
No of Occurrences
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Fig. 1. Building Collapse in Lagos and no of occurrence from 1978 to 2017
171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS
2
building collapse in Lagos only little was mentioned on the
possible implication of subsurface/subsoil geology on the
foundation failure. From the earlier research work done by
Oni (2010) and Oloke et al (2016), the occurrence of building
collapse in tends to be more in areas close to the lagoon or
swamp. (Fig1 and Table 1). The percentage of building
collapse from 1978 to May 2017 records 32.47% for areas
underlain by coastal sand and 67.53% account for littoral
alluvium. This study focused on investigating the implication
of the subsoil geology on the variation in the occurrence of
foundation failure of a residential building in Ogudu area of
Lagos. This was done by integrating Geophysical, and
Geotechnical techniques. The combine techniques were used
to delineate depth to bedrock in the building and also in
evaluating the competence of near surface formation as
foundation materials; to determine the soil type at a particular
depth as the well as the bearing capacity of the soil and
determine the stability and the integrity of the studied
building. The result from the above test will go along in
reducing the incidence of foundation failure since the soil
bearing capacity enables engineers in choosing the type of
foundation and the amount of load to place on it.
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
IJENS
 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 3
Table I
Percent occurrences of Building Collapse in different local government in Lagos between 1978 and 2017
S/N Local government Occurrences Percentage
1 Agege 6 5.13
2 Ajeromi-Ifelodun 2 1.7
3 Alimosho 3 2.56
4 Apapa 0 0
5 Eti-Osa 7 5.98
6 Ifako-Ijaiye 0 0
7 Ikeja 13 11.11
8 Kosofe 2 1.7
9 Lagos Mainland 14 11.97
10 Lagos Island 32 27.35
11 Mushin 7 5.98
12 Oshodi-Isolo 9 7.69
13 Somolu 7 5.98
14 Surulere 15 12.82
15 Amuwo-Odofin 0 0
16 Ojo 0 0

Fig. 2 Geologic map of Lagos

DETAILS OF THE STUDIED BUILDING
The building is located within a fenced compound
with a storey building on a plot of land surrounded by existing
structure of low and rise building used for residential purpose.
The building has settled when view from the front. It was
founded on raft foundation and it is between one developed
site and one undeveloped site. The site has an undulating
surface and it is lower than the access road linking it. The age
of the building is around 15 years. This site was investigated
to identify the reasons for the sinking. The information
obtained can serve as a guide in the maintenance processes
needed to increase the safety factor of the building. Moreover,
delineating subsurface features responsible for these failures in
the area can assist in the future planning for the construction
of new buildings. The target is the general lithology and soil
bearing capacity of the immediate subsurface, which will

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 4
allow an interpretation of the stability of the subsurface FOUNDATION DETAILS OF THE STUDIED
structures and its ability to support the proposed underlying BUILDING
structure. The type of foundation is stepped continuous footing
(wall footing). The depth of the foundation of the building is
about 0.7m from the existing ground level. It is laid over 0.2m
thickness of plain cement concrete and 0.4m thick
sandcushion. The foundation details of the distressed building
are shown in Fig.3 and 4.

Fig. 3. Foundation details

Fig. 4. Distressed Building in the Study Area

1.4 Topography and drainage of the Study Area
The study area, Ogudu, Lagos, lies within the western part of
the Dahomey Basin, between Latitude 6037’19”N and
6033’87”N and Longitude 3021’00”E and 3025’00”E West of
Lagos State.relatively undulating lowland with topography of
low-lying coastal beaches, extensive inland lagoons and
depressions and marsh and mangrove wet land at elevation of
0 to 2m and upland areas with moderately drained soils and an
elevations of 10-14m (Fig. 5). The major river in the state
include estuary of the Ogun River, Adiyan, and Osse. All
discharges into Lagos Lagoon, in Ogudu area, the dominant
drainage system is basically lagoons which connect to the
main ocean (Fig. 6)

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 5

Fig.5. (A) Elevation Map of the Study Area.

Fig. 5. (B) Elevation Map of the Study area in 3D

Geomorphology and Geology of the study area seasons, with the heaviest rain falling from April to July and
The study area has a tropical wet and dry season that lies on a not so heavy rainy season in October and November.
tropical monsoon climate. Thus it experiences two raining However, a short rain drops is prevalent in August and

