DIGESTION & ABSORPTION

The process of conversion of complex food substances into simple

absorbable forms is called digestion, carried out by our digestive
system by mechanical & biochemical methods.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive system consists of :
1. Alimentary canal
2. Associated glands
Alimentary Canal
 begins with an anterior opening – mouth
 ends with a posterior opening – anus
Mouth opens into the buccal/oral cavity. Oral cavity has a number of
teeth & a muscular tongue.
Tooth is embedded into sockets of jaw bone. Such attachment is
called THECODONT.
The type of dentition in which the organism has a set of
temporary/milk/deciduous teeth replaced by a set of
permanent/adult teeth is called DIPHYODONT.
Humans have HETERODONT DENTITION namely incisors, canines,
premolars & molars.
The hard chewing/external surface of the teeth is called enamel.
Teeth helps in the mastication of food.
The tongue is a freely moveable muscular organ attached to the
floor of the oral cavity by the frenulum.
The upper surface of a tongue having small papillae-like projections
are called taste buds.
The oral cavity leads into a small passage called pharynx which is a
common passage for food & air. From the pharynx, the oesophagus
(food pipe) & the trachea (wind pipe) open.
EPIGLOTTIS, a cartilaginous flap at the opening of the trachea,
prevents the entry bolus into the respiratory system during the
process of swallowing. (glottis = the opening of the windpipe)
Oesophagus is a thin, long tube which extends posteriorly passing
through the neck, thorax & diaphragm, leading to the stomach.
Stomach is a J-shaped muscular bag, located in the upper left
portion of the abdominal cavity.
The GASTRO-OESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER regulates the opening of
the oesophagus into the stomach.
Parts of a stomach :
 CARDIAC PORTION – into which the oesophagus opens
 FUNDIC REGION
 BODY/MAIN CENTRAL REGION
 PYLORIC PORTION – from which the stomach opens into the
first part of small intestine (duodenum)
Pyloric sphincter guards the opening into the duodenum from the
stomach.
Parts of small intestine :
 DUODENUM – C-shaped
 JEJUNUM – long coiled middle portion
 ILEUM – highly coiled, opens into the large intestine

Parts of large intestine :

 CAECUM – a small blind sac hosting some symbiotic micro-
organisms. It opens into colon.
Vermiform appendix, a finger-like tubular projection, arises from the
caecum. It is a vestigial organ.
 COLON – a. Ascending colon
b. Transverse colon
c. Descending colon – opens into the rectum  anus
d. Sigmoid colon
 RECTUM – opens into the anus.
The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to the rectum
possesses four layers :
 SEROSA – outermost layer made up of a thin mesothelium, i.e.
epithelium of visceral organs, with some connective tissues.

 MUSCULARIS – formed by smooth muscles arranged into an inner

circular & an outer longitudinal layer. An oblique muscle layer is
also found in some regions.

 SUB-MUCOSA – formed of loose connective tissues containing

nerves, blood & lymph vessels. Glands are also contained but only
in duodenum.

 MUCOSA – innermost layer lining the alimentary canal. Forms

irregular folds called RUGAE in the stomach & small finger-like
foldings called VILLI in the small intestine. Mucosal epithelium has
goblet cells which secrete mucus which helps in lubrication. Also
forms GASTRIC GLANDS in the stomach.
(all the four layers show modifications in different parts of the
alimentary canal)
*Villi :
The mucosal layer forming small finger-like foldings in the small
intestine are called villi.
The cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections
called microvilli, giving a brush border appearance. Such
modification increase the surface area enormously.
Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries & a large lymph vessel
called LACTEAL. They also contain mucosal crypts in between the
bases called CRYPTS OF LIEBERKUHN.

