CHAPTER 40

MAXWELL’S
EQUATIONS

In classical mechanics and in thermodynamics, we tried to obtain the

smallest, most compact set o f equations or laws that enable us to analyze the
behavior o f physical systems. In classical mechanics, Newton's three laws o f motion provide
the framework. In thermodynamics, the three laws (numbered zero, one, and two) are used
to interpret a wide variety o f experiments.
The basic equations o f electromagnetism, which we have treated individually in previous
chapters, are known as Maxwell’s equations, after Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell
(1831 -1879), who was the first to make the equations part o f a comprehensive and
symmetrical theory o f electromagnetism. In this chapter, we summarize Maxwell's
equations and show that an argument based on symmetry leads to an important missing
term in one o f our previous equations. In the next chapter, we show how these equations,
including the additional term, are essential in understanding electromagnetic waves, thereby
bringing optics, radio and T V transmission, microwave ovens, and magnetically levitated
trains all into the realm o f electromagnetism.

The missing term proves to be no trifling correction: it

40-1 THE BASIC EQUATIONS OF
ELECTROMAGNETISM________
In this chapter we seek to identify a basic set o f equations
for electromagnetism. We shall take several steps to ac­
complish this objective. First, we display in Table 1 a
tentative set of equations. These equations have been de­
rived in the previous 13 chapters. Keep in mind that each
o f these four equations is a statement about a different set
o f experimental results. After studying this table, we shall
conclude from an argument based on symmetry that
these equations are not yet complete and that there may
be (and indeed is) a missing term in one o f them.
completes the description of electromagnetism and estab­
lishes optics as an integral part o f electromagnetism. In
particular, it allows us to predict that the speed o f light c
(and of all electromagnetic waves) in free space is related
to purely electric and magnetic quantities by
c= ( 1)
This relationship, along with additional predictions o f the
electromagnetic equations, was later verified by experi­
ment for light, radio waves, and other electromagnetic
waves.
We have seen how the principle o f symmetry permeates

TABLE 1 TENTATIVE^ BASIC EQUATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM

Section
Symbol Name Equation Reference
I Gauss’ law for electricity # E '(/A = ^/Co 29-3
II Gauss’ law for magnetism fB -d \ =0 37-1
III Faraday’s law of induction f E ’ds = —dd>g/dt 36-2
IV Ampere’s law ^B -d s = Hoi 35-5
“Tentative” suggests, as we shall see later, that Eq. IV is not yet complete and requires an additional term; see Table 2.

859
860 Chapter 40 Maxwell's Equations

physics and how it has often led to new insights or discov­ If you change an electric field (d^E/dt), you produce
eries. For example, if body A attracts body B with a force a magnetic field (fB'ds).
o f magnitude F, then we might expect from symmetry
that body B should attract body A with a force o f the same This supposition, which we discuss more fully in the next
magnitude. This expectation turns out to be correct. For section, provides us with the missing term in Eq. IV and
another example, the symmetry of the theory describing turns out to meet the test o f experiment.
ordinary negatively charged electrons suggests that the
electron should have a positively charged counterpart; the
later discovery o f the positron showed that this prediction
was correct. 40-2 INDUCED MAGNETIC
Let us examine Table 1 from the standpoint o f sym­ FIELDS AND TH E
metry. We ignore any lack o f symmetry in the equations DISPLACEM ENT CURRENT
that arises from Cqand Ho; these constants result from our
choice o f unit systems and play no role in considerations Here we discuss in detail the evidence for the supposition
o f symmetry. (There are, in fact, systems o f units in which of the previous section: namely, a changing electric field
€o = H o = \ .) induces a magnetic field. Although we are guided primar­
With this in mind we see that the left sides o f the equa­ ily by considerations of symmetry, we also find direct
tions in Table 1 are completely symmetrical, in pairs. experimental verification.
Equations I and II are surface integrals o f E and B, respec­ Figure 1a shows a circular parallel-plate capacitor. A
tively, over closed surfaces. Equations III and IV are line current i enters the left-hand plate (which we assume to
integrals o f E and B, respectively, around closed loops. carry a positive charge), and an equal current i leaves the
The right sides of these equations, on the other hand, right-hand plate. An Amperian loop surrounds the wire in
are not symmetrical. There are two kinds o f asymmetries: Fig. \a and forms the boundary for a surface that is
pierced by the wire. The current in the wire sets up a
1. The first asymmetry, which is not really the concern of magnetic field; in Section 35-5 we saw that the magnetic
this chapter, deals with the apparent fact that there are no field and the current are related by Ampere’s law.
isolated centers of magnetic charge (magnetic monopoles;
see Section 37-1) analogous to isolated centers of electric B *ds = p o i, ( 2)
charge (electrons, for instance). Thus we account for the q
on the right side of Eq. I and for the 0 on the right side o f That is, the line integral of the magnetic field around the
Eq. II. In the same way, the term / (=dqldt), representing
the current o f electric charges, appears on the right side o f
Eq. IV, but there is no corresponding term representing a
current o f magnetic charges on the right of Eq. III. The
desire for symmetry in these equations has led to the pre­
diction that magnetic monopoles should exist. Despite
many experimental searches for monopoles, there is as yet
no confirmation of their existence. Later in this chapter
we discuss how to symmetrize Maxwell’s equations if
magnetic monopoles are proved to exist.
2. The second asymmetry, which is more significant for
the discussions o f this chapter, is equally prominent. On
the right side o f Eq. Ill we find the term —d^B/dt. This
equation, also known as Faraday’s law of induction, can
be loosely interpreted by saying:

If you change a magnetic field (d^e/dt), you produce

an electric field (fE'ds).