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06
September and a longer dry season from December to March.
WWIS (2012) report revealed that monthly rainfall between
May and July averaged over 400 mm (16 in), while in August
and September it fell to 200 mm (7.9 in) and in December
reached as low as 25 mm (0.98 in). The main dry season
which is accompanied by harmattan winds from the Sahara
Desert, is between December and early February and can be
quite strong. The highest maximum temperature ever recorded
in Lagos was 37.3°C (99.1°F), and the minimum was 13.9°C
(57.0°F). According to Nwajide (2013) two main vegetation
types recognisable in the area; swamp forest in the coastal belt
and dry lowland rain forest in the vegetated area. The swamp
forests in the state are a combination of mangrove forest and
coastal vegetation developed under the brackish conditions of
the coastal areas and the swamp of the freshwater lagoons and
estuaries. In this area, accessibility and construction would be
challenging due to the swampy nature of the terrain.
The geology of studied area and its environs is
covered by the sedimentary rocks of the Dahomey basin which
includes the coastal and continental shelf sedimentary
sequence west of Benin City, and expanding westward
through Republic of Benin, Togo and slightly into south-
eastern Ghana. During deposition, tertiary and cretaceous
sedimentation was partially separated from the Niger Delta
6
Basin to the east of the Okitipupa Ridge. Lagos belongs to the
Coastal Plain Sand formation which consists of loose sediment
ranging from silt, clay and fine to coarse grained sand.
According to the works of Omatsola and Adegoke (1981);
Kogbe (1976); Jones and Hockey (1964); Reyment (1965) and
Ogbe (1972), the Formations recognized in the Nigerian part
of the basin according to lithologic unit of Formational rank
are: the Abeokuta Group (comprising of Ise, Afowo and
Araromi Formations); others are the Ewekoro, Akinbo,
Oshoshun, Ilaro Formations and the coastal plain sands. The
geologic period and age dates back to Quaternary and recent
Oligocence to Pleistocene. Geologically, Ogudu also falls
within the zone of coastal creek and lagoons developed by
barrier beaches associated with intercalations of sand and
peat/clay deposits.The site on which the investigation was
carried out forms part of the lagoon environment, which has
encroached the southern parts of Lagos. Its general subsoil
condition is therefore expected to compose mainly of Peat
/clay overlying other competence clay, is fine to coarse
grained sand referred to as the coastal plain sand (Fig. 6). The
investigated area is close to an old lagoonal river channel. It is
a swampy environment bordered on the north by an open
lateritic soil.

Fig. 6. Geologic Map of the Study Area

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06
METHOD OF STUDY
Geotechnical survey
Cone Penetration tests were conducted at two points within the
studied area. The tests were carried out to a depth of 15m. The
Dutch Static Penetration measures the resistance of
penetration into soils using a 60o steel cone with an area of
10.2 cm2. The cone penetrometer test is a means of
ascertaining the resistance of the soil. The layer sequences are
interpreted from the variation of the values of the cone
resistance with depth. The test is conducted by securing the
winch frame to the ground by means of anchors. These
anchors supplied the essential power to push the cone into the
ground. The cone and the tube were pushed together into the
ground for 20 to 25 cm; the cone is pushed ahead of the tube
for 3.5 cm at a uniform rate of about 2 cm/sec. The resistance
to the penetration of the cone registered on the pressure gauge
connected to the pressure capsule is recorded. The tube was
then pushed down and the procedure described above was
repeated. From the series of recorded gauge readings, cone
resistance was plotted against depth. Undisturbed samples
were taken at appropriate intervals, using a specially designed
60.5 mm internal diameter U – Type sampler. The sampler is
fitted with a cutter at the open end and a waste barrel at the
other end. A round steel ball in the driving head of the sampler
permits the escape of air and water as the sample enters the
tube. The diameter of the sample tube is 25 mm and lined with
60.5 mm plastic tube. The samples are trimmed to the desired
length and usually 15 cm covered in a plastic tube. An
identification label is attached. The numbers of blows required
to drive the sample 15 cm into the ground is recorded. The in
situ Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was carried out, usually
in the non-cohesive strata. The standard penetration test
consists of driving a thick walled 50 mm diameter steel tube
into the sand at the bottom of each borehole by means of a
63.5 kg hammer dropping 75cm. The number of blows
required to drive the tube 30 cm after an initial penetration of
15 cm is recorded as the SPT number. The SPT number can be
used as anempirical measure of the compactness of the sand.
All laboratory tests (grain-size distribution, consistency,
compaction, consolidation and shear strength) on the selected
samples were in accordance with specifications in the British
Standards BS: 5930 (1981), 8004 (1986), 1337 (1990) and
American Society for Testing and Materials ASTM;
Designation 2487 (2011) for soil classification and civil
engineering testing purposes.
Computation of bearing capacity values was based on the
Mayerhoff (1956) theory, which employed volume
compressibility and penetration testing data with some
assumed dimensions.
171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS
7
Geophysical survey
Two vertical electrical soundings were conducted within the
study area using an ABEM-SAS 1000 Terrameter.
Schlumberger array was employed with electrode separations
(AB) ranging from 2 to 300 m. The location of each sounding
station was recorded with the aid of GPS. The soundings were
performed parallel to the traverse lines and the apparent
resistivity values were calculated. The apparent resistivity
measurements at each station were plotted against electrode
spacing (AB/2) on bi-logarithmic graph sheets. The curves
were inspected to determine the number and nature of the
layering. Partial curve matching was carried out for the
quantitative interpretation of the curves. The results of the
curve matching (layer resistivity and thicknesses) were fed
into the computer as a starting model in an iterative forward
modeling technique using WINRESIST version 1.0 (Vander
Velper 1988). From the interpretation results (layer resistivity
and thicknesses), geoelectric sections along directions (N-S
and E-W) were produced, and results were also used to
generate maps.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Geotechnical
Plasticity Result
The natural moisture contents values range between 25% and
30% (Table 2). These values indicate Clay of medium
plasticity with low moisture content on Casagrande Plasticity
Chart (Figure 7). This shows that the moisture content of the
soil in the area is relatively low at its natural state. Moisture
variation is generally determined by intensity of rain, depth of
collection of sample and texture of the soil .The soil is in the
A-6 group of AASHTO soil classification system. While the
Maximum Dry Density ranged between 1.71g/cm3 and
2.04g/cm3 with an average of 1.85g/cm3. The results showed
that Liquid Limits (LL) ranged from 40% to 70%, Plastic
Limits (PL) ranges from 25% to 40%. The Plasticity Index
(PI) range was 20 – 30%, respectively between 8.5m and
10.00m indicates medium compressibility. Sowers and
Sowers (1970) noted that P1>31 should be considered high
and which indicates high content of expansive clay. On the
basis of LL and PI values, the samples are classified as
inorganic clays of medium plasticity. Hence it shows a poor
engineering property; since the higher the plastic index of a
soil, the less competence of a soil as foundation material.
From the result the building failure observe as sinking may
have caused by foundation soils that made up incompetent
materials (clay) that could compress on imposing loads by
differential settlement.
IJENS
 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 8
Table II
Geotechnical Results on Plasticity test carried out in the Study Location
Sample Description Bh1 Bh2
Liquid Limit 40 70
Plastic Limit 20 40
Plasticity Index 20 30
Natural Moisture Content 25 30
Soil Description Medium Plasticity Clay Medium Plasticity Clay
Consistency Index 0.75 0.83
Liquidity Index 0.69 0.17
Flow Index 2.86 1.46
Toughness Index 2.86 0.83
Group Symbol CL CL
Specific Gravity g/cm3 2.47 2.46
MDD g/cm3 2.047 1.71
OMC % 6.24 3.76
Permeability 3.16 X 10-7 1.33x10-6

