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Role of Ingredients in Pasta Product Quality: A Review

on Recent Developments
a a
Tina Fuad & P. Prabhasankar
a
Flour Milling , Baking and Confectionery Technology Department Central Food
Technological Research Institute , Mysore, India
Published online: 08 Sep 2010.

To cite this article: Tina Fuad & P. Prabhasankar (2010) Role of Ingredients in Pasta Product Quality: A Review on Recent
Developments, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 50:8, 787-798, DOI: 10.1080/10408390903001693

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 Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 50:787–798 (2010)
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ISSN: 1040-8398
DOI: 10.1080/10408390903001693

Role of Ingredients in Pasta Product

Quality: A Review on Recent
Developments

TINA FUAD and P. PRABHASANKAR

Flour Milling, Baking and Confectionery Technology Department Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore,
India
Downloaded by [Dicle University] at 09:09 08 November 2014

Pasta is prepared using dough made from any suitable material such as semolina, durum flour, farina flour, corn, rice, wheat,
or any combination of these, with water. Also, pasta can be enriched, supplemented, fortified, or remain conventional. In
recent years, several ingredients and additives have been developed and are being used to improve the quality of pasta made
from aestivum or durum wheat. Here we analyze how the different ingredients play an important role in pasta manufacture
by enhancing nutritional parameters, palatability, and overall product quality.

Keywords Spaghetti, durum wheat, cooking quality, semolina

INTRODUCTION (http://www.pasta.unfpa.org). In Europe and North America,

Pasta products are produced by mixing milled wheat, water,
eggs (for egg noodles or egg spaghetti), and sometimes, optional
ingredients. These ingredients are typically added to a continu-
ous, high capacity auger extruder, which can be equipped with a
variety of dyes that determine the shape of the product. It is then
dried and packaged for market. Pasta is known as one of the most
ancient nourishments and a very versatile dish; both from the
nutritive and the gastronomic point of view (Antognelli, 1980).
It also provides significant quantities of complex carbohydrates,
proteins, B-vitamins, and iron and is low in sodium, amino acids,
and total fat (Douglass and Matthews, 1982). To obtain very high
quality pasta, care has to be taken right from the selection of
the raw materials, ingredients, and additives to the processing
line parameters and finally the packaging requirements. Recent
developments in pasta products include attempts to improve the
nutritional properties of the product by the addition of supple-
ments from various cheaper and high-protein sources.
pasta products such as spaghetti and macaroni are generally
produced exclusively from durum wheat. As a result, the demand
for durum tends to be quite price-inelastic. At 910 tons in 2005,
retail sales of pasta in India will be among the lowest in the
Asia-Pacific region and are even smaller in absolute terms than
in countries like Singapore and Vietnam. The low demand for
pasta and other extruded products in India is a result of the lack
of knowledge of pasta. Other than the urban elite, who are well
travelled, consumers are not aware of pasta. That said pasta
volumes grew at the scorching pace of almost 14% in 2005.
The essential ingredients of pasta are semolina (flour) and
water. All the other ingredients added are just optional and can
be of greater or lesser importance. Semolina flour is ground
from hard durum winter wheat and produces strong and elastic
dough because of the high level of gluten. The dough is easier
to form into different shapes and can be sent through an electric
pasta machine. It is therefore important to clearly understand
the specific role of wheat in pasta making.