DIGESTIVE GLANDS
The digestive glands associated with the alimentary canal are :
 Salivary glands
 Liver
 Pancreas
Salivary glands :
Saliva is mainly produced by :
 Parotid glands – cheeks
 Sub-mandibular/sub-maxillary glands – lower jaw
 Sub-lingual glands – below the tongue
The above glands situated before the buccal cavity secretes salivary
juice into the buccal cavity.
Liver :
The liver is the largest gland in the body weighing about 1.2-1.5kg in
an adult human.
It is situated in the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.
It has two lobes.
*Hepatic Lobules :
Hepatic lobules are small divisions of the liver defined at the
microscopic (histological) scale.
HEPATIC LOBULES are the structural & functional units of liver.
They contain hepatic cells arranged in the form of cords.
Each lobule is covered by a thin connective tissue sheath called the
GLISSON’S CAPSULE.
Gall Bladder :
The bile secreted by the hepatic cells passes through the hepatic
ducts, then stored & concentrated in the gall bladder.
Gall bladder is a thin muscular sac.
The cystic duct from gall bladder & the hepatic duct from the liver
forms the common bile duct.
 (cystic duct(gall bladder) + hepatic duct(liver) = BILE DUCT)
The bile duct & the pancreatic duct open into the duodenum as the
common hepato-pancreatic duct.
 (bile duct + pancreatic duct = HEPATO-PANCREATIC DUCT)
It is guarded by the sphincter of Oddi.
Pancreas :
The pancreas is a compound, elongated organ situated between the
limbs of the C-shaped duodenum.
It is both an exocrine & endocrine organ.
The exocrine portion secretes an alkaline pancreatic juice containing
enzymes. The endocrine portion secretes hormones (insulin &
glucagon).

DIGESTION OF FOOD
(In the buccal cavity)
Function of the buccal cavity :
 Mastication of food
 Facilitation of swallowing
*mechanical process*
The teeth & the tongue with the help of saliva, masticate and mix the
food thoroughly into a BOLUS.
The mucus in saliva helps in lubricating & adhering the masticated
food particles.
The bolus is conveyed into the pharynx and then into the
oesophagus by swallowing.
Swallowing is also called DEGLUTITION.
PERISTALSIS is the successive waves of muscular contractions in the
oesophagus for the passing down of bolus into the stomach.
The bolus passes down through the oesphagus into the stomach by
the process of peristalsis.
No digestion occurs in the oesophagus.
*chemical process*
The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains :
 Electrolytes – Na+ , K+ , Cl- , HCO-3
 Enzymes – a. Salivary amylase
b. Lysozyme