Fig. 7. Plasticity Chart

Table 2 and Figure 7 show the particle size distribution
statistics for the non-plastic soil materials and classification
according to the unified soil classification system. Figs. 7 and
Table 2 presented the particle size distribution curves for the
cohesionless soil materials at various depth intervals. Sieve
analysis carried out on selected sand samples encountered
between the 16.00m and 21.00m depth in the borehole
revealed that the sand is predominantly medium to fine
grained and non plastic. The soil samples classified based on
Unified Soil Classification System and falls within the Well-
Graded Sands. The results of the particle size distribution are
summarized in Table 2.

Table II
Results of Particle Size Distribution for the Studied Area.
SAMPLE DESCRIPTION BH1 (16M) BH2 (21M)
D10 0.19 0.20
D30 0.26 0.31
D60 0.5 0.62
CC 0.71 0.78
CU 1.1 1.0
%MEDIUM 55.83 52.54
% COARSE 40.49 43.19
% FINES 0.74 1.32

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 9

Particle Size Distribution Curve

100
90
80
Percentage Passing

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)

Fig. 7. (A) Particle size Distribution curve for BH1

Particle Size Distribution Curve

100
90
80
Percentage Passing

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve Size (mm)
Fig. 7. (B) Particle size distribution for BH2

3.1.2 Cone penetrometer test
The graphs of the cone penetrometer reading are presented as
penetration rate against depth in Figure 8. The depth
penetrated by the penetrometer test is about 11.2 m. The
readings show significantly low cone resistance of about 80
(kgf/cm2) which indicates peat material (Table3). The linear
nature of the graph shows constant penetration as the
subsurface materials offer no resistance to the driven cone.
The result on the CPT test indicates that the depth range of
12.5m penetrated is unfit for erecting the foundation of most
structures due to its poor shear strength. This was replicated in
the other CPT conducted in the area.