Pasta Production Data

The world pasta production is dominated by the United States
and Canada followed by the countries of the European Union
Address correspondence to: P. Prabhasankar, Flour Milling, Baking and
Confectionery Technology Department, Central Food Technological Research
Institute, Mysore, 570020, India. Tel.: 91-821-2517730; Fax: 91-821-2517233.
E-mail: prabhasankar@lycos.com
787
Durum Wheat and Semolina
A quality pasta product begins with a high quality raw mate-
rial. Durum wheat (Triticum durum) is ideally suited for pasta
because of its unique properties like relatively high yellow pig-
ment content, low lipoxygenase activity, and high protein con-
tent favorable for good cooking quality (Aalami et al., 2007).
The dough made from durum wheat semolina has rheological
 788 T. FUAD AND P. PRABHASANKAR
properties ideally suited to the pasta manufacturing process. The
content and composition of proteins, gluten strength in particu-
lar, are important for the cooking quality of pasta (Cubadda et
al., 1992). This is highly influenced by both starch gelatinization
and protein network formation of cereal products. The many tex-
tures and culinary qualities of pasta are related to the interactions
of these two biopolymers in the presence of water (Resmini and
Pagani, 1983).
According to Feillet and Dexter (1996) the other properties of
durum wheat that influence pasta quality include milling perfor-
mance of semolina with the required degree of refinement that
can be extracted from wheat, the ability of the extracted semolina
to give pasta the required appearance, high resistance to break-
age, and cooking tolerance. It should have all the properties to
yield a product with discrete mass, higher water absorption, and
minimum solid loss on cooking. It should also give a strong,
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flexible, and dry finished product with good storage stability
and smooth clear surface, free from specs and bright amber
yellow color. However, not all durum wheat semolina produces
pasta of good cooking quality; many variables are involved in
pasta manufacturing and their role is not completely understood
(Resmini and Pagani, 1983).
Most pasta manufacturers prefer semolina, which consists of
fine particles of uniform size and produces the highest quality
pasta product. Semolina is composed of a collection of cells
from the starchy endosperm of the wheat plant. These cells are
composed of cell walls (bran), starch (endosperm), proteins, and
enzymes. New insights into the processing of durum semolina
in the pasta industry, in conjunction with new process technolo-
gies have had a considerable influence on the specifications the
semolina must meet. To obtain the best quality pasta, ideally
semolina should have a good yellow color, adequate amount
of gluten proteins, minimum dark or bran specks with uniform
granulation, and a moisture content of 13.5–14.5%.
Pasta making with Indian Durum Wheat Varieties
Aalami et al. (1971) carried out extensive studies to evaluate
the spaghetti making potential of Indian durum wheat varieties
in relation to their protein and yellow pigment content as well
as peroxidase (POD), polyphenol oxidase (PPO), lipoxygenase
(LOX), and protease activities. They observed that LOX activity
varies widely among durum wheat varieties, as it is an inherited
characteristic. The desirable yellow color in pasta products is
not always derived from higher pigment content but rather lower
LOX activities.
Auerman et al. (1971) reported that wheat germ and bran
contains 17-times and 4-times more LOX activity, respectively,
than the endosperm. It can, however, be noted here that during
milling of wheat into semolina, most of the bran and germ is
removed and about 7.9% of the yellow pigment is lost. In ad-
dition, it can be assessed that the Indian durum wheat does not
necessarily contain more POD activity than aestivum wheat as
it is preferably eliminated during milling. Kobrehel et al. (1974)
have explained that along with POD, PPO activity would con-
trol the brownness of the pasta product. However, Dexter et al.
(1994), working on debranned and non-debranned wheat, have
explained that the low level of PPO found in processed wheat
makes it unlikely that PPO activity is a major factor determin-
ing spaghetti color. Similar to POD, PPO is concentrated in the
bran layers of wheat. A considerable part of this enzyme can be
removed during durum wheat milling and semolina production.
Non-Durum Pasta
It is interesting to note that durum wheat (Triticum durum),
the primary ingredient in “Italian style” pasta, contributes only
to 5% of the world’s wheat production, and it generally trades
at a higher price than the common wheat (Triticum aestivum).
Therefore, to meet the growing pasta consumption, it is nec-
essary to produce pasta from unconventional commodities, but
adequate processing and balanced formulations are required to
counteract their poor technological properties.
Spelt Pasta
Spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is an old Eu-
ropean crop which has been grown for centuries in several
countries of central Europe (e.g. Belgium, Germany, Austria,
Slovenia, and northern parts of Italy). For many years, culti-
vation of spelt declined, but recent interest in use of spelt for
ecologically grown foods has led to resurgence in its cultiva-
tion. Spelt is now receiving a renewed interest for its nutritional
qualities and, from an agronomic point of view, for its resistance
to pests and its ability to grow in soils of limited fertility and in
harsh ecological conditions in wet and cold climates where it is
better adapted than wheat (Bonafaccia et al., 2000).
Marconi et al. (2002) report that Triticum spelta L. wheat has
rheological and technological properties close to those of durum
wheat. It can therefore be used to make pasta with good nutri-
tional and sensory properties. It was demonstrated by them that
as long as the protein content is more than 13.5% (correspond-
ing to ≈15 percentage protein content in the grains) and high
drying temperatures are used, spelt flours could be processed
in manufacturing pasta with satisfactory cooking quality. The
starch in spelt wheat undergoes hydrolysis more rapidly in the
first period; thus products could be used in diets where readily
digested carbohydrates are preferred. Further, spelt wheat and
its products could serve as an abundant source of protein and,
lastly, a great proportion of soluble fiber emerges in the final
spelt wheat product.
Pasta from Dicoccum Wheat
Bhuvaneswari et al. (2005) studied pasta making and the
extrusion qualities of dicoccum wheat species. Triticum dicoc-
cum is a good source of protein, dietary fiber, and β-carotene
with low carbohydrate digestibility and its products showed a
low glycemic index. However, commercially it is not popular
 ROLE OF INGREDIENTS IN PASTA PRODUCT QUALITY
due to difficulty in dehulling and the presence of red pigment,
which deteriorates its appearance and hence consumer accep-
tance. The vermicelli prepared from dicoccum wheat species
showed a good vermicelli quality with low percent solubility
and firmer strands like durum wheat vermicelli. It was reddish
brown while durum vermicelli was bright yellow due to its high
β-carotene content. The swelling power of vermicelli prepared
from dicoccum wheat flours shows positive and significant as-
sociation with protein and ash contents.
The lower value of percent solubility was found to be due
to higher ash content. The firmer strands of dicoccum and
durum wheat vermicelli could be attributed to the high level
of amylase-lipid complexes on the surface of starch granules,
which resulted in less retrogradation of starch, thereby altering
the distribution of water between starch granules and the
surrounding continuous medium and making the strands firmer
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(Matsou, 1994). Lin and Rothjel (1996) had isolated gliadin
sub-units from certain dicoccum wheat species used for the
preparation of vermicelli. These are generally the main proteins
for good quality pasta in terms of gluten strength. These higher
amounts of wet gluten content made these species give a
comparatively good cooking quality.
Pasta from Aestivum Wheat
Economically speaking, the use of soft wheat flour for pasta
production could be advantageous; however, the poor sensory
attributes and cooking quality of such products have dictated that
durum semolina be used. Attempts to overcome the poor quality