a. Salivary amylase :
The salivary amylase is a “carbohydrate splitting enzyme”.
The chemical process of digestion is initiated by the hydrolytic action
of the salivary amylase.
About 30% of starch present in the bolus is hydrolysed in the buccal
cavity by the salivary amylase, into a ‘disaccharide’ called maltose.
(salivary amylase has an optimum pH 6.8)
salivary amylase
Starch (pH 6.8) → Maltose
b. Lysozyme :
It acts as an antibacterial agent and prevents infections.
(In the stomach)
Gastric glands are present in the mucosa of stomach.
Types of cells in gastric glands :
 MUCUS NECK CELLS – secrete mucus
 PEPTIC/CHIEF CELLS – secrete pepsinogen (proenzyme)
 PARIETAL/OXYNTIC CELLS – secrete HCl & intrinsic factor
[Intrinsic factor – factor essential for the absorption of vitamin B 12]
[Proenzyme – inactive enzyme]
Small amounts of lipases are also secreted by gastric glands.
*mechanical process*
The stomach stores the food for 4-5hours.
The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice of the
stomach by the churning movements of its muscular wall. Such
mixture is called chyme.
The mucus and & bicarbonates present in the gastric juice help in
‘lubrication’ and ‘protection’ of the mucosal epithelium from
“excoriation” by HCl.
*chemical process*
The pepsinogen (proenzyme) secreted by the peptic/chief cells gets
converted into pepsin (active enzyme), on exposure with HCl.
HCl provides an optimum pH 1.8 for pepsins.
Pepsin is a proteolytic enzyme of the stomach.
[Proteolytic enzyme – enzymes that break down proteins]
Now, pepsin breaks down “proteins” into peptides, i.e. proteoses &
peptones.
Peptones are partially hydrolysed proteins.
Rennin, also a proteolytic enzyme, is found in the gastric juice of an
infant. It helps in the digestion of milk proteins.
HCl
Pepsinogen(inactive) (pH 1.8)  Pepsin(active)
Pepsin
Proteins  Peptides(proteoses & peptones)
(In the small intestine)
*mechanical process*
Various types of movements occur in the muscularis layer of the
small intestine which facilitates digestion by thoroughly mixing up
the food with the intestinal secretions.
*chemical process*
Secretions released into the small intestine :
 Bile
 Pancreatic juice
 Intestinal juice
PANCREATIC JUICE & BILE are released through the hepato-
pancreatic duct.
ENTEROKINASE is an enzyme which is secreted by the intestinal
mucosa.
Pancreatic juice
The pancreatic juice contains the following ‘inactive’ enzymes :
 Trypsinogen
 Chymotrypsinogen
 Procarboxypeptidases
 Amylases
 Lipases
 Nucleases
Inactive trypsinogen is converted to active ‘trypsin’ by enterokinase.
Enterokinase
Trypsinogen(inactive)  Trypsin(active)
Trypsin activates other enzymes in the pancreatic juice.
Trypsin
Chymotrypsinogen(inactive)  Chymotrypsin(active)
Trypsin
Procarboxypeptidases(inactive)  Carboxypeptidase(active)
Bile
The bile contains :
 Bile pigments – bilirubin & biliverdin
 Bile salts
 Cholesterol
 Phospholipids
“Bile does not contain any enzyme.”
Function of bile :
 Emulsification of fats into very small micelles
 Also activates lipids
Intestinal juice (succus entericus)
The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete
“mucus”.
SUCCUS ENTERICUS constitutes of the secretions of :
 Brush border cells of the ‘mucosa’
 Goblet cells
Succus entericus consists of the following enzymes :
 Disaccharides – maltase
 Dipeptidases
 Lipases
 Nucleosidases
The mucus & the bicarbonates from the pancreas :
 Protects the intestinal mucosa from acids
 Provides an alkaline medium for enzymatic activities
Sub-mucosal glands (BRUNNER’S GLANDS) also help in the above.

- Proteins, proteoses, peptones (partially hydrolysed proteins) are

broken down into dipeptides by the proteolytic enzyme of
pancreatic juice.
Proteins/Peptones/Proteoses Trypsin/ChymotrypsinCarboxypeptidase Dipeptides

- Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are hydrolysed into disaccharides

by ‘pancreatic amylase’
pancreatic amylase
Polysaccharide (starch)  Disaccharides

- Fats are broken down into di and monoglycerides by ‘lipases’

 Lipases
Fats  Diglycerides  Monoglycerides

- Nucleic acids are converted to nucleotides and nucleosides by

‘nucleases’ of pancreatic juice.
nucleases
Nucleic acids  Nucleotides  Nucleosides

- The enzymes in the succus entericus act on the respective end

products formed by pancreatic juice and produce simple absorbable
forms.
This is the final step in digestion and occurs close to the ‘mucosal
epithelial cells’ of the small intestine.
Dipeptidases
Dipeptides  Amino acids
Maltase
Maltose  Glucose + Glucose
Lactase
Lactose  Glucose + Galactose
Sucrase
Sucrose  Glucose + Fructose
Lipases
Di & Monoglycerides  Fatty acids + Glycerol
Nucleotidases
Nucleotides  Nucleosides Nucleosidases Sugars + Bases

The breakdown of the above biomacromolecules occur in the

duodenum.
The simple absorbable substances are absorbed in the jejunum and
ileum.