We learned this in Section 36-1 where we showed that if

you push a bar magnet through a closed conducting loop,
you do indeed induce an electric field, and thus a current,
in that loop.
From the principle of symmetry we are entitled to sus­
pect that the analogous relation holds, that is:
Figure 1 (a) An Amperian loop encloses a surface through
which passes a wire carrying a current, (b) The same
Amperian loop encloses a surface that passes between the ca­
pacitor plates. No conduction current passes through the sur­
face.
 Section 40-2
loop is proportional to the total current that passes
through the surface bounded by the loop.
In Fig. \b, we have kept the same loop but have
stretched the surface bounded by the loop so that it en­
closes the entire left-hand capacitor plate. Since the loop
has not changed (nor has the magnetic field), the left side
of Ampere’s law gives the same result, but the right side
gives a very different result, namely, zero, because no
conducting wires pass through the surface. We appear to
have a violation of Ampere’s law!
To restore Ampere’s law so that it correctly describes
the situation of Fig. 1 we rely on the conclusion given in
the previous section based on symmetry: a magneticfield
is set up by a changing electric field. Let us consider the
situation o f Fig. 1 in more detail. As charge is transported
into the capacitor, the electric field in its interior changes
at a certain rate dE/dt. The electric field lines pass
through the surface o f Fig. 1 we account for the passage
o f field lines through this surface in terms of the electric
flux <I>£, and a changing electric field must give a corre­
spondingly changing electric flux, d^^/dt.
To describe this new effect quantitatively, we are
guided by analogy with Faraday’s law of induction.
d<t>B
E -d s = -
dt
which asserts that an electric field (left side) is produced by
a changing magnetic field (right side). For the symmetri­
cal counterpart we write*
d<Pe
B -d s= P o € o
f dt
Equation 4 asserts that a magnetic field (left term) can be
produced by a changing electric field (right term).
The situation shown in Fig. 1a is described by Ampere’s
law in the form of Eq. 1, while the situation o f Fig. \b is
described by Eq. 4. In the first case, it is the current
through the surface that gives the magnetic field, while in
the second case, it is the changing electric flux through the
surface that gives the magnetic field. In general, we must
account for both ways of producing a magnetic field:
(a) by a current and (^) by a changing electric flux, and so
we must modify Ampere’s law to read
B -d s= poi-\- (5)
dt
Maxwell is responsible for this important generalization
o f Ampere’s law. It is a central and vital contribution, as
we have pointed out earlier.
In Chapter 35 we assumed that no changing electric
fields were present so that the term d^^/dt in Eq. 5 was
* Our system of units requires that we insert the constants Cqand
in Eq. 4. In some unit systems they would not appear.
Induced Magnetic Fields and the Displacement Current 861
Figure 2 The induced magnetic field B, shown at four
points, produced by the changing electric field E inside the ca­
pacitor of Fig. 1. The electric field is increasing in magnitude.
Compare with Fig. 12 of Chapter 36.
zero. In the discussion o f Fig. \b we assumed that there
were no conduction currents in the space containing the
electric field. Thus the term / in Eq. 5 is zero in that case.
We see now that each of these situations is a special case. If
there were fine wires connecting the two plates in Fig. 1b,
(3)
there would be contributions from both terms in Eq. 5.t
An alternative way o f interpreting Eq. 5 is suggested by
Fig. 2, which shows the electric field in the region between
the capacitor plates o f Fig. 1. We now take our Amperian
loop to be a circular path in this region. On the right side
of Eq. 5, the term / is zero, but the term d^^/dt is not
(4)
zero. In fact, the flux through the surface is positive if the
field lines are as shown, and the flux is increasing (corre­
sponding to the electric field increasing) as positive charge
is transported into the left-hand plate o f Fig. 1. The line
integral of B around the loop must also be positive, and
the directions o f B must be as shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 2 suggests a beautiful example of the symmetry
of nature. A changing magnetic field induces an electric
field (Faraday’s law); now we see that a changing electric
field induces a magnetic field. Carefully compare Fig. 2
t There is a third way of setting up a magnetic field: the use of
magnetic materials. For example, Eq. 5 does not account for the
entire field in a solenoid wound on an iron core. The effect of the
magnetic material can be included by adding a third term to Eq.
5, which can then be written
where is the magnetization current, which can be regarded as
the additional current that must flow through the empty sole­
noid to produce the same field that the current / produces when
the magnetic material is present. We assume that no magnetic
materials are present, so that this term need not be included.
862 Chapter 40 M axw ells Equations

with Fig. 12 of Chapter 36, which illustrates the produc­ name displacement current* Th&displacement current
tion o f an electric field by a changing magnetic field. In is defined according to
each case the appropriate flux or is increasing.
However, experiment shows that the lines of E in Fig. 12 /n = €n ( 6)
o f Chapter 36 are counterclockwise, whereas those of B dt
in Fig. 2 are clockwise. This difference requires that the Thus we can say that a magnetic field can be set up either
minus sign of Eq. 3 be omitted from Eq. 4. by a conduction current / or by a displacement current i^.
and we can rewrite Eq. 5 as