of non-conventional pasta have primarily relied on the use of ad-
ditives and high temperature (HT) drying (Bergman et al., 1994).
Chimrov et al. (1981) reported that with the addition of sodium
alginate or calcium gluconate, there was a decrease in soft wheat
pasta’s cooking loss, and its textural measurements were similar
to that of hard wheat pasta. Haber et al. (1978) found an increase
in soft wheat farina pasta firmness when soybean or cotton-
seed meal was added. Soybean meal improved the pasta color,
while cottonseed compromised it. The most dramatic findings
come from studies on HT drying of non-conventional pasta—
improved firmness, color intensity, and cooking quality as have
been reported by Abécassis et al. (1989).
Bergman et al. (1994) conducted experiments to develop
high-temperature-dried soft wheat pasta supplemented with
cowpea and estimated its cooking quality, color, and sensory
characteristics. They observed that supplementation of soft
wheat flour with 30% cowpea meal improved the pasta color
score, because the meal contained more carotenoids than did
the soft wheat flour. During pasta cooking, there is competition
between starch and protein for water (Pagani, 1986). Also, when
less protein surrounds starch granules, they swell and gelatinize
faster. Thus, it is postulated that legume addition, along with
its greater amount of protein, results in slower starch swelling
and, subsequently, a longer time requirement for gelatinization
to occur, resulting in a longer cooking time.
789
From the above discussions, it is clear that durum wheat is the
best raw material for pasta. However, durum wheat commands
a premium price over other wheat; the market trend is slowly
shifting to different wheat species for pasta preparation. Soft
wheat flour is seldom used to produce Italian-style pasta because
of its inferior quality when compared to durum wheat. Studies
have shown that perfectly good and legitimate products can be
made from mixtures of durum and soft wheat at up to 25% soft
wheat. Nevertheless, it becomes necessary that other additives
are used or improved processing conditions be employed, to get
a good quality product.
India is a major durum wheat producer with production of
around 2.5 million tons per year and has the potential to export
this wheat to the world market. On the other hand, pasta prod-
ucts are becoming quite popular in this subcontinent. However,
there is still limited data available on the suitability of Indian du-
rum wheat for pasta production. A literature survey carried out
in this direction revealed the importance of non-conventional
wheat species and additives available for quality pasta making.
Extensive research has been carried out on the nature and func-
tionality of protein components of wheat. However, relatively
little research has so far been directed towards defining the be-
havior of these proteins during processes such as pasta making.
In fact, this is important for wheat breeders and processors,
so that they are provided with a much clearer definition than
that which exists at present, of the specific functional properties
required in wheat.
OPTIONAL INGREDIENTS
As discussed earlier, the best pasta products are generally pro-
duced from durum semolina because of the excellent rheological
properties of the dough and superior color, cooking quality, and
consumer acceptance of the product (Dexter and Matson, 1979).
However, it is possible to use non-durum wheat ingredients to
produce specifically blended pasta. Several studies have been
carried out to improve the nutritional properties of pasta, adding
to it supplements from various high-protein sources. Brennan
et al. (2004) explain that pasta products can be fortified with
protein sources such as fish protein concentrates, soy flours, soy
isolates, milk and milk products, cottonseed meal, egg albumin,
whey proteins, and yeast protein concentrates. Moreover, high-
protein plant materials can be derived from pea, lupine, and
buckwheat and can be used as concentrated form, isolates, or
flour. Here we consider the possible ingredients and additives
that make the list of variety pasta products long and interesting.
Flour
Several choices of flour can be used when making pasta.
Each affects the color, flavor, and texture in a different manner.
Table 1 shows some of the different flours that are available and
gives a description of each.
 790 T. FUAD AND P. PRABHASANKAR
Table 1 Different flours used for pasta products
Flour Dough
Unbleached White Flour Firm, easy to handle
Semolina Flour Strong, elastic dough; easier to form into
different shapes
Whole Wheat Flour Heavier pasta requires a little more water
for dough
Buckwheat Flour Pasta dough with a fairly gritty texture
Brown Rice Flour High in fiber
Corn Meal Dough is too grainy and is difficult to roll
out or extrude
Source: http://www.hormel.com
Oil
Oil is not essential in making good pasta but when added, the
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texture of the pasta is smoother and silkier. It will also produce
dough that easily extrudes from the pasta machine. Generally,
olive oil is used to enhance the flavor.
Egg
The addition of egg to pasta imparts a more yellow color
and enhances the nutritional value of the product. The texture
of egg pasta is stronger than plain pasta and the mouth-feel is
quite different. The finished product has a premium and is sold
at a much higher price. Egg may be added in either liquid or dry
form. Though liquid eggs are preferred considering the product
quality, obvious safeguards on microbiological quality are
essential. There are fewer problems with dried egg, it gives a
longer storage life and fewer risks are associated with it. Cassia
et al. (2004) suggested that the various advantages of dried egg
over liquid egg like ease of transport, storage at room temper-
ature, reduced volume, longer shelf life, ease of mixing with
wheat flour, etc. could be of great importance in pasta making.
Since eggs are the characterizing ingredients for fresh egg
pasta, egg products are provided with legal chemical indices like
3-hydroxy butyric acid, succinic acid, lactic acid, and uracil, in
order to evaluate their hygienic quality. Alamprese et al. (2004)
specify that uracil must be absent in sound eggs. However, while
the presence of uracil in fresh egg pasta is enough to give the
egg ingredient negative judgement, the level of succinic acid is
more difficult to interpret, since this acid is naturally present
in wheat products and seems to be thermolabile as well. A
typical microbiological specification for egg product ingredient
considering 1 g pasteurized liquid egg and dried whole egg,
pathogens like Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and
Salmonella should be absent (Kill and Turnbull, 2002).
SUPPLEMENTED PASTA
Pasta is recognized as low in sodium and fat with no choles-
terol and a rich source of complex carbohydrates (Giese, 1992).
However, it is low in vitamins, iron, lysine, and threonine. There-
Color Properties Products
Creamy beige Basic pasta flavor Home-made pasta
Yellow Basic pasta flavor All types of pasta products
Brownish yellow More vitamins and fiber Flat noodles
Darker color Slightly smoother texture Wide and thick ribbon pasta
Tan or light brown in color Slightly sweet flavor Flat ribbon pasta
Darker color Slight nut-like flavor Flat noodles
fore, pasta was one of the first foods to be authorized by the FDA
(Food and Drug Administration) for enrichment with vitamins
and iron in 1949 (FDA, 1999).
The effects of cooking on thiamin, riboflavin, pyridoxine,
niacin, and iron concentration in enriched spaghetti were inves-
tigated by Carvalho et al. (1997). These nutrients were deter-
mined in spaghetti before cooking, in the cooking water, and
in cooked spaghetti. They observed that the mean retention val-
ues in the cooked spaghetti for thiamin 69%; riboflavin 69%;
pyridoxine 65%; niacin 67%; and Fe 72%. Some of the added
nutrients in the fortified spaghetti were leached into the cooking
water. Proportions of the added nutrients which were present in
the cooking water were—thiamin 18%; riboflavin 14%; pyri-
doxine 17%; niacin 8%; and Fe 2%. To make use of nutrients
leached into the cooking water, it is suggested that short pasta
types used in soup should be used in food enrichment programs.
Soy Flour
Soy flour can be used to supplement protein in macaroni
and to produce a quick cooking pasta product. Shogren et al.