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 10
Table III
CPT Results from the Study Area
CPT1 CPT2
QC Depth Const. BC. QC Depth Const. BC
0 0 0 0
35 -0.25 2.7
94.50 20 -0.25 2.7 54.00
20 -0.5 2.7
54.00 10 -0.5 2.7 27.00
15 -0.75 2.7
40.50 10 -0.75 2.7 27.00
10 -1 2.7
27.00 15 -1 2.7 40.50
15 -1.25 2.7
40.50 10 -1.25 2.7 27.00
25 -1.5 2.7
67.50 15 -1.5 2.7 40.50
20 -1.75 2.7
54.00 20 -1.75 2.7 54.00
25 -2 2.7
67.50 15 -2 2.7 40.50
25 -2.25 2.7
67.50 25 -2.25 2.7 67.50
35 -2.5 2.7
94.50 30 -2.5 2.7 81.00
25 -2.75 2.7
67.50 40 -2.75 2.7 108.00
25 -3 2.7 67.5 10 -3 2.7 27
10 -3.25 2.7 27 25 -3.25 2.7 67.5
25 -3.5 2.7 67.5 15 -3.5 2.7 40.5
20 -3.75 2.7 54 15 -3.75 2.7 40.5
35 -4 2.7 94.5 30 -4 2.7 81
50 -4.25 2.7 135 45 -4.25 2.7 121.5
40 -4.5 2.7 108 35 -4.5 2.7 94.5
10 -4.75 2.7 27 25 -4.75 2.7 67.5
10 -5 2.7 27 15 -5 2.7 40.5
15 -5.25 2.7 40.5 10 -5.25 2.7 27
5 -5.5 2.7 13.5 15 -5.5 2.7 40.5
5 -5.75 2.7 13.5 20 -5.75 2.7 54
10 -6 2.7 27 10 -6 2.7 27
5 -6.25 2.7 13.5 15 -6.25 2.7 40.5
10 -6.5 2.7 27 5 -6.5 2.7 13.5
5 -6.75 2.7 13.5 10 -6.75 2.7 27
10 -7 2.7 27 10 -7 2.7 27
5 -7.25 2.7 13.5 10 -7.25 2.7 27
10 -7.5 2.7 27 10 -7.5 2.7 27
15 -7.75 2.7 40.5 20 -7.75 2.7 54
10 -8 2.7 27 10 -8 2.7 27
5 -8.25 2.7 13.5 10 -8.25 2.7 27
10 -8.5 2.7 27 20 -8.5 2.7 54
15 -8.75 2.7 40.5 30 -8.75 2.7 81
10 -9 2.7 27 20 -9 2.7 54
5 -9.25 2.7 13.5 25 -9.25 2.7 67.5
10 -9.5 2.7 27 40 -9.5 2.7 108
5 -9.75 2.7 13.5 30 -9.75 2.7 81

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 11
10 -10 2.7 27 50 -10 2.7 135
5 -10.25 2.7 13.5 40 -10.25 2.7 108
15 -10.5 2.7 40.5 30 -10.5 2.7 81
5 -10.75 2.7 13.5 20 -10.75 2.7 54
10 -11 2.7 27 30 -11 2.7 81
20 -11.25 2.7 54 25 -11.25 2.7 67.5
25 -11.5 2.7 67.5 40 -11.5 2.7 108
40 -11.75 2.7 108 50 -11.75 2.7 135
70 -12 2.7 189 30 -12 2.7 81
80 -12.25 2.7 216 50 -12.25 2.7 135

Table IV
Geotechnical engineering data from Dutch cone probes.
Test Location Depth Of Penetration (M) Average Cone Resistance Remarks
Analysis (Kgf/Cm2)
P1 12.5 80 Dark grey, stiff medium
Grained clayey sand
P2 13 85 Dark grey, stiff medium
Grained clayey sand

Cone resistance (Kg/cm2)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

0

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6
Depth (m)

-7

-8

-9

-10

-11

-12

-13

Fig. 8(A). Cone penetration graph for pit1

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 12

Cone resistance (Kg/cm2)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
Depth (m)

-7
-8
-9
-10
-11
-12
-13

Fig. 8(B). Cone Penetration Graph for pit 2

3.1.3 Standard penetration test
A summary of the borehole log derived from the SPT is
represented in Table 5 Figure 9. During the percussion drilling
exercise peat material was encountered within the depth of 0
to 8.5 m (Figure 9). This material is dark to brownish dark and
soft in texture. This region is attributed with poor geotechnical
properties, low shear strength and high compressibility
potential. This region is not suggested for erecting foundation
of most structures, Figure 9. Below this material is clayey
sand material encountered at a depth range of 8.5 to 11.50 m.
The material present at this depth is classified as moderate and
good geotechnical properties. This region has moderate to
high shear strength and low compressibility potential. This
region might be fit for sizable structures. At the depth ranges
of 11.50 to 27.50m very stiff clayey sand was encountered but
with varying texture. The texture varies from loose, medium
and dense clayey sand and compact (derived from the number
of blows). The material at this depth is associated with good
geotechnical properties, high shear strength and low
compressibility potential. This depth range is deemed fit to
erect the foundation of most structures, but the thickness of the
overburden to be removed may be expensive.