Sample Problem 1 A parallel-plate capacitor with circular

B - d s = P o (i-^ id l (7)
plates is being charged as in Fig. 2. {a) Derive an expression for
the induced magnetic field at various radii r in the region be­
tween the plates. Consider both r ^ R and r > R . (b) Find B at The concept of displacement current permits us to re­
r = /? for dE/dt = 10'^ V/m • s and R = 5.0 cm. tain the notion that current is continuous, a principle es­
tablished for steady conduction currents in Section 32-1.
Solution (a) From Eq. 4, In Fig. \by for example, a conduction current i enters the
positive plate and leaves the negative plate. The conduc­
E-d s= fioeo~ jf y tion current is not continuous across the capacitor gap
f because no charge is transported across this gap. How­
we can write, for r ^ ever, the displacement current i^ in the gap proves to be
exactly equal to /, thus retaining the concept o f the conti­
(B)(2nr) = //o€o ^ ■ nuity of current.
Let us calculate the displacement current i^ in the ca­
Solving for B yields pacitor gap of Fig. 1b. The charge q on the plates is related
dE to the electric field E in the gap by Eq. 3 of Chapter 31,
B = \Po^or— {r<R).
q = €oE A ,
For r^ Ry Eq. 4 yields
Differentiating gives
(B)(2nr)=Hoeo ^ , ._dq_ d(EA)
or d t~ ^ ° ~ ^ -
B= ^ ( ra J ? ). The quantity EA is the electric flux and thus
Irdt
(b) At r = /? the two equations for B reduce to the same d<t>E
expression, or
dE Comparison with Eq. 6 shows

= i(47rX 10-^T*m/AK8.9X IQ-^^CVN-m^)
X (5.0X 10-2 mX 10*2 V/m-s)
= 2.8X 10-2 7 = 280 nT.
This shows that the induced magnetic fields in this example are
so small that they can scarcely be measured with simple appa­
ratus, in sharp contrast to induced electric fields (Faraday’s law),
which can be demonstrated easily. This experimental difference
is in part due to the fact that induced emfs can easily be multi­
plied by using a coil of many turns. No technique of comparable
simplicity exists for magnetic fields. In experiments involving
oscillations at very high frequencies, dE/dt can be very large,
resulting in significantly larger values of the induced magnetic
field.
Displacement Current
Equation 5 shows that the term € q d^^/dt has the dimen­
sions o f a current. Even though no motion of charge is
involved, there are advantages in giving this term the
/ = id-
Thus the displacement current in the gap equals the con­
duction current in the wires, which shows that the current
is continuous.
When the capacitor is fully charged, the conduction
current drops to zero (no current flows in the wires). The
electric field between the plates becomes constant; thus
dE/dt = 0, and so the displacement current also drops to
zero.
The displacement current i^, given by Eq. 6, has a direc­
tion as well as a magnitude. The direction of the conduc­
tion current i is that of the conduction current densit>
vector j. Similarly, the direction of the displacement
current i^ is that of the displacement current density vec­
tor j^, which, as we deduce from Eq. 6, is just e^idB/dtX
* The word “displacement” was introduced for historical rea­
sons. It has nothing to do with our previous use of displacement
to indicate the position of a particle.
 Section 40-3 M axw ells Equations 863

The right-hand rule applied to gives the direction of the

associated magnetic field, just as it does for the conduc­
tion current density j.
Sample Problem 2 What is the displacement current for the
situation of Sample Problem 1?
Solution From Eq. 6, the definition of displacement current,
dE
U= ^0 = €o-ME)(7tR^)] = €o7tR^ —
'd t dt
= (8.9 X 10-*2 CVN*m2X;rX5 X lO'^ V/m-s)
= 0.070 A = 70 mA.
This is a reasonably large current, yet we determined in Sam­
ple Problem 1 that it produces a magnetic field of only 280 nT. A
current of 70 mA flowing in a thin wire would produce a large
magnetic field near the surface of the wire, easily detectable by a
compass needle.
The difference is not caused by the fact that one current is a
conduction current and the other is a displacement current.
Under the same conditions, both kinds of current are equally
effective in generating a magnetic field. The difference arises
because the conduction current, in this case, is confined to a thin
wire but the displacement current is spread out over an area
equal to the surface area of the capacitor plates. Thus the capaci­
tor behaves like a “fat wire” of radius 5 cm, carrying a (displace­
ment) current of 70 mA. Its largest magnetic effect, which
occurs at the capacitor edge, is much smaller than would be the
case at the surface of a thin wire. (See also Problem 12.)
40-3 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Equation 5 completes our presentation o f the basic equa­
tions of electromagnetism, called Maxwell’s equations.
They are summarized in Table 2, which replaces the “ten­
tative” set of Table 1, the difference between the two sets
being the “missing” displacement current term in Eq. IV
of Table 1. Also in Table 2 we Ust the crucial experiments
that led to each o f Maxwell’s equations. This list o f experi­
ments reminds us that Maxwell’s equations were not
mere theoretical speculations but were developed to ex­
plain the results o f laboratory experiments.
Maxwell described his theory o f electromagnetism in a
lengthy Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, published
in 1873, just six years before his death. The Treatise dots
not contain the four equations in the form in which we
have presented them. It was British physicist Oliver Hea­
viside (1850-1925), described as “an unemployed,
largely self-educated former telegrapher,” who pointed
out the symmetry between E and B in the equations and
cast the four equations in the form in which we know
them today.
Let us consider some features o f these remarkable
equations.
1. Symmetry. The inclusion of the displacement current
term in Eq. IV o f Table 2 certainly makes Eqs. Ill and IV
look more similar, thereby improving the symmetry of
the set of equations. They are still not completely symmet-

TABLE 2 BASIC EQUATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM (MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS)"