(in the large intestine)

The undigested, unabsorbed substances are passed onto the large
intestine.
No digestion occurs here any further.
Functions of large intestine :
 Absorption of water, minerals and certain drugs.
 Secretion of mucus. This helps in adhering the
waste/undigested particles together and lubricating it for an
easy passage.
The unabsorbed, undigested substances are called faeces. It enters
into the caecum of the large intestine, through ILEO-CAECAL VALVE.
It is temporarily stored in the rectum until defaecation.
The ILEO-CAECAL VALVE prevents the backflow of the faecal matter.

The activities of the gastro-intestinal tract are under neural and

hormonal control. The gastric and intestinal secretions are
stimulated by neural signs.
The sight, smell, presence of food in the oral cavity, stimulates the
secretion of the saliva.
The muscular activities of the parts of alimentary canal can also be
moderated by neural mechanisms, both local and CNS.
Hormonal control of the secretion of digestive juices is carried out by
local hormones produced by the gastric and intestinal mucosa.

ABSORPTION OF DIGESTED PRODUCTS

Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion
pass through the intestinal mucosa into the blood or lymph. It is
carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms.
Small amounts of monosaccharides – glucose, amino acids and some
electrolytes – chloride ions are absorbed by simple diffusion. The
passage of these substances into the blood or lymph depends upon
the concentration gradients.
Facilitated transport is a mechanism through which substances like
glucose and amino acids are absorbed by the help of carrier
proteins.
Transport of water depends upon the osmotic gradient.
Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient and hence
requires energy. Nutrients like monosaccharides – glucose, amino
acids, electrolytes – Na+ are absorbed into the blood by this
mechanism.
Fatty acids and glycerol cannot be absorbed into the blood, being
insoluble. They are first incorporated into micelles, moving into the
intestinal mucosa. They are re-formed into CHYLOMICRONS and
then transported into the lacteals in the villi. The lacteals ultimately
release the absorbed particles into the blood stream.
Micelles are small droplets.
Chylomicrons are very small, protein-coated fat globules.
Lacteals are lymph vessels.
Maximum absorption occurs in the small intestine. It also occurs in
small amounts in mouth, stomach and large intestine.
Assimilation is the process of utilization of the absorbed substances
by the tissues for their activities.
The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum
initiate a neural reflex, causing an urge/desire for its removal.
The egestion of faeces to the outside through the anal opening is
called defaecation. It is a voluntary process, carried out by a mass
peristaltic movement.

DISORDERS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 Inflammation of the intestinal tract – most common ailment
due to bacterial or viral infections. It is also caused by parasites
of the intestine like tapeworm, roundworm, threadworm,
hookworm, pin worm, etc.
 Jaundice – the liver is affected. Skin and eyes turn yellow due
to the deposit of bile pigments.
 Diarrhoea – the abnormal frequency of bowel movement and
increased fluidity of the faecal discharge. Reduces the
absorption of food.
 Constipation – faeces are retained in the colon due to irregular
bowel movements.
 Indigestion – food is not properly digested, leading to a feeling
of fullness. Causes are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety,
food poisoning, over eating and spicy food.

PEM : Protein Energy Malnutrition

Dietary deficiencies of proteins and total food calories. It affects
infants and children to produce MARASMUS and KWASHIORKAR.
 MARASMUS – a. Produced by simultaneous deficiency of
proteins and calories.
b. Occurs in infants less than a year old.
c. Happens due to replacement of mother’s milk
with foods poor in proteins and caloric value.
d. Protein deficiency impairs growth and
replacement of tissue proteins.
e. Results in extreme emaciation of the body,
thinning of limbs, skin getting dry, thin &
wrinkled, growth rate & body weight decline
considerably, growth & development of brain
and mental faculties are impaired.
 KWASHIORKAR – a. Produced by protein deficient and high
calorie diet.
b. Occurs in children more than a year old.
c. Happens due to replacement of mother’s milk
with foods high calorie-low protein content.
d. Results in wasting of muscles, thinning of
limbs, failure of growth & brain development
(like marasmus)
e. Also results in some fat deposition under the
skin, extensive oedema and swelling of body
parts. (unlike marasmus)

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