Table V
Geotechnical engineering data from Standard Penetration Test.
Depth (m) Subsoil Encountered Description Laboratory Analysis Description/Remark Stratum Thickness (m)
Dark grey, debris i.e broken glass, Nil
0.00to -4.50 Nylon. lateritic sand 4.50
-4.50 to 8.50 Dark grey, stiff, fine- medium Partially Compressible.
grained peaty Clayey sand. 4.00
-8.50 to -11.50 Dark grey stiff, medium grained Low compressibility 2.00
Clayey sand.
-11.50-27.50 Dark grey, very stiff medium Very low Compressibility 16.0
Grained clayey sand
-27.50-30.00 Dark grey medium-grained sandy Predominantly fine to medium 2.50
Clay grained sand but slightly plastic

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 13

Fig. 9. Result from Standard Penetration Test

3.2 Geophysical Result
The plots of the results of the apparent resistivity of the
geophysical studies carried out in the study area shows that
the VES curves in this area are predominantly KH-type curve
(ρ1 < ρ2 > ρ3 < ρ4) (Fig. 10a and b). The VES interpretation
results are presented in Table 6. Two geo-electric sections
were drawn along approximately W- E and S – N directions
(Fig. 10a and b). Three subsurface strata were delineated. The
topsoil is composed of decomposed organic materials,
vegetable remains, and pockets of exotic sand filling materials
of 3.1 to 4.3 m thick sandy clay/silty sand/mud/peat with
resistivity values varying from 145 - 351 Ωm. Underlying the
upper layer is a peaty clayey layer having thickness and
resistivity values ranging from 10.7 to 11.4 m and 49.1 to 97.2
Ωm respectively. This layer is unfavourable for foundation of
engineering structure along this traverse. Beneath the second
layer is 24.4 to 26.1 m thick medium grained clayey sand with
a variable resistivity values from 41.4 to 105.6 Ωm. The fourth
horizon is the dark grained clayey sand (with layer resistivity
values of 41.4- 63.1 Ωm) identified between the depths of
44.00 to 51.9 m.

Table VI
The results of the geophysical survey done in the study area
VES Layer Apparent Resistivity ρ Thickness (m) Depth(m) Lithological Curve
Location (ohm-m) Description type
1 1 351 4.3 4.3 Top soil k-type
2 49.1 7.1 11.4
3 99.3 14.6 26.1
4 41.4 25.9 51.9
2 1 145.4 3.1 3.1 Top soil K-type
2 97.2 7.6 10.7
3 105.6 13.7 24.4
4 63.1 19.6 44.0

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 14

Fig. 10. (A) Resistivity Graph

Fig. 10(B). Resistivity Graph

3.3 Correlation of resistivity section with CPT and
SPT
Figure 11 represents the juxtaposition of the results from
all surveys for better correlation of the results. The CPT has
indicated materials with low shear strength within the depth
range of 0 to 12 m identified to be composed of peaty clayey
sand. The SPT has also revealed this depth range to be
composed of peat while the resistivity result section has shown
material with low resistivity value (1.0 to 49 Ωm) prevalent to
be peat/clay material. The SPT revealed that the subsurface is
composed of peat within the depth range of 0 to 8.5 m while
the resistivity section indicates this depth to be composed of
low resistivity value material indicating peaty clayey sand.
The presence of sandy clay material is revealed within the
depth range of 11.50 to 27 m on the SPT and the resistivity
section has indicated this material to be with resistivity range
of 49.1 to 97.2 Ωm. Sand material is identified at 27 to 30 m
on the SPT and represented by relatively high resistivity value

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 15
range of 99.3 to 105.6 Ωm on the resistivity section. The result the peat/clay material is much thicker within the central
of the borehole data at the SE portion of the study area portion (30 to 60 m) of which there was no SPT or CPT
correlates well with the second half of resistivity tomography information. This clearly shows the need for the integration of
sections towards the SE portion of the study area. However, resistivity tomography into various engineering site
in addition to this, the resistivity tomography has shown that investigation for proper evaluation of soil integrity.

Fig. 11. Correlation between the VES and CPT

3.4 Shear Strength Properties
Shear Strength Parameters The strength and
consolidation of foundation soils play major roles in
construction projects. These engineering parameters determine
the ability to carry weights, and support buildings and roads.
The nature of shearing resistance of a soil offers the
opportunity to analyze its stability problems such as bearing
capacity. In Table 7, the cohesive strength (Cu) ranges from 75
to 90 kN/m2, while the undrained angle of internal friction (∅ )
varies between 9 and 11o. The soils have Cu value far greater
than zero U which is characteristic of normally consolidated
clay, with the values indicative of clayey sand.