Chapter
Number Name Equation Describes Crucial Experiment Reference
I Gauss’ law for Charge and the (a) Like charges repel and 29
electricity electric field unlike charges attract, as
the inverse square of their
separation.
(b) A charge on an insulated
conductor moves to its
outer surface.
II Gauss’ law for #B-</A = 0 The magnetic field It has thus far not been 37
magnetism possible to verify the
existence of a magnetic
monopole.
III Faraday’s law of #E'</s = —d<bg!dt The electrical effect A bar magnet, thrust 36
induction of a changing through a closed loop of
magnetic field wire, will set up a current
in the loop.
IV Ampere’s law (as The magnetic effect (a) A current in a wire sets 35
extended by +/io€o d<i>Eldt of a current or a up a magnetic field near
Maxwell) changing electric the wire.
field (b) The speed of light can be 41
calculated from purely
electromagnetic
measurements.
“ Written on the assumption that no dielectric or magnetic material is present.
864 Chapter 40 M axw ells Equations
ric, however. A completely symmetric set would result if
the existence of individual magnetic charges (monopoles)
were confirmed. If such magnetic charges were discov­
ered, experiments with them would be possible. By anal­
ogy with our previous development of electromagnetism,
two experiments come to mind. One experiment, similar
to Coulomb’s original experiment, would be to measure
the force between monopoles to determine whether it
obeyed an inverse-square law. If so, then Eq. II could be
written • t/A = . This form o f Gauss’ law for mag­
netism would assert that the flux of the magnetic field
through any closed surface is proportional to the net mag­
netic charge enclosed by the surface. In this case Eqs. I
and II would become more symmetric.
The second experiment, similar to that of Oersted,
would be to show that a current of magnetic charges pro­
duces an electric field. In this case we would add to the
right side of Eq. Ill a term involving = dq^/dt, the
current of magnetic charges. With this addition, Eqs. Ill
and IV would become more symmetric.
So far there is no conclusive evidence for magnetic
monopoles, so the above experiments remain specula­
tions, and the set of equations in Table 2 is our best de­
scription o f the properties of electric and magnetic fields.
However, note how easily a major discovery such as the
magnetic monopole could be incorporated into the basic
equations of electromagnetism.
2. Electrom agnetic waves. The four equations of Table
1 were o f course known long before Maxwell’s time (he
was bom in the year that Faraday discovered the law of
induction). Taken together, they suggest no new effects
beyond the original experiments they represent. It is only
when the displacement current is added that new physics
emerges. This new physics includes the prediction of the
existence of electromagnetic waves, which were discov­
ered experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1888, 15 years
after Maxwell’s Treatise v/diS published. In the next chap­
ter, we show how electromagnetic waves, which can trans­
port energy and momentum through empty space by
means o f electromagnetic fields, follow from Maxwell’s
equations.
3. E lectrom agnetism a n d relativity. We have already
suggested in the introduction to this chapter that Max­
well’s equations are for electromagnetism what Newton’s
laws are for mechanics. There is, however, an important
difference. Einstein’s theory of relativity was presented in
1905, more than 30 years after Maxwell’s work and more
than 200 years after Newton’s. Relativity necessitated
major changes in Newton’s laws for motion at speeds near
that o f light, but no changes whatever were required in
M axw ell's equations. Maxwell’s equations are totally con­
sistent with the special theory of relativity, and in fact
Einstein’s theory grew out of his thinking about Max­
well’s equations. In the language of physics, we say that
Maxwell’s equations are invariant under a Lorentz trans­
formation, but Newton’s laws are not. (See Section 35-7
for a discussion of the relativistic transformation o f E and
B fields.) —
40-4 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND
CAVITY OSCILLATIONS (Optional)
There are many situations involving electromagnetic fields thai
we can use as a demonstration of Maxwell’s equations. We dela>
until Chapter 41 any discussion of tests involving electromag­
netic waves. Here we discuss a resonant cavity, which can be
considered to be an electromagnetic oscillator with distributed
elements.
By way of analogy, consider the acoustic resonant cavity of
Fig. 3. (An organ pipe, closed at both ends, is an example of such
an acoustic resonator.) In a simple oscillator, such as a block on a
spring or an L C circuit, we can “lump” the stored energy into
separate items: the kinetic energy of the block and the potential
energy of the spring, or the stored magnetic energy of the induc­
tor and the stored electric energy of the capacitor. In the acoustic
resonator, such a division is not possible. Every tiny element of
the gas within the tube has both potential and kinetic energ>-.
such a system is said to have distributed elements. The electro­
magnetic resonant cavity likewise has distributed elements.
One characteristic of a distributed system is that it has a laigt
number of resonant modes (the lumped system by contrast hav­
ing few, often just one). Figure 3 shows the fundamental mode of
the acoustic cavity. It illustrates a series of “snapshots” of the
pressure and velocity variations throughout one cycle. Note thai
the pressure and the velocity vary with time and with location
along the tube. There is a pressure antinode at each end of a
closed pipe. Where the pressure variation is greatest, the velocitv
is zero (Figs. 3a and 2>e\ in analogy with the block-spring s\v
tern at its maximum displacement. When the pressure is uni­
form, the velocities have their maximum values (Figs. 3c and
3^)-
As shown by the bar graphs accompanying each “snapshot”
of Fig. 3, the energy of the resonator oscillates between the ki­
netic energy of the moving gas and the potential energy asso­
ciated with the compression and rarefaction of the gas. The
energy may be all potential (Figs. 3a and 3c), all kinetic (Figs. 3c
and 3gX or a mixture of both.
By analogy with the acoustic cavity, we can consider a cyhn-
drical electromagnetic resonant cavity. Instead of pressure and
velocity, we describe the state of the resonator by its electric and
magnetic fields. Imagine the ends of the cavity to be a paralld-
plate capacitor. To start the field oscillations, we connect a sinu­
soidally varying source of emf. This gives rise to a changing
electric field in the cavity. As was the case in Fig. 2, the changing
electric field causes a magnetic field, and thus within the cavin
there are magnetic and electric fields that vary with location and
with time.
Like the acoustic resonator, the electromagnetic resonator
stores its energy in two forms; in this case they are the energies
associated with the electric field and the magnetic field. Even
element of volume of the cavity contributes to both kinds cf
energy, and thus the electromagnetic cavity has distributed de­
ments.
Figure 4 shows, in similar fashion to Fig. 3, a series of “snap­
shots” of the cavity illustrating the electric and magnetic fields z
 Section 40-4 M axw ells Equations and Cavity Oscillations (Optional) 865