(2006) observed that spaghetti with high protein and high-lysine
content can be obtained by adding up to 35% soy flour with-
out an adverse effect on the flavor and texture and should re-
sult in greater acceptability of soy-based food. They also re-
ported a diminution of cooking time in pasta products made
from wheat and soya. The higher the substitution level of sub-
stitution, the shorter was the cooking time. Taha (1992) verified
that there were higher cooking losses in noodles from defatted,
soy-supplemented whole durum wheat, although cooking water
absorption and cooking loss were higher in all supplemented
macaroni.
Buckwheat Flour
Buckwheat contains starch (65–75%), proteins (10–12.5%),
lipids (4.7%), many valuable compounds such as minerals salts
(Mg, P, and K), vitamins B1 and B2, dietary fiber (Bonafaccia et
al., 2003), and anti-oxidative substances such as rutin (flavonal
glycoside) which are useful in combating vascular diseases due
to capillary fragility (Watanabe, 1998). Buckwheat proteins are
 ROLE OF INGREDIENTS IN PASTA PRODUCT QUALITY
rich in globulin and albumin, but very low in glutelin and pro-
lamin content and they have a high biological value due to
well-balanced amino acid composition that is rich in lysine and
arginine (Pomeranz and Robbins, 1972).
Chillo et al. (2008) studied how the addition of buckwheat
flour and durum wheat bran influenced spaghetti quality. They
found that the redness of the spaghetti with added buckwheat
and bran was higher than that made from durum semolina. The
consumer accepts this color variation, as pasta rich in dietary
fiber is associated with a darker color.
Manthey et al. (2004) found that the addition of buckwheat
bran flour (up to 30%) determined a decrease of optimal cook-
ing time of spaghetti due to physical disruption of the gluten
matrix and overall low density, which provided a path for wa-
ter absorption into the enriched spaghetti, which resulted in
shorter cooking times. Cooking quality is related to the ability
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of spaghetti to maintain the mechanical properties attained at the
optimal cooking conditions even during overcooking. The rate
of change of the elastic modulus taken from a range of cooking
times, where the optimal cooking time is included, might be
taken as an index of spaghetti cooking quality—the lower the
rate of change, the higher is the quality during cooking and, in
particular, overcooking (Del Nobile et al., 2005). Likely, this
phenomenon can be due to the tendency of buckwheat starch
to undergo retrogradation, which improves the reticulation of
starch materials and provides a compact structure, which com-
pensates the lack of gluten network (Skrabanja and Kreft, 1998).
Maize
Flours from indigenous cereals like maize cannot replace
wheat in pasta making because they lack gluten. However, it is
possible to prepare pasta with maize in an admixture with durum
wheat. The quality of the blended pasta product improves by the
application of high temperature at the end of the drying process.
The maize millstream characteristics determined the quality of
the maize pasta; flours with low lipid content and very fine gran-
ulometry produced pasta with good color characteristics and
high cooking quality, with especially good surface conditions.
Mestres et al. (1990) studied all the parameters involved in
the production of blended maize pasta and observed that the
maize variety has no influence on pasta cooking quality. Also,
fine maize flours (particle size less than 100 µm) gave pasta
with higher cooking quality and heat treatment at 90◦ C for
2 hours improved the quality of the product with a lower cook-
ing loss. The extrusion conditions such as screw and extrusion
chamber geometry greatly affected the quality of maize pasta.
Also, macaroni dyes appeared suitable for making maize pasta
since macaroni had better cooking quality than spaghetti.
Germinated Pigeon Pea
Pigeon pea has low concentrations of fat, moderate amount
of fiber, good amount of proteins and starch, and a reason-
791
ably balanced range of all dietary essential minerals. Besides
these nutrients, pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan) also contain anti-
nutritional factors, such as phytic acid, α-galactosides, tannins,
saponins, and trypsin inhibitors (Duhan et al., 2001).
Torres et al. (2007) did extensive studies to increase the nu-
tritional value of pigeon peas by germination and incorporat-
ing the obtained pigeon pea sprout flour to supplement du-
rum wheat pasta. They observed that germination increased
the amounts of vitamins B2, E, and C but reduced the anti-
nutritional factors. During germination, a mobilization of re-
serve nutrients occurs and α-galactosides are used as a source
of energy. Vı́dal-Valverde and Frı́as (1992) reported the to-
tal elimination of raffinose, stachyose, and ciceritol in lentils
after 96 hours of germination. Vidal-Valverde et al. (2001)
found, after 6 days of germination of lentils and beans, the
total removal of α-galactosides, and the presence of soluble
sugars.
Also, inositol hexaphosphate (64% of the total inositol phos-
phate content) present in the raw seeds was decreased by 61%,
following four days of germination. Therefore, mineral bioavail-
ability and protein and starch digestibility increased in germi-
nated seeds (Honke et al., 1998). Messina (1999) reported that as
a consequence of phytate reduction after germination, zinc and
calcium bioavailability increased. Sathe and Salunkhe (1981)
observed a significant reduction (62–69%) in trypsin inhibitory
activity as well as an appreciable reduction in chymotrypsin
and α-amylase inhibitor activities. The advantages of decreased
trypsin inhibitor activity during germination have been corre-
lated with an improvement in the quality of the seed proteins
(Kavas and Nehir El, (1992).
Germinated seeds, by these benefits, were incorporated as
high-protein ingredients (up to 10%) in pasta making resulting
in products with good acceptability and larger amounts of pro-
tein, total available sugars, dietary fiber, fat, calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, iron and other micronutrients, vitamins
and Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER) than pasta made from 100%
durum semolina. Cooking time was also significantly smaller
than 100% semolina pasta.
Taha (1992) verified that cooking water absorption and cook-
ing loss were higher in all supplemented macaroni. Increased
cooking water absorption could be explained as changes in the
nature of the interaction of legume starch with fiber and/or with
proteins, as a consequence of the germination process and sub-
sequent cooking, rendering it more digestible (Urooj and Put-
taraj, 1994). Cooking losses could be attributed to the structural
changes in the protein network because of substitution of wheat
protein by legumes.
Chickpea Flour
Pure pasta from durum wheat is limiting in two of the eight
essential amino acids, lysine and threonine. The use of chickpea
flour in pasta solves this problem as it contains a large quantity
of high quality protein. The incorporation of chickpea flour also
 792 T. FUAD AND P. PRABHASANKAR
increased the mineral and fat contents of pasta, thus increasing
the nutritional value of the product.
Sabanis et al.(2006) studied the effect of supplementation of
lasagna with chickpea flour to provide a nutritional and highly
protein-stable yet economical product. They observed that as
the chickpea flour incorporation increased, the water uptake
increased considerably. This swelling property influenced the
texture of cooked lasagna. However, the lasagna with 5–10%
chickpea flour retained its firmness and the percentage of break-
age was low. For increasing amounts of chickpea flour, lasagna
processing, handling, and cooking characteristics deteriorated
considerably due to the dilution of gluten fraction by the added
protein. The effect may be also accentuated by the presence
of undesirable enzymes or constituents in chickpea flour that
interact strongly with gluten proteins and thereby inhibit the
development of desirable rheological properties.
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Garcı́a-Alonso et al. (1998) observed that dried legume seeds
generally promote slow and moderate post-prandial blood glu-
cose increase. This supplemented pasta, with a low glycemic
index (GI), can be beneficial as it improves metabolic control of
hyper-lipidaemia in diabetic patients as well as in healthy sub-