Table VII
The shear strength parameters of the studied soils are summarized
Sample Cohesive strength (Cu ) kN/m2 undrained angle of internal friction (∅ )
1 90 11
2 75 9

3.5 Compressibility and Bearing Capacity Properties in
foundation design
Settlement and bearing capacity are generally the critical
issues. The process in which reduction in volume would take
place by expulsion of water under long term structural loads
on the sampled is summarized in Table 8. The rate at which
the studied soil undergoes compression (C v), ranges between
0.18 and 0.34 m2 /Yr. This shows that the soils in both
locations are highly compressible by the building which is
imposed on it, meaning that the building is underlain by an
incompetent soil layer which is susceptible to settlement.
While the amount of settlement as related to the coefficient of
volume change (mv) varies between 0.19 and 0.32 m2 /MN.
The consolidation parameters were based on pressure
increment of 25–50 kN/m, 50–100 kN/m, 100-200kN/m and
200–400kN/m with the time for consolidation to occur
predicted in years. It is evident that both rate and amount of
settlement of the studied soils would vary with confining
pressure. Establishing any structure on such a soil layer with
compressible fines content could result to differential
settlement (Sridharan and Nagaraj 2012). The estimated
bearing capacities for shallow and deep foundations envisaged
for civil structures in the area are summarized in Table 8.
These values were based on the Mayerhoff (1956) theory.

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 16
3.6 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
The result of the investigation as calculated based on qa = 2.7Ckd kN/m2 ~ Ckd / 40 kg/cm2
Meyerhof’s formulae for Strips or Square/Circular Where Ckd = cone resistance in kg/cm2 and qa = allowable
foundations irrespective of the foundation width at various bearing pressure in kN/m2
depths range gave the following Allowable Bearing Pressure
values for the subsoil condition in its present natural state as
follows:
Table VIII
Bearing capacity for Shallow and Deep foundation
Depth Range (m) Allowable Bearing Pressure
(qa) in kN/m2
- 0.50 2.7kN/m2
- 1`.00 2.7kN/m2
- 2.00 5.4kN/m2
-3.00 13.5kN/m2
-4.00 67.5kN/m2

The allowable bearing is low to mobilize the building for the
shallow foundation that was adopted (Table 8).
3.7 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
The results of the borehole tests revealed very stiff clayey
sand at 11.50m depths into which end bearing Piles could be
terminated. Some form of deep foundations such as deep
reinforced concrete columns of medium to big size cross-
sectional area can be used to transmit the column loads from
the building to terminate within the medium dense to very
dense indicated to occur below 11.50m depths. Such
foundations should be capable of mobilizing high safe
working loads sufficient for the building to stop the building
from further settlement. The following piles working loads
in Table 9 are quoted as a guide based on data obtained from
SPT results for bored cast-in-place piles:

Table IX
Table Showing Safe Working Load
Pile Type Pile Length (m) Safe working Load (kN)
300mm Bored cast-in-place pile 11 210
400mm Bored cast-in-place pile 11 320
500mm Bored cast-in-place pile 11 410

Settlement of the building on set of piles with the above
quoted safe working loads (SWL) and using 3.0 as a factor of
safety are expected to be minimal in view of the fact that the
piles will terminate within the medium dense to very dense
Sand. Also, spacing of piles or number of piles used per
column and pattern must ensure that groups are not heavily
loaded.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Early detection and discovery of the causes of building
collapse via the mandatory, periodic or conditional structural
integrity assessment go a long way in preventing incessant
building collapse and eliminate the attendant loss of life and
other properties.Geophysical and geotechnical investigations
have been carried out to probe the subsoil conditions of
abuilding at risk in Ogudu area of Lagos in order to establish
its engineering characteristics and the appropriate foundation
suitable for the site. The occurrence of low resistivity,
incompetent peat and organic clay within the depth range of 1
to 9 m implies that shallow foundation will was not be suitable
for thebuilding, the imposed load resulted to differential
settlement of the building. From the subsoil strata revealed in
the completed borehole, considering the storey building and
the subsoil/water conditions as revealed in the completed
borehole, CPT results and Laboratory analyses of selected
subsoil samples and the Shallow Foundation in form of Rafts
that was adopted was not appropriate for the building.
Meanwhile, ancillary structures such as the gate house could
be placed on Shallow Strip footings up to 0.50m depth while
the generator house could be placed on Raft footings up to
0.75m depth below the existing ground level in view of the
induced vibration it will impose on the ground.
Deep foundation involving piling through the
incompetent shallow layers to the competent sand with a pile
depth of 11.5m depth is recommended. Adequate drainage
system should be provided for surface runoff and to eliminate
surface water infiltrations around the building foundation. If
pile was not adopted for the building, the settlement may
continue as a result of materials that underlie the site, the
immediate solution may be that the occupant may have to
vacate the building, to introduce underpinning pile to the
11.50m to prevent it from further settlement. Before this, Non
destructive test; the building integrity must be ascertain before
the underpinning. The mere fact that if the subject property
failed the mandatory structural integrity test, it would be
demolished would compel the client, the builder and the
contractors to do their job right. In order to ensure
implementation and compliance; the structural integrity