Figure 3 Eight stages in a cycle of oscillation of

a cylindrical acoustic resonant cavity (such as a
closed organ pipe). The bar graphs below each
figure show the kinetic energy K and the potential
( 6) energy U. The arrows represent the directed ve­
V.-1^7^:; ■« locities of small volume elements of the gas.

KJ2 n u KH nu

K J U Z iU KH nu

(c)
Figure 4 Eight stages in a cycle of oscillation of
a cylindrical electromagnetic resonant cavity. The
bar graphs below each figure show the stored
electric energy 11^ and magnetic energy Ug. The
id) lines of B are circles concentric with the axis, and
the lines of E are parallel to the axis. Compare
with Fig. 3; both figures are examples of oscilla­
n n^E U,b h n ^ E tions involving distributed elements.

(a) ie)
------ ;— t

n\ \^E ji Up

ih) (/■)

bH
866 Chapter 40 M axw ells Equations
Figure 5 A more detailed representation of a cylindrical
electromagnetic resonant cavity at the instant of Fig. 4d. The
dashed rectangle is used to apply Faraday’s law, and the
dashed circle is used for Ampere’s law.
various times during one cycle of oscillation of the fundamental
mode. Note the oscillation of the energy between the two forms,
corresponding to the electric and magnetic energy densities,
UE = i€oE^ and =
Integrating over the volume of the cavity, we can find the total
energy in each of the two forms.
Figure 5 shows a more detailed representation of the electric
and magnetic fields at one particular instant of the oscillation,
corresponding to Fig. Ad. Note from Fig. Ad that the magnetic
field is decreasing, and the electric field is increasing. Let us
apply Faraday’s law.
to the dashed rectangle of dimensions h and a — r. There is a
definite magnetic flux through this rectangular area, and this
flux is decreasing with time because B is decreasing.
For a cavity made of conducting material, we can set E to zero
for the upper leg of the integration path, which lies inside the
cavity wall. Also, on the two side legs E and ds are at right angles,
so E • i/s = 0 on that part of the rectangular path. The only con­
tribution to the line integral of E around the perimeter of the
rectangle comes from the lower segment, and so
E ‘t/s = h E {r\
in which E(r) is the value of £ at a radius r from the axis of the
cavity. Inserting this result for the line integral into Faraday’s
law, we obtain
E(r) =- - ^ (8)
h dt
Equation 8 shows that E(r) depends on the rate at which
through the path shown is changing with time and that it has its
maximum magnitude when d ^ g /d t is a maximum. This occurs
when B is zero, that is, when B is changing its direction; recall
that a sine or cosine is changing most rapidly (it has the steepest
slope) at the instant it crosses the axis between positive and
negative values. The electric field pattern in the cavity has its
maximum value when the magnetic field is zero everywhere,
consistent with Figs. Aa and Ae and with the concept of the
interchange of energy between electric and magnetic fields. You
can show, by applying Lenz’ law, that the electric field in Fig. 5
Figure 6 The interior of the 2-mile Stanford Linear Acceler­
ator. The large vertical cylinder is one of the several hundred
electromagnetic resonant cavities (klystrons) that supply the
electric fields needed to accelerate the electrons. Each klystron
produces a peak power of 67 MW.
indeed points to the right, as shown, if the magnetic field is
decreasing.
Let us apply Ampere’s law in the form
¥» j •I d^£
B *^/s= //o /+ //o € o “^ ,
to the dashed circular path of radius r shown in the figure. No
charge is transported through the area bounded by the circular
path, so the conduction current / is zero. The line integral on the
left is (£X27rr), and so the equation reduces to
// oCq
B(r) = (9)
In r dt
Equation 9 shows that the magnetic field B(r) is proportional
to the rate at which the electric flux <I>£ through the ring is
changing with time. The field B(r) has its maximum value when
d^E /d t is at its maximum; this occurs when E = 0, that is, when
E is reversing its direction. Thus we see that B has its maximum
value when E is zero for all points in the cavity. This is consistent
with Figs. Ac and Ag and with the concept of the interchange of
energy between electric and magnetic forms. A comparison with
Fig. 2, which like Fig. 5 corresponds to an increasing electric
field, shows that the lines of B are indeed clockwise, as viewed
along the direction of the electric field.
Comparison of Eqs. 8 and 9 suggests the complete interdepen­
dence of B and E in the cavity. As the magnetic field changes
with time, it induces the electric field in a way described by
Faraday’s law. The electric field, which also changes with time
induces the magnetic field in a way described by Maxwell’s ex­
tension of Ampere’s law. The oscillations, once established, sus­
tain each other and would continue indefinitely were it not for
losses due to production of internal energy in the conducting
cavity walls or leakage of energy from openings that might be
present in the walls. In Chapter 41 we show that a similar inter­
play of B and E occurs not only in standing electromagnetic
waves in cavities but also in traveling electromagnetic waves
such as radio waves or visible light.
In a resonant acoustic cavity, such as an organ pipe, we pro­
vide a source of energy (for example, by directing a stream of air