jects. This health benefit is due to the rigidity of cotyledonary
cell walls and intrinsically low enzyme susceptibility of legume
starches. The presence of polyphenols and other α-amylase in-
hibitors (Tovar, 1992) and a high proportion of non-digestible
carbohydrates, such as resistant starch, non-starch polysaccha-
rides, and oligosaccharides (Bjórk et al., 2000) may also con-
tribute to the low GI value.
Defatted Corn Germ Flour
Corn germ proteins have extremely high water binding ca-
pacity and far exceed the absorption ability of whey protein
concentrate and soy derivative. In addition, the fat absorp-
tion and the emulsifying properties of germ proteins are good.
Lucisano et al. (1984) evaluated the influence of germ flour addi-
tion on the functional and sensory properties of pasta, observed
a higher percentage of proteins, and improved amino acid pat-
terns mainly due to the corn-germ lysine content. The enriched
pasta gave a darker and more reddish color when measured using
Hunter Lab spectrophotometer. They observed that farinograph
water absorption, dough development time, and dough stability
increased with increasing levels of defatted corn germ flour.
Corn Gluten Meal
Corn gluten meal is the high-protein fraction obtained af-
ter wet milling of corn to yield starch, oil, protein, and fiber.
It is generally avoided in food products due to its unpleasant
taste. However, supercritical CO2 extraction can be used to im-
prove the flavor of corn gluten meal. Wu et al. (2001) prepared
spaghetti fortified with corn gluten meal and observed that it
had a similar cooked weight and cooking loss but was less firm
than normal spaghetti. However, the pasta color was darker and
the intensity of yellow color decreased with increasing amounts
of corn gluten meal. In particular, they observed an increase in
essential amino acid content in the enriched spaghetti.
Inulin
Inulin is a non-digestible fructo-oligosaccharide (Tungland,
2000) used traditionally as a fat-replacer in dairy foods and
to provide stability to the product. El-Nagar et al. (2002) ob-
served that inulin inhibits starch degradation and hence alters the
amount of sugars released during the digestion of carbohydrate-
rich pasta products, with little influence on the textural attributes.
Thus, it has the potential to regulate glycemic response without
compromising the pasta quality. Brennan et al. (2004) found that
the pasta containing inulin has a significantly lower dry matter
content, firmness, and swelling index. The nutritional quality of
inulin-enriched pasta, in terms of its digestibility, gives a good
indication of a reduced rate of starch degradation and allows the
calculation of a predictive glycemic index (GI) of the pasta sam-
ples. This value was obtained by using the formula proposed by
Brighenti et al. (1995) which takes into account the amount of
sugars released rate of starch degradation and also the chemical
composition of the sample.
Both the decreased swelling index and reduced water ab-
sorption exhibited by inulin pasta samples may be explained
by the characteristics of inulin. Being highly hydrophilic, it is
likely that the inulin preferentially absorbs the water, inhibiting
starch swelling, and absorption of water, which in turn may alter
the structure of the pasta produced (Tudorica et al., 2002). A
general trend was observed with a reduction in GI proportional
to the amount of inulin used in the formulation. These results,
indicating a reduced rate of starch digestibility in the presence
of inulin, could be related to the observations regarding cook-
ing properties. As the swelling index and the water absorption
values were lower for inulin pasta than for the control, a pos-
sible explanation could be that higher levels of inulin inhibit
the swelling and gelatinization of the starch, and hence reduce
starch digestibility. The theory of thermodynamic incompati-
bility (Tolstoguzov, 2003) may help to explain this interaction
between the starch and non-starch polysaccharides in the pasta
matrix. The reduction in starch degradation within the samples
containing inulin would result from the inulin preferentially
hydrating, aggregating, and forming a matrix, encasing starch
granules in a semi-solid gel. This encasing of starch granules
would possibly limit water movement to the starch granules in
the pasta, reducing gelatinization events. Reduction in water
movement may also interfere with the accessibility of starch-
degrading enzymes to the partially gelatinized starch granules.
Tudorica et al. (2002) explain that pasta firmness can be related
to the hydration of starch granules during the cooking process,
and the subsequent embedding of gelatinizing starch granules in
a matrix of partially denatured protein. As such, the decrease in
firmness and swelling index may be associated with a reduction
in starch gelatinization in the pasta.
 ROLE OF INGREDIENTS IN PASTA PRODUCT QUALITY
Lupin
Detailed studies on white lupin have revealed that some of
its specific protein fractions may be useful in controlling hy-
perglycemia and hyperlipedemia (Magni et al., 2004). Also,
white lupin has no genetically modified varieties commercially
available and has very low content of the main anti-nutritional
components (Champ, 2002). It is observed that increased addi-
tion of lupin protein reduces cooked weight and pasta firmness.
Therefore, the fortification of spaghetti with up to 5% lupin pro-
tien isolate (LPI) permits to obtain a functional food product
endowed with an acceptable color, satisfactory standard param-
eters defining the cooking quality, and good nutritional charac-
teristics (Doxastakis et al., 2007). The cooking quality is the
most important feature of pasta that encompasses the following
characteristics: (a) the weight of cooked pasta indicating the
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water uptake during cooking; (b) the cooking loss, related to
solid leaching during cooking and considered as an indicator of
the overall cooking performance; (c) the texture of the cooked
product, which indicates firmness and resilience.
The optimal spaghetti cooking time is independent of the LPI
percentage and within the normal range of semolina spaghetti.
Water uptake during cooking is responsible for the texture of
cooked spaghetti. In semolina spaghetti, the ideal expected
cooked weight is about three times larger than the dry weight
(Dick and Youngs, 1988). On the contrary, the addition of higher
amounts of LPI (above 5%) produces a significant decrease in
the cooked weight, which becomes dramatic when the incor-
poration reaches 15% and 20%. A similar behavior was found
by Bahnassey and Khan (1986) who supplemented spaghetti
with different legume flours and protein concentrates. Cooking
loss values lower than 7–8% is expected for semolina spaghetti
(Dick and Youngs, 1988). Whereas in the case of lupin spaghetti,
increasing LPI percentages were responsible for increased cook-
ing losses and the incorporation of more than 5% LPI-E results
in an unacceptable cooking loss. Of course these results agree
with the cooked weight decreasing in the same samples. The
main technological role of durum wheat gluten is the formation
of an internal network that holds the pasta components together.
The addition of lupin protein isolate seems to dilute the gluten
strength and weaken the overall structure of the spaghetti, thus
resulting in increased cooking loss (Doxastakis et al., 2007).
Milk Proteins
Formulation of milk protein based vermicelli (seviah) pro-
vides excellent nutrition at a reasonable price. The addition of
insoluble lactalbumin and whey products to semolina resulted
in functional advantages (Towler, 1982). Niturkar et al. (1992)
conducted studies on the formulation of vermicelli with milk
protein fortified semolina and white flour. They observed in-
creased thread length with improvement in color, texture, and
sensory properties of the cooked product. A reduction in the
thread thickness resulted with the incorporation of skim milk
793
proteins. Also, the thread texture was coarse to feathery and
there was an increasing brittleness in the product. It was ob-
served that 4% protein fortification is the optimum level of milk
protein incorporation.
Whey Protein Concentrate
Whey represents a rich and varied mixture of secreted pro-
teins with wide ranging chemical, physical and functional
properties (Smithers et al., 1996). Such proteins include α-
lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, im-
munoglobulins, glycomacropeptide, and a variety of growth
factors. These proteins have been implicated in a number of
biological effects ranging from anti-cancer activity to influence
on digestive function. Once partially digested, it serves as a
source of amino acids and bioactive peptides with further phys-
iological activity. Prabhasankar et al. (2007) investigated the
physical, cooking, sensory, and micro-structural characteristics
of vermicelli enriched with whey protein concentrate (WPC).
The effect of WPC on the amylograph characteristics of
semolina was studied using Micro-Visco Amylograph. The re-
sults showed that with an increase in WPC from 0% to 10%, the
gelatinization temperature increased from 69.9 to 73.8◦ C. Kim
and Walker (1992) reported that the increase in gelatinization
could be due to lactose that competes with prime starch for wa-
ter and decreases water activity or interacts with starch chains
and thus raises the gelatinization temperature. The fall in the
peak viscosity from 1187 BU to 684 BU indicates decreased gel
strength due to dilution of gluten.
Bimlesh and Malik (1996) in their study on ultra-filtered
whey protein concentrate observed a decrease in viscosity of
WPC initially and then (at 50◦ C and above) an increase due to
denaturation of the proteins. The results indicate that cooked
weight and cooking loss of the enriched pasta increases with
increasing levels of WPC. This increase in cooking loss, as evi-
dent in the amylograph characteristics, could be due to leaching
of sugars from WPC into gruel. Sensory evaluation of vermicelli
showed that with the increase in WPC in the blend, the color
of vermicelli strands changed from creamish white to white.
Further, use of combinations of additives namely gluten, ascor-
bic acid, and emulsifiers improved the quality characteristics of
vermicelli with 5% WPC.
Fiber Ingredient
The potential health benefits of dietary fiber have been well
documented in relation to the bowel transit time, prevention
of constipation, reduced risk of colorectal cancer, production of
short-chain fatty acids, and promotion of colonic health by stim-
ulating the growth of beneficial microflora (Giullon and Champ,
2000). Gillmaore and Merritt, 1990) invented a reduced calorie,
high-fiber pasta product, where the bulk is increased and tex-
ture improved by replacing a portion of the edible flour with a
 794 T. FUAD AND P. PRABHASANKAR
source of edible fiber. They found that fibers from sources like
corn, oats, peas, soya bean, and cellulose could be incorporated
into pasta dough, at amounts up to about 30% by weight with a
great improvement in the texture, flavor, and color retention of
the final, low calorie, cooked pasta. A suitable reducing agent is
added, depending on the amount of added fiber source, to obtain
improved texture and mouth feel. The reducing agent also pro-
tects the edible material from chemicals or photo-degradation of
natural vitamins or coloring agents like β-carotene, chlorophyll,
xanthophylls, etc.
Studies conducted by Tudorica et al. (2002) on the nutritional
and physicochemical characteristics of dietary fiber enriched
pasta showed that both the type and amount of added fiber influ-
ence the overall quality of the product. The inclusion of dietary
fibers (pea fiber and inulin) into pasta leads to a disruption in
the protein matrix. Conversely, inclusion of soluble fiber, such
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as guar gum, results in the entrapment of starch granules within
a viscous protein-fiber-starch network. The starch degradation
and the subsequent glucose release can be significantly reduced
by the addition of guar gum. It has a hypoglycemic effect, im-
proving in this way glycemic control in diabetics (Jenkins et al.,
2000).
Tudorica et al. (2002) observed that the addition of 10% guar
gum increased the swelling index by 3%, and in turn reduced
the cooking loss. This may be due to its higher capacity to
absorb and retain water within a well-developed starch-protein-
polysaccharide network. Also, this could be due to the soluble
nature of guar gum polysaccharides and their interaction during
the encapsulation of starch-protein network. This strengthens
the structural integrity of pasta. The use of pea fiber and inulin
increases the cooking loss because of disruption of the protein-
starch matrix and the uneven distribution of water in the pasta
matrix due to the competitive hydration tendency of added fiber,
thus preventing starch swelling due to limited water availabil-
ity. An overall reduction in pasta elasticity was observed with
fiber addition, which can be related to the disruptive behavior of
fiber on the protein-starch binding during pasta matrix forma-
tion. Also, the added fiber interferes with the structure of pasta,
lowers the continuity of the protein-starch matrix, and lowers
the firmness. Thus, the incorporation of fiber significantly alters
the quality attributes of pasta products.
Yeast Cells
Akin et al. (1976) prepared a protein fortified pasta prod-
uct, with yeast and soy protein isolates, having improved taste,
texture, and cooking properties. The addition of soy protein to
pasta formulations results in a product characterized by light
brown to red-brown color and a light beany taste. Moreover,
the loss of some of the soluble proteins in the cooking water
makes soy pasta unattractive to the customer. However, they
discovered that the addition of yeast (about 1–16%) with soy
flour (6.25–12%) facilitates the production of high protein pasta
products, with desirable nutritional, flavor, texture, and cooking
qualities, eliminating the disadvantages cited earlier. Supple-
mentation of pasta with dried yeast has many advantages. The
yeast protein holds the texture of macaroni together, reduces
the amount of soluble solids lost during cooking, and increases
lysine, vitamin, and protein content. It also ensures a better nu-
tritive product with flavor and texture stability that is free from
any undesirable color. Yeast imparts retort stability to canned
macaroni, imparts freeze-thaw-heat or cool cycle stability to the
macaroni texture, and elasticity to the pasta dough.
NON-TRADITIONAL INGREDIENTS
Non-traditional ingredients, such as buckwheat bran flour,
flaxseed flour, and wheat bran can be added to pasta to improve
its nutritional value and to provide potential health benefits to
consumers (Yalla and Manthey, 2006). These ingredients con-
tain more protein and lipid than semolina. Steadman et al. (2001)
found that buckwheat bran flour has 150 g kg −1 , flaxseed 350–
400 g kg −1 and durum wheat bran 360-405 g kg −1 total dietary
fiber. This affects the hydration properties of these ingredients.
With increased hydration, the specific mechanical energy trans-
ferred to the dough during extrusion declined. Abécassis et al.
(1994) reported that dough strength decreased with increased
water absorption. Thus, a reduction in extraction rate observed
in the case of pasta containing non- traditional ingredients can be
attributed to their high lipid content, which reduces the friction
between dough and metal surface inside the extrusion barrel.
A brief summary of the different functional ingredients used in
pasta making is given in Table 2.
Additives for Pasta
Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers are surface-active compounds possessing both
lipophilic and hydrophilic properties. The Hydrophilic-
lipophilic balance (HLB) expresses the relative attraction of
an emulsifier for water and oil. As HLB value is increased, the
properties of dough on the alveograph were greatly improved
(Addo, 1995). Common emulsifiers used in pasta products are
calcium or sodium stearoyl 2-lactate (SSL and CSL), lecithin,
monoglyceride (MG), Sucrose fatty acid ester (SFAE), etc. They
improve the machinability of dough and quality of pasta prod-
uct. Also, MG significantly decreased the surface stickiness of
cooked spaghetti. In the extrusion process, it provided lubri-
cation, reduced torque, specific mechanical energy, and dough
temperature.
Shiau (2004) observed that SSL delayed the initial swelling
temperatures of starch granules in the dough and raised the
gelatinization temperature. SSL could therefore be used to
produce extruded noodles having more elasticity. Kaur et al.
(2004) incorporated Glycerol Monostearate (GMS) in noo-
dles and observed that there was a substantial change in the
 ROLE OF INGREDIENTS IN PASTA PRODUCT QUALITY 795