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS

 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06
assessment report must be backed up by law, making it a
statutory requirement before and after occupation. The law
must also recommend that every property, whether private or
public property and for any purpose must be managed by
professional property manager, that is, the estate surveyors
and valuers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to God who made the work a success
and also acknowledge the contributions of the Engineering
Geological group, University of Nigeria Nsukka towards the
success of this work.
REFERENCES
[1] Adebayo K (2005) A position paper by the Nigerian Institution of
Structural Engineers (NIStructE) a division of the Nigerian Society
of Engineers (NSE) on Recent Structural Collapses in Nigeria and
the Prevention of Future Incidences downloaded on 31/03/2009
fromhttp://www.nistructe.org/pu
blications_details.php?site_id=3&resolution.
[2] Adedeji AJ (2013) Environmental Disasters and Management:
Case Study of Building Collapse in Nigeria International Journal
of Construction Engineering and Management 2013, 2(3): 39-45
DOI: 10.5923/j.ijcem.20130203.01.
[3] Adeyemo IA, Omosuyi GO(2012) Hydrogeologic, Electrical and
Electromagnetic Measurements for Geotechnical Characterization
of Foundation Beds at Afunbiowo, near Akure, Southwestern
Nigeria. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 5, No. 2,
pp. 2017-2022.
[4] Akintorinwa OJ, Adeusi FA(2009 )Integration of Geophysical and
Geotechnical Investigations for a Proposed Lecture Room
Complex at the Federal University of Technology, Akure, SW,
Nigeria, Journal of Applied Sciences 2(3), pp. 241- 254.
[5] AkintorinwaOJ, Abiola O(2011) Subsoil Evaluation for Pre-
foundation Study using Geophysical and Geotechnical Approach,
Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences
(JETEAS) 2 (5), (2011), pp. 858-863.
[6] Ameh OJ, Odusami KT, Achi FO (2007) An Assessment of
Professional Ethics Content in the Academic Curriculum of
Construction Disciplines in Nigerian Universities”. Final report of
the CEBE SIG for professional training advisers in the schools of
architecture, downloaded on 26/03/2009 from
http://www.cebe.heacademy.ac.uk/news
/events/beecon2007/files/P19_O.J%20Ameh.pdf.
[7] American Society of Testing and Materials (2011) Standard
Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes.
(Unified Soil Classification System D2487-11,), ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, www.astm.org
[8] Oni AO (2010) Analysis of incidences of collapsed buildings
inLagos Metropolis, Nigeria, International Journal of Strategic
Property Management, 14:4, 332-346To link to this article:
http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/ijspm.2010.25
[9] Bayode S, Omosuyi GO, Abdullai HI ( 2012) Post-Foundation
Engineering Geophysical Investigation in Part of the Federal
University of Technology, Akure, Southwestern Nigeria, Journal
of Emerging Trends in Engineering and Applied Sciences
(JETEAS), 3 (1), pp. 91-97.
[10] British Standard BS: 5930. (1981) Universal Soil Classification
System (USCS), Code of Practice for Site Investigation.
[11] British Standard Institute BS: 1337(1990) Methods of Tests for
Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes.
[12] British Standard Institution. British Standard BS 8004: (1986)
Code of Practice for Foundations. British Standard Institution.
[13] Chinwokwu G (2000) The Role of Professionals in Averting
Building Collapse Proceedings of a 2-Day Seminar of the Nigerian
Institute of Building (Lagos State Chapter) on Building Collapse,
Causes, Prevention and Remedies, Lagos Airport Hotel, Ikeja 3
171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS
17
[14] Das BM (2006) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Stamford,
CT: Thomson Learning College.
[15] Das BM (2007) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. Adapted
International Student Edition, California State University,
Sacramento, Thompson Pub. 417p.
[16] Egwuonwu GN, Sule PO (2012) Geophysical Investigation of
Foundation Failure of a Leaning Superstructure in Zaria Area,
Northern Nigeria. Research Journal in Engineering and Applied
Sciences, 1(2) , 110-116
[17] Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs, (undated)
“National Programme for Capacity Building of Architects for
Earthquake Risk Management (NPCBAERM)” National Disaster
Management downloaded on 28/03/2009 from
http://74.125.47.132/search?Q=cacje:NaG38DfsY8kj:www.
ndmindia.nic.in/EQProjects/N.
[18] Jones HA, Hockey RD(1964) The Geology of Parts of
Southwestern Nigeria. Lagos. Geological Survey of Nigeria
Bulletin. 31:101.
[19] Kogbe CA (1976) Paleogeographic History of Nigeria from Albian
Time. In: Geology of Nigeria. C.A. Kogbe (ed.). University of Ife:
Nigeria. 237- 252.
[20] Littlejohn GS, ColeKW, Mellors TW (1994) Without Site
Investigation Ground is a Hazard, Proceedings of the Institution of
Engineers. 102: 72- 78.
[21] Meyerhof GG(1956) Penetration Tests and Bearing Capacity of
Cohesionless Soils. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE, Vol. 82, No. SM1, January, pp. 1-19.
[22] News24.com downloaded on 31/03/09 from
http://www.news24.com/news24/Africa/news/0,2-11-1447_1
97770.
[23] Nwajide CS (2013) Geology of Nigeria's Sedimentary Basins. CSS
Bookshops Ltd. Lagos 565p.
[24] Obiechina N (2005) How Stakeholders can conquer the Monster of
Building Collapse in The Guardian, Monday, August 22, 2005 p.
43, 44.
[25] Ofomola MO, Adiat KAN, Olayanju GM, Ako BD(2009).
Integrated Geophysical Methods for Post Foundation Studies,
Obanla Staff Quarters of the Federal University of Technology,
Akure, Nigeria. Pacific Journal of Science and Technology. 10(2),
pp. 93-111.
[26] Ogbe FGA (1972)Stratigraphy of Strata Exposed in the Ewekoro
Quarry, Western Nigeria Cont on African Geology. Ibadan,
Nigeria.
[27] Omatsola ME, Adegoke OS(1981). Tectonic Evolution and
Cretaceous Stratigraphy of the Dahomey Basin. Jour. Min. Geol.
18(1):130 – 137
[28] Opara PN (2006) Building Collapse in Lagos State: Causes and
Recommendations. Journal of Technology and Education in
Nigeria 11 (1): 58-65.
[29] Opara PN (2007) Building Failures and Collapses: A Case Study
of Portharcourt, Nigeria Journal of Technology and Education in
Nigeria, 12 (1):35-39.
[30] Oyewande B (1992) The Search for Quality in the Construction
Industry. Builders Magazine, Lagos, Jan – Feb.
[31] Oyedele KF (2009) Engineering Geophysical Approach to
Progressive or Sudden Collapse of Engineering Structures in
Lagos, Nigeria. The Journal of American Science, 5(5); 91-100
[32] Peck RB, Hanson WE, Thornburn WH (1976). Foundation
Engineering, 2 Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York. 568p.
[33] Roddis WMK (1993) structural failures and engineering ethics,
Journal of Structural Engineering-ASCE, 119(5), pp. 1539–1555.
Doi: 10.1061/(asce)0733-9445(1993)119:5(1539)
[34] Sowers GB, Sower GE (1970) Introductory Soil Mechanics and
Foundations, Macmillan Book Publishing Company, London. 337p
[35] Sridharan A, Nagaraj HB(2012) Coefficient of Consolidation and
its Correlation with Index Properties of Remolded Soils.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, 27(5), 1-6.
[36] Terzaghi K, Peck R, Mesri, G (1996) Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice (3rd Edition). (Article 16.4) Wiley-
Interscience
[37] Terzaghi K, Peck RB (1967) Soil mechanics in engineering
practice, 2 editions, John Wiley & Sons. New York.
IJENS
 International Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences IJBAS-IJENS Vol:17 No:06 18
[38] Uzokwe AO (2006) Rising Incidence of Building Collapse in
Nigeria, Any Remedy?InNigeria world, Sunday, December 16,
2001 downloaded on 28/03/2009 from
http://nigeriaworld.com/columnist /uzokwe/12160/.html
[39] Vander VBPA (1988, 2004). Win Resist Version 1.0 Msc Research
Project, ITC, Delf Netherland
[40] Vanguard, Friday, September 12, (2003) 100 feared dead in Kebbi
boat mishap downloaded on 28/3/2009 from
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/naija_news/message/2935
[41] Wardhana K, Hadipriono FC (2003). Study of recent building
failures in the United States, Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, 17(3), pp. 151–158. doi:
10.1061/(asce)0887-3828(2003)17:3(151)
[42] Weihen S (1999) Corruption in Economic Development:
Beneficial Grease, Minor Annoyance, or Major Obstacle? The
World Bank Development.
[43] Windapo B (2006) The Threat of Building Collapse on Sustainable
Development in the Built Environment. Jos 9-12th August, 59-67.
[44] World Weather Information Service Lagos WWIS (2012) World
Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 28 August 2015from
http://worldweather.wmo.int/en/city.html? CityId=258

171805-1801-4949- IJBAS-IJENS @ February 2018 IJENS IJENS