against a sharp edge), allow the standing wave to be established
in the cavity with a frequency determined by the geometry of the
cavity, and arrange for a portion of the energy of the wave to
leave the pipe, where it is heard by the listener. In an electromag­
netic cavity, the sequence of events is similar. The oscillations
must be stimulated externally, such as by a current. A standing
electromagnetic wave is established, whose frequency depends
on the dimensions of the cylindrical cavity. A portion of the
wave is then permitted to leave the cavity. A common use of
such resonant cavities is in accelerators that produce beams of
charged particles with high energies. Figure 6 shows the interior
of the 2-mile electron accelerator at Stanford, in which a series of
hundreds of resonant cavities (called klystrons) feeds electromag­
netic waves into the accelerator. The electrons travel along the
straight 2-mile path, subject to a sequence of accelerating electric
fields, which boost the energies of the electrons to nearly 50
GeV. ■
Sample Problem 3 In Fig. 5 analyze the currents (both con­
duction and displacement) that occur in the cavity (both in its
conducting walls and within its volume). Show the relationship
between these currents and the electric and magnetic fields and
also show that, considering both conduction and displacement
currents together, it is reasonable to conclude that current is
continuous around closed loops.
Solution Figure 7 shows two views of the cavity, at an instant
corresponding to that of Fig. 5. For simplicity, we do not show
the E and B fields; the arrows represent currents. Because E is
increasing in Figs. 5 and 7, the positive charge on the left end cap
must be increasing. Thus there must be conduction currents in
QUESTIONS
1. In your own words explain why Faraday’s law of induction
(see TaWe2) can be interpreted by saying “a changing mag­
netic field generates an electric field.”
2. If a uniform flux through a plane circular ring decreases
with time, is the induced magnetic field (as viewed along the
direction of E) clockwise or counterclockwise?
3. If (as is true) there are unit systems in which ۩ and Pq do
not appear, how can Eq. 1 be true?
Questions 867
Figure 7 Sample Problem 3. Cross sections of the
cavity of Figs. 4 and 5, showing (a) the conduction
current coming up the walls and the displacement
current going down the cavity volume, and (b) the
displacement current (solid arrowheads) in the volume
of the cavity and the conduction current (open arrow­
heads) in the walls. The arrows represent current den­
sities. Note that the total current (conduction +
displacement) is continuous; that is, it is possible to
form closed current loops.
the walls pointing from right to left in Fig. lb. These currents are
also shown by the dots (representing the tips of arrows) near the
cavity walls in Fig. la.
Bearing in mind that €qd ^E /d t is a displacement current, we
can write Eq. 9 as
This equation stresses that B in the cavity is associated with
a displacement current; compare Eq. 11 of Chapter 35, S =
^iQi/lnr. Applying the right-hand rule in Fig. 5 shows that the
displacement current /<, must be directed into the plane of Fig.
la if it is to be associated with the clockwise lines of B that are
present.
The displacement current is represented in Fig. lb by arrows
that point to the right and in Fig. la by crosses that represent
arrows entering the page. Figure 7 shows that the current is
continuous, directed up the walls as a conduction current and
then back down through the volume of the cavity as a displace­
ment current. Applying Ampere’s law as extended by Maxwell,
B-t/s = //o(/d + 0, ( 10)
to the circular path of radius r, in Fig. la, we see that B at that
path is due entirely to the displacement current, the conduction
current / within the path being zero.
For the path of radius r 2, the net current enclosed is zero
because the conduction current in the walls is exactly equal and
opposite to the displacement current in the cavity volume. Since
/■equals i^ in magnitude, but is oppositely directed, it follows
from Eq. 10 that B must be zero for all points outside the cavity,
in agreement with observation.
4. Compare Tables 1 and 2. Is it enough to rely on the principle
of symmetry alone or do we really need experimental verifi­
cation for the “missing” term in Eq. IV?
5. Why is it so easy to show that “a changing magnetic field
produces an electric field” but so hard to show in a simple
way that “a changing electric field produces a magnetic
field” ?
6. In Fig. 2 consider a circle with r> R. How can a magnetic
868 Chapter 40 M axwell’s Equations
field be induced around this circle, as Sample Problem 1
shows? After all, there is no electric field at the location of
this circle and dE/dt = 0 here.
7. In Fig. 2, E is into the figure and is increasing in magnitude.
Find the direction of B if, instead, {a) E is into the figure and