Table 2 Common ingredients for pasta products

Ingredients Functional property References

Soy flour High protein and lysine content; reduced cooking time Shorgen et al., 2006
Buckwheat flour High BV, rich in lysine and arginine, dietary fiber, and antioxidants and reduced cooking time Yalla and Manthey, 2004
Maize Improved quality with HT drying, high cooking quality with fine maize flour Mestres et al., 1990
Germinated pigeon pea Increased Vitamin B2, E, and C; reduced anti-nutrition factors and high PER Torres et al., 2007
Chickpea Flour Large quantity of high quality protein and Low Glycemic Index (GI) Alonso et al., 1998
Defatted Corn germ flour Very high water binding capacity; fat absorption and emulsifying properties; dark reddish pasta Lucisano et al., 1984
Inulin Non-digestible fructo- oligosaccharide; inhibit starch degradation; lowers GI; decrease pasta firmness Tungland, 2000
Lupin Controls hyperglycemia and hyperlipedemia; reduces cooked weight and pasta firmness Doxastakis et al., 2007
Whey protein concentrate Source of amino acids and bioactive peptides; increase cooking loss Prabhasankar et al., 2007
Yeast Cells Yield high protein pasta with Retort and freeze-thaw-heat-cool cycle stability Akin et al., 1978

physico-chemical, thermal, rheological, and textural and noo- with an enzyme system consisting of one or more pentosanase
dle properties. The presence of GMS decreased the swelling enzyme which are essentially free of both proteolytic and amy-
power and solubility of starch. The noodles showed lower values lase activity. The dough showed significantly lower viscosity,
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of hardness, cohesiveness, gumminess, chewiness, and springi-
ness on texture profile analysis. It also reduced surface stickiness
and improved the quality score of pasta. Another emulsifier for
pasta, lecithin increases the cutting stress of the finished product
(Vetrimani et al., 1999).
Like emulsifiers, surfactants can also be used to improve
the pasta texture, dough sheetability, and to reduce the sur-
face stickiness. They contain a hydrophilic group like glycerol,
propylene glycol or sorbitol (non- ionic) or lactic, acetic, cit-
ric, diacetyl tartaric acid (anionic), and a lipophilic group like
long-chain fatty acids. According to the studies conducted by
Knog (1971) the amylose forms an insoluble complex with cer-
tain types of surfactants by taking them in its helical structure.
This insoluble amylose remaining in starch granules inhibit the
solublization and swelling of gelatinized starch. This reduces
surface stickiness of cooked spaghetti and increases its surface
firmness.
Organic Acids
Howard et al. (1994) used acids like acetic, citric, fumaric,
malic, and tartaric acid in pasta dough to stabilize pasta against
microbial decomposition, for substantially longer periods than
that achieved with currently available conventional refriger-
ated pasta. These acids ensured extended shelf life at room
temperature or normal refrigeration temperatures with ease of
preparation and storage and freedom from the presence of
liquid in the storage condition. Here, the pasta was treated
with at least one polymeric food-acceptable acid in a required
amount, so that it is acid stabilized for a specific time at the
desired storage temperature. Acid stabilized pasta had no off-
flavor when in a condition suitable for consumption and of-
fered better palatability and appearance than conventional dry
pasta.
Enzymes
Brown and Finley (2005) prepared enzymatically treated
dough with superior workability and machinability, by treating
thereby allowing reduced head pressures and higher through-
puts in commercial pasta extrusion systems. Additionally, the
pasta product thus obtained was less prone to checking during
drying thereby allowing faster drying times, more even drying,
and reduced energy consumption without sacrificing product
quality in commercial operations.
Jyotsna et al. (2004) used xylanase enzyme to prepare vermi-
celli from Ttiticum aestivum wheat. They observed a pronounced
volume expansion in the strands with increased cooked weights
and lower leaching of solids into the gruel. The vermicelli pre-
pared with 0.012% of xylanase had firm, discrete strands with
no stickiness and thus an improved quality. Matsuo (1987) used
glucose oxidase in pasta and observed a greater resistance to
overcooking and decreased surface stickiness. Scanning elec-
tron microscope studies revealed that glucose oxidase exerts an
adverse effect on the quality of vermicelli, mostly due to the loss
of integrity of the enveloping protein film, resulting in disrup-
tion of the gluten matrix and leading to greater cooking losses
and poor product quality.
L-Ascorbic Acid
Walsh et al. (1970) reported that the addition of L-ascorbic
acid during mixing of the dough decreased the reduction of
semolina pigment during processing and increased the yellow-
ness of spaghetti. The ascorbic acid acts as a competitive in-
hibitor of lipoxidase which is the main factor influencing the
rate of pigment oxidation during pasta processing (Dolev et al.,
1966). The other factor responsible for the degradation of pasta
color is the presence of oxygen while mixing. Hence, the dough
is mixed under vacuum or inert atmosphere to minimize loss of
yellow color. Kim et al. (1989) showed that adding 300-ppm L-
ascorbic acid increased pigment levels by about 15% in farina
spaghetti. Owing to the strengthening effect of ascorbic acid
on gluten, the leaching of solids during cooking is decreased.
The vermicelli prepared using ascorbic acid had a light creamy
color, was firm with discrete strands, lower cooking loss, and
no stickiness.
 796 T. FUAD AND P. PRABHASANKAR