decreasing, (b) E is out of the figure and increasing, (c) E is
out of the figure and decreasing, and (d) E remains constant.
8. In Fig. 9c of Chapter 38, a displacement current is needed
to maintain continuity of current in the capacitor. How can
one exist, considering that there is no charge on the capaci­
tor?
9. (a) In Fig. 2 what is the direction of the displacement current
/‘d? In this same figure, can you find a rule relating the direc­
tions (b) of B and E and (c) of B and d E /d tl
10. What advantages are there in calling the term eod^E/dt in
Eq. IV, Table 2, a displacement current?
11. Can a displacement current be measured with an ammeter?
Explain.
12. Why are the magnetic fields of conduction currents in wires
so easy to detect but the magnetic effects of displacement
current in capacitors so hard to detect?
13. In Table 2 there are three kinds of apparent lack of sym­
metry in Maxwell’s equations, (a) The quantities €©and/or
Po appear in I and IV but not in II and III. (b) There is a
minus sign in III but no minus sign in IV. (c) There are
missing “magnetic pole terms” in II and III. Which of these
represent genuine lack of symmetry? If magnetic mono­
poles were discovered, how would you rewrite these equa­
tions to include them? (Hint: Let be the magnetic pole
strength, analogous to the quantum of charge e\ what SI
units would have?)
14. Maxwell’s equations as displayed in Table 2 are written on
the assumption that no dielectric materials are present. How
should the equations be written if this restriction is re­
moved?
15. List as many (a) lumped and (b) distributed mechanical
oscillating systems as you can.
16. A coil has a measured inductance L. In a practical case it also
has a capacitance C, adjacent windings behaving as
“plates.” The coil can be made to oscillate at a certain fre­
PROBLEMS
Section 40-1 The Basic Equations o f Electromagnetism
1. By substituting numerical values of ۩ and used in
previous chapters, verify the numerical value of the speed of
light from Eq. 1 and show that the equation is dimensionally
correct.
2. (a) Show that = 377 Q. (called the “impedance of free
space”), (b) Show that the angular frequency of ordinary 60
Hz AC is 377 rad/s. (c) Compare (a) with (b). Do you think
that this coincidence is the reason that 60 Hz was originally
chosen as the frequency for AC generators? Recall that, in
Europe, 50 Hz is used.
quency without attaching it to an external capacitor. Is this a
case of distributed elements? Do you suppose that it can
oscillate at more than one frequency? Discuss.
17. Can a given circuit element (a capacitor, say) behave like a
“lumped” element under some circumstances and like a
“distributed” element under others?
18. Are oscillating systems (mechanical, say) eitH^ lumped or
distributed? That is, is there no middle ground? (a) Consider
a lumped system such as an idealized block-spring arrange­
ment. How might you change it physically to make it more
distributed? (b) Consider a distributed system such as a vi­
brating string. How might you change it physically to make
it more lumped?
19. Discuss the periodic flow of energy, if any, from point to
point in an acoustic resonant cavity.
20. An air-filled acoustic resonant cavity and an electromag­
netic resonant cavity of the same size have resonant fre­
quencies that are in the ratio of 10^ or so. Which has the
higher frequency and why?
21. Electromagnetic cavities are often silver-plated on the in­
side. Why?
22. At what parts of the cycle will (a) the conduction current and
(b) the displacement current in the cavity of Fig. 4 be zero?
23. Discuss the time variation during one complete cycle of the
charges that appear at various points on the inner walls of
the oscillating electromagnetic cavity of Fig. 4.
24. Would you expect that the arrangement of the magnetic and
electric fields in Fig. 5 is the only possible arrangement? If
there are other arrangements, would you expect them to
have higher or lower frequencies than that shown in Fig. 5?
25. In connection with Fig. 7, in what sense can the end caps be
considered as capacitor plates? In what sense can the cylin­
drical walls be considered as an inductor? (Note: Figure 7 is
clearly a case of distributed elements but there must be a
smooth transition between distributed and lumped ele­
ments.)
26. (a) In Fig. 5 is it possible to apply Faraday’s law usefully to
the dashed circle? (b) Is it possible to apply Ampere’s law
usefully to the dashed rectangle? Discuss.
Section 40-2 Induced Magnetic Fields and the Displacement
Current
3. For the situation of Sample Problem 1, where is the induced
magnetic field equal to one-half of its maximum value?
4. Prove that the displacement current in a parallel-plate capac­
itor can be written
^ dt '
5. You are given a 1.0-pF parallel-plate capacitor. How would
you establish an (instantaneous) displacement current of 1.0
mA in the space between its plates?
 Problems 869

6. In Sample Problem 1 show that the displacement current shown in Fig. 10. Calculate the displacement current,
density is given, for r < R , by through a 1.9-m^ region perpendicular to the field, during
each of the time intervals (a), (b \ and (c) shown on the
_ dE graph. (Ignore the behavior at the ends of the intervals.)
Jd -C o •
10. In Sample Problem 1 show that the expressions derived for
7. A parallel-plate capacitor has square plates 1.22 m on a side B{r) can be written
as in Fig. 8. There is a chaiging current of 1.84 A flowing into
(and out oO the capacitor, (a) What is the displacement
current through the region between the plates? (b) What is
dE/dt in this region? (c) What is the displacement current
through the square dashed path between the plates? = ir .R ) .
{d) What is around this square dashed path?

Note that these expressions are of just the same form as

1.22 m
Edge view Top view
Figure 8 Problem 7.
8. Figure 9 shows the plates P, and P2 of a circular parallel-
plate capacitor of radius R. They are connected as shown to
long straight wires in which a constant conduction current i
exists. Also shown are three hypothetical circles of radius r,
two of them outside the capacitor and one between the
plates. Show that the magnetic field at the circumference of
each of these circles is given by
Figure 9 Problem 8.
9. A uniform electric field collapses to zero from an initial
strength of 0.60 MV/m in a time of 15 //s in the manner
those derived in Chapter 35 except that the conduction
current i has been replaced by the displacement current U.
11 . A parallel-plate capacitor with circular plates 21.6 cm in
diameter is being charged as in Fig. 2. The displacement
current density throughout the region is uniform, into the
paper in the diagram, and has a value of 1.87 mA/cnP.
(a) Calculate the magnetic field 5 at a distance r = 53.0 mm
from the axis of symmetry of the region, (b) Calculate dE/dt
in this region.
12 In 1929 M. R. Van Cauwenberghe succeeded in measuring
directly, for the first time, the displacement current i^ be­
tween the plates of a parallel-plate capacitor to which an
alternating potential difference was applied, as suggested by
Fig. 2. He used circular plates whose effective radius was
40.0 cm and whose capacitance was 100 pF. The apphed
potential diflference had a maximum value of 174 kV at a
frequency of 50.0 Hz. (a) What maximum displacement
current was present between the plates? (^) Why was the
applied potential difference chosen to be as high as it is? (The
delicacy of these measurements is such that they were only
performed in a direct manner more than 60 years after Max­
well enunciated the concept of displacement current! The
experiment is described in Journal de Physique, No. 8,
1929.)
13. Suppose that a circular-plate capacitor has a radius R of 32.1
mm and a plate separation of 4.80 mm. A sinusoidal poten­
tial difference with a maximum value of 162 V and a fre­
quency of 60.0 Hz is applied between the plates. Find the
maximum value of the induced magnetic field at r = R.
14. The capacitor in Fig. 11 consisting of two circular plates
with radius R = 18.2 cm is connected to a source of emf
sin o)U where = 225 V and cu = 128 rad/s.
The maximum value of the displacement current is =
7.63 //A. Neglect fringing of the electric field at the edges of
the plates, (a) What is the maximum value of the current / ?
(b) What is the maximum value of d ^s/d t, where d>£ is the
electric flux through the region between the plates? (c) What

(6 = 8m sin o)t)

Figure 10 Problem 9. Figure 11 Problem 14.

870 Chapter 40 M axw ells Equations
is the separation d between the plates? (d) Find the maxi­
mum value of the magnitude of B between the plates at a
distance r = 11.0 cm from the center.
Section 40~3 M axwells Equations
15. Collect and tabulate expressions for the following four
quantities, considering both r < R and r > R, Place the der­
ivations side by side and study them as interesting applica­
tions of Maxwell's equations to problems having cylindrical
symmetry, {a) B{r) for a current i in a long wire of radius R.
(b) E(r) for a long uniform cylinder of charge of radius R.
(c) B{r) for a parallel-plate capacitor, with circular
plates of radius Ry in which E is changing at a constant rate.
{d) E{r) for a cylindrical region of radius R in which a uni­
form magnetic field B is changing at a constant rate.
16. A long cylindrical conducting rod with radius R is centered
on the X axis as shown in Fig. 12. A narrow saw cut is made
in the rod at x = A conduction current /, increasing with
time and given by i = au flows toward the right in the rod; a
is a (positive) proportionality constant. At / = 0 there is no
charge on the cut faces near x = b. (a) Find the magnitude of
the charge on these faces, as a function of time, {b) Use Eq. I
in Table 2 to find E in the gap as a function of time,
(c) Sketch the lines of B for r < R, where r is the distance
from the x axis, (d) Use Eq. IV in Table 2 to find B(r) in the
gap for r < R . (e) Compare the above answer with B(r) in
the rod for r < R .
- f f
Figure 12 Problem 16.
17. Two adjacent closed paths abefa and bcdeb share the com­
mon edge be as shown in Fig. 13. (a) We may apply
^E*ds = —d^g/dt (Eq. Ill of Table 2) to each of these two
closed paths separately. Show that, from this alone, Eq. Ill is
automatically satisfied for the composite path abcdefa.
(b) Repeat using Eq. IV. (c) This relation is called a “self-
consistency” property; why must each of Maxwell’s equa­
tions be self-consistent?
Figure 13 Problem 17.
18. Two adjacent closed parallelepipeds share a common face as
shown in Fig. 14. (a) We may apply #E • i/A = q/e^ (Eq. I in
Table 2) to each of these two closed surfaces separately.
Show that, from this alone, Eq. I is automatically satisfied
for the composite closed surface, (b) Repeat using Eq. II. See
Problem 17.
Figure 14 Problem 18.
Section 40-4 M axwells Equations and Cavity Oscillations
19. What would be the dimensions of a cylindrical electromag­
netic resonant cavity (like that described in the text) operat­
ing, in the fundamental mode, at 60 Hz, the frequency of
household alternating current? (The angular frequency is
given by cu = 2.41 c/fl, where a is the radius of the cavity, in
meters.)
20. A cylindrical electromagnetic cavity 4.8 cm in diameter and
7.3 cm long is oscillating in the mode shown in Fig. 4.
{a) Assume that, for points on the axis of the cavity, = 13
kV/m. The frequency of oscillation is 2.4 GHz. For such
axial points, what is the maximum rate (dE/dt)ja at which £
changes? (b) Assume that the average value of (dE/dt )„, for
all points over a cross section of the cavity, is one-half the
value found above for axial points. On this assumption,
what is the maximum value of B at the cylindrical surface of
the cavity?
21 In microscopic terms the principle of continuity of current
may be expressed as
(j+i< i)-^A = o,
in which j is the conduction current density and i, is the
displacement current density. The integral is to be takes
over any closed surface; the equation essentially says thjt
whatever current flows into the enclosed volume must also
flow out. (a) Apply this equation to the surface shown by the
dashed lines in Fig. 15 shortly after switch S is closed
(b) Apply it to various surfaces that may be drawn in the
cavity of Fig. 7, including some that cut the cavity walls.
\
=1+
Figure 15 Problem 21.
22. Sketch diagrams like those shown in Fig. 4 showing a c>ck
of oscillation of a cylindrical electromagnetic resonant cav­
ity operating, not in the fundamental mode as in that figure:
but in the first overtone.