Table 3 Common additives for pasta products

Additives Functional property References

Emulsifiers SSL(Sodium Stearoyl lactylate) – Reduce surface stickiness Vetrimani et al., 1999
GMS (Glycerol Monostearate) – Firm, discrete strands with lower
cooking loss and softening the texture of cooked pasta.
Lecithin – increase cutting stress
Organic acids Extended shelf life, better palatability and appearance Howard et al., 2001
Enzymes Glucose oxidase and xylanase- Increases cooking weight; Expansion in volume and firm Vetrimani et al., 1999 Jyotsna
Texture with no stickiness et al., 2004
Ascorbic acid Increase yellowness of pasta; lower cooking loss and no stickiness Kim et al., 1989
Dry gluten powder Prevents leaching of solids into the gruel thus increases cooking weight Prabhasankar et al., 2007
Propylene glycol alginate Improves texture, inhibit dough rupture on gelatinization, and reduces starch loss on Chawan et al., 1998
cooking

Dry Gluten Powder Propylene glycol alginate (PGA) can be used to stabilize starch
against enzymatic degradation by amylase enzymes in an aque-
Gluten can be defined as the rubbery mass that remains when
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ous acid environment. Chawan et al. (1995) added about 0.01–

wheat dough is washed to remove starch granules and water-
soluble constituents. In practice, the term “gluten” refers to
the proteins, because they play a key role in determining the
unique pasta quality by conferring water absorption capacity,
cohesivity, viscosity, and elasticity on dough.
In countries where cultivation of durum wheat is not viable,
common wheat is sometimes used in the manufacture of pasta
but the relative quality of the finished product is poor. Spychaj
and Gil (1972) have suggested that the incorporation of dry
gluten powder (DGP) into common wheat flour may improve
pasta quality. It was observed that the incorporation of DGP into
common wheat flour resulted in a higher carotenoids content and
b∗ value, and lower L∗ value for pasta dough. Compared with
common wheat flour products, pasta with added DGP showed
lower cooked weight and cooking loss and greater firmness.
The addition of 1.5% and 3.0% DGP to vermicelli with 5%
WPC increased cooked weight from 84.0 to 84.5 and 86.0 g, de-
creased cooking loss from 7.00% to 6.20% and 6.05%, and the
overall quality increased from 22 to 24 and 26 (Prabhasankar
et al., 2007). The above results indicated that there is an im-
provement in the quality characteristics of vermicelli with 5%
WPC and the highest improvement in the overall quality score
was due to the addition of 3.0% dry gluten powder.
Kim et al. (1989) reported that cooked spaghetti made from
a mixture of 10.7% protein farina with 3% added gluten showed
reduced cooking loss, increased cutting stress, and reduced sur-
face stickiness. The reduction in cooking loss by 5% on addition
of 3% gluten could be due to the mechanical strength imparted
by the added gluten. Matsuo et al. (1972) stated that a pro-
tein content of 11% is required for acceptable cooking quality
of spaghetti and it can be increased by the addition of protein
from other sources like rapeseed meal, soy flour, egg albumin,
and wheat proteins. But, only egg albumin and wheat gluten
improved the cooking quality.
Propylene Glycol Alginate
The addition of sodium alginate, oligosaccharides from agar,
or carrageenan prevents retrogradation of gelatinized starch.
2.0% PGA to ungelatinized starch and water to form a dough or
alimentary paste before the forming stage. The alginate formed
a stable complex with starch, which inhibited dough rupture
on gelatinization, and reduced starch loss on subsequent cook-
ing. It also prevented non-enzymatic retrogradation of starch
under various conditions of storage by inhibiting the release of
amylase from starch granules.
Concluding the above discussion on supplemented pasta, the
different additives generally used in pasta products to enhance
its quality parameters are listed in Table 3 along with their
functional properties.
CONCLUSION
Man’s perspective on food has ever been changing. This
is true even in the case of pasta products. Though pasta was
considered to be a truly Italian dish and its flavor simply Eu-
ropean, it has crossed borders and traveled around the globe.
As it is simple, nutritionally exceptional, and easy to make,
the cost factor also comes into the picture. Alternative ingre-
dients and technologies need to be developed instead of the
very costly durum wheat used to make the truly Italian pasta.
Interestingly, new pasta production techniques, such as high
temperature drying, have improved the quality of pasta that
can be made from common wheat, but discriminating pasta
consumers continue to prefer pasta made from 100% durum
wheat. Therefore, a small shortage of durum can result in a
large increase in durum premiums over common wheat. So,
the use of other wheat species like T. aestivum and T. dicoc-
cum with different additives and optimized process control has
been suggested. Research being conducted around the world
emphasizes on developing nutritionally enhanced pasta with
better cooking quality, color, and texture. Hence, there is a
greater need to use some of the additives not only to improve
the machinability of the dough but also to improve the quality
of the end product. Literature available is very limited, there-
fore, more research and development is required to identify
 ROLE OF INGREDIENTS IN PASTA PRODUCT QUALITY
suitable additives, which are functionally superior and cost
effective